SOCIAL PYSCHOLOGY EXAM #2

D. Actor-Observer Effect

Stacy, a high school student, came home past her curfew. She claimed the fog was so bad that she couldn't drive. Her parents argued that she was just being thoughtless. This difference in views is consistent with the A. Confirmation bias B. False-consensus effect C. Self-fulfilling prophecy D. Actor-observer effect

Kelley's Covariation Theory

States that to form an attribution about what CAUSED a person's behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs. Uses 3 kinds of information: Consensus Consistency Distinctiveness

c. contrast effects

Steve expects poor work from his Italian-American executives. One of these employees turns in a report of above-average quality. However, Steve thinks the report is fantastic. Steve's reaction may have resulted from a. realistic conflict b. social roles c. contrast effects d. old-fashioned racism

d. realistic conflict theory

The blue gang and the red gang are having a dispute about who controls the turf around the vacant lot next to the highschool. During this dispute, fighting between the two groups escalates. This result could be most easily predicted from a. social categorization theory b. modern racism c. confirmation biases d. realistic conflict theory

social categorization

The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes

b. avoid using stereotypes

The cognitive capacity to process information carefully and the motivation to be accurate are two factors that enable people to a. engage in modern renaissance b. avoid using stereotypes c. feel relative deprivation d. form illusory correlations

c. low in consensus, high in consistency, and low in distinctiveness

The day before Brenda's roommate Rhoda is supposed to turn in a term paper, Rhoda experiences a very painful headache and blurred vision and goes to the infirmary. Brenda noticed that Rhoda gets these symptoms whenever she has to turn in a term paper. Brenda also has noticed that Rhoda gets similar symptoms whenever she is excited, stressed, or required to do a lot of work. None of the other students whom Brenda knows well experiences these symptoms. According to Kelley's covariation theory, Brenda should make a personal attribution for Rhoda's experiences because her experiences are: a. low in consensus, low in consistency, and low in distinctiveness b. high in consensus, high in consistency, and low in distinctiveness c. low in consensus, high in consistency, and low in distinctiveness d. high in consensus, high in consistency, and high in distinctiveness

Inoculation Hypothesis

The idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later resistance to that argument

Peripheral route to persuasion

The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues Source Message to the Audience to the Processing Strategy of low ability and motivation

Outgroup Homogeneity Effect

The tendency to assume that there is a greater similarity among members of out-groups than of in-groups We have a tendency to say, "all of them are the same" when talking about an outgroup when they are in fact very different from each other

Ingroup Favoritism

The tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups

Actor-Observer Effect

The tendency to make personal attributions for other's behaviors and situational attributions for OURSELVES

Contrast Effects

The tendency to perceive stimuli that differ from expectations as being even more different than they really are For example, we know women as gentle and nurturing, but then we see one woman as tough and abrasive. Then she is PERCEIVED to be more different than she actually is

d. people's intentions to act may be different from their attitudes

The theory of planned behavior suggests that one reason attitudes might not always predict behaviors is that a. people may not have strong enough attitudes b. people's attitudes may be outside their awareness c. people may have only false attitudes d. people's intentions to act may be different from their attitudes

Contact Hypothesis

The theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain conditions example: integration

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The theory that holding inconsistent cognitions arouses physiological tension that people become motivated to reduce

Social Identity Theory

The theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their SELF ESTEEM

Psychological Reactance

The theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive

Social Role Theory

The theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women

d. modern racism

Tim is prejudiced against Blacks but doesn't admit it. He sees a black store owner being robbed. Although he would ordinarily try to help in such emergencies, he does nothing. Tim's lack action is an example of a. old-fashioned racism b. reaction time c. outgroup homogeneity d. modern racism

Perceiving People

We make very quick snap judgements We tend to see attractive people as nicer and smarter We also make more excuses for attractive children

a. priming

While busy doing something else, and without fully realizing it, Sophia heard the lyrics to a song, which included words such as "punch", "fight", "threaten", and "hurt". Jennifer did not hear the song. Later, Sophia and Jennifer watched a video of a man pushing another man. Sophia interpreted the push as more hostile and threatening than did Jennifer. This outcome is an example of a. priming b. the base-rate fallacy c. the actor-observer effect d. the trait negativity bias

Heurisitics

a mental rule of thumb that leads to a speedy decision by simplifying the process

benevolent sexism

acceptance of positive stereotypes of males and females that leads to unequal treatment

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common Relies on immediate examples when evaluating a certain topic

Distinctiveness

information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli Example: Does the student only react to this professor in this manner?

Scripts

preset notions about certain types of situations

hostile sexism

the condemnation of women with negative instead of positive stereotypes and the use of threats and violence to enforce women's subservience to men

base rate fallacy

the finding that people are relatively insensitive to consensus information presented in the form of numerical base rates We are insensitive to probabilities, when a person judges an outcome will occur without considering prior knowledge of the probability that it will occur For example, I am insensitive to the chances of me being bitten by a shark in the water, although since I know it can happen I believe that it can happen easier than it actually does

Central route to persuasion

the process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments Source Message to the Audience To the processing strategy of high ability and motivation

Persuasion

the process by which attitudes are changed

trait negativity bias

the tendency for negative information to weigh more heavily on our impressions than positive information

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition When we explain other people's behavior, we overestimate the role of personal factors, and over look the impact of situations We look at the person as we see them and think we know their personality but we do not look at the situation that they are in

Belief Perseverance

the tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited, we want to be right in our beliefs

Confirmation Bias

the tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs

Theory of Planned Behavior

the theory that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person's actions In order for an attitude to predict behavior, that attitude must lead to an intention to act in a specific situation. But such intentions do not always follow from people's attitudes, which prevents their attitudes from predicting their behavior

Realistic Conflict Theory

the theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources

Attitudes

A positive or negative reaction to a person, object, or idea

Primary Emotions

Happy Sadness Anger Fear Surprise Disgust

The Source

Has 2 Key Attributes: Credibility and Likability

c. the peripheral route

Heuristics and body movements are two kinds of cues that determine persuasion in a. attitude-discrepant behavior b. cognitive dissonance c. the peripheral route d. the central route

a. communicator credibility

In a television commercial for dental floss, the spokesperson (a well-know TV celebrity) says that eight out of ten dentists recommend the product. The reference to dentists is an attempt to establish a. communicator credibility b. self-monitoring c. insufficient deterrence d. fear arousal

Belief in a "Just World"

Individuals get what they deserve in life Everything happens for a reason

b. the confirmation bias

Lisa thinks that women are more critical of men. At parties, she is more likely to notice a sarcastic remark from a woman than from a man. Lisa's perceptions illustrate: a. ingroup favoritism b. the confirmation bias c. contrast effects d. androgyny

Perceiving Behavior

Looking at a person's feelings without the other person using words We look at body language and non verbal cues to determine what a person is feeling

Prejudice

Negative feelings toward persons based solely on their membership in certain groups

Priming

Recent ideas influences how we process information

Likability

Similarity Physical Attractiveness

b. a kernel of truth that is oversimplified and exaggerated

Stereotypes about men and women represent: a. a totally biased picture of men and women b. a kernel of truth that is oversimplified and exaggerated c. an accurate description of the differences between men and women d. unrealistic expectations for men and women

false consensus effect

The tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which other share opinions, attributes, and behaviors

Perceiving Situations

We already have ideas of how certain situations will pan out. During a job interview, we think we know what is going to be said and how we will answer questions

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

Relative Deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself I think I am worse off than celebrities and therefore I do not think I am good enough when I compare myself to Jennifer Aniston

Bogus Pipeline

-Self-Report -Direct A phony lie detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive attitude questions

Stereotypes

A belief that associates a group of people with certain traits. Social categorization and ingroup favoritism are two processes

jigsaw classroom

A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interactionin group effors

Attributions

A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behvior

Modern Racism

A form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize

Social Perception

A general term for the processes by which people come to understand one another The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people A theory holding that we make inferences about a person when his or her actions are freely chosen, and result in a small number of desirable effects Includes elements os persons, situations, and behavior

Implicit Personality Theory

A network of assumptions people make about the relationships among traits and behaviors

Need For Cognition

A personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities

Central Traits

A trait that has a very powerful influence on our overall impressions -Intelligent, skillful, industrious, warm, determined, practical, cautious - Intelligent, skillful, industrious, cold, determined, practical, cautious

c. social role

According to __________ theory, gender stereotypes result from expectations created by sex-based division of the labor market a. realistic conflict b. social identity c. social role d. outgroup homogeneity

c. aggressive

According to cross cultural research, men are widely seen as more _______ than women a. intelligent b. sensitive c. aggressive d. people-oriented

c. easy to rationalize

According to theories of modern racism, discrimination against Blacks is most likely to occur when it is a. explicit and obvious b. socially unacceptable c. easy to rationalize d. confrontational in form

facial electromyograph (EMG)

An electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes

Illusory Correlation

An over estimate of the association between variables that are only slightly correlated or not correlated at all

Discrimination

Any behavior directed against persons because of their identification with a particular group An actual act of disliking toward a particular group

d. measures collected indirectly

Attitudes are often measured by means of self-reports, questionnaires on which respondents endorse their attitudes. Another technique often used is to collect covert measures. Covert measures are a. collected from the respondent's friends, who describe what his or her attitudes are b. measures that are taken in addition to self-report measures c. collected by use of a bogus pipeline d. measures collected indirectly

a. the dual-process theory

Central and peripheral routes to persuasion are proposed by a. the dual-process theory b. cognitive dissonance theory c. self-perception theory d. the theory of planned behavior

b. counterfactual thinking

Charlene finishes second in a swim meet and wins the silver medal, but she is depressed because she can't stop thinking about the fact that she was so close to winning the gold medal. Liv finishes third and she wins bronze medal, and she feels great relief and satisfaction because she realizes how close she came to finishing fourth and therefore not winning a medal. Charlene's and Liv's reactions reflect a. Belief in a just world b. counterfactual thinking c. the fundamental attribution error d. the covariation principle

Credibility

Competence Trustworthiness

Situational Attribution

External. The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in. The assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation, or even focusing on an external actor such as the task, other people, or luck

Counter factual thinking

Focus on how the past might have been , or how the present could be different.. "what if?"

a. feel better about himself and the basketball team

For Joel, being a part of the basketball team is very important. When asked to compare the basketball team to the football team, "We're a lot better than they are." According to social identity theory, this ingroup favoritism should make Joel a. feel better about himself and the basketball team b. pay less attention to football c. guilty that he judged the football team so arbitrarily d. concerned about the status of the football team

Subtyping

Form a new stereotype about a subset

b. subtyping

Frank thinks that all his instructors are windbags, be he also thinks there are two kinds of instructors: those who are arrogant and those who are incompetent. Frank's classification of instructors is an example of a. a contrast effect b. subtyping c. ingroup bias d. the confirmation bias

c. experience no cognitive dissonance

Gabriella decides to buy a portable tape player rather than a portable CD player. She wonders if she made the right decision. After discussing her purchase with a friend, she is reminded that she is a good student and a good friend. Research on self-affirmation theory would predict that Gabriella will a. experience physiological arousal b. feel bad about her decision c. experience no cognitive dissonance d. come to a stronger conviction that she made the right decision.

a. as divided into masculine and feminine categories

Gender schematics are more likely to see the world a. as divided into masculine and feminine categories b. as biased against their gender c. in distorted ways that favor their gender d. as a place where their own gender dominates

ingroup

Groups to which we belong

c. a heuristic

Harry is listening to a debate. Harry assumes that the person with the most arguments is the best-qualified candidate. Harry's reasoning is an example of a. cognitive dissonance b. elaboration c. a heuristic d. impression management

Can see this through body language, words, and voice We think that this is caught through body language but it is actually through VOICE Some non verbal cues are almost impossible to control

How do we detect deception?

Perceive them as stronger, competent, and more dominant. May be hired as a banker.

How do we perceive people with mature facial features?

We perceive these people as being negligent, appropriate as a day-care teacher, submissive, and are less likely to engage in an intentional wrongdoing. Also as younger, kinder, more naive

How do we see people with baby faces

c. cognitive dissonance

If we must make a choice between two equally desirable options, the positive attributes of the alternative we ultimately DO NOT choose will cause a. a sleeper effect b. a primacy effect c. cognitive dissonance d. attitude inoculation

b. gender stereotypes endure

Illusory correlations, attributions, about men's and women's behavior, subtyping men and women who are not representative, and seeking information that supports one's views are four ways in which a. gender roles develop b. gender stereotypes endure c. all stereotypes are overcome d. prejudiced is minimized

a. have them work together on a school wide project

In one high school, students from the country have always fought with students from the city. In order to reduce this intergroup hostility, the principal decides that the people in the two groups need to have personal contact on an equal-status basis. What else might he do to try to achieve more harmonious relations between the groups? a. have them work together on a school wide project b. have them identify the strengths of their own group c. have them take classes designed to familiarize the groups with aspects of each other's lives d. have the teachers identify students based on their group affiliation

c. competing with one another

In the Robbers Cave experiment, young boys came to dislike each other intensely after a period of a. striving to attain superordinate goals b. forming friendships with one another c. competing with one another d. prejudice minimizing

c. the face

In the media, images of men are more likely than images of women to emphasize a. activity b. strength c. the face d. the body

d. the central route

In their campaigns, John Smith and Jane Doe both present arguments stressing the logic of their positions and detailing the many reasons for their views. These candidates are trying to persuade voters through a. attitude-discrepant behavior b. heuristics c. the peripheral route d. the central route

a. arguments

In theory, people who are high in the need for cognition should receive persuasive communications that rely on a. arguments b. heuristics c. attributions d. mood

Consensus

Information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does Example: Do all or most of the students in class treat the professor this way?

Consistency

Information about the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances Example: Does the student always react to the professor in this manner regardless of the situation?

Personal Attribution

Internal. There inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality

Depends on how PERSONALLY RELEVANT is the message for the recipient

Is the Source more Important than the message?

b. the fundamental attribution error

Jose hires someone from an escort service to be his date for the evening at a company party and to act very warmly toward him. During the party, Jose comes to believe that his date's behavior suggests that she really is warm and friendly. Jose's inference is most likely an example of: a. a primacy effect b. the fundamental attribution error c. trait negativity bias d. a situational attribution

b. self-fulfilling prophecy

Joyce expected that her new roommate, Chrissie, would be somewhat cold and unfriendly. Because of this expectation, Joyce did not welcome Chrissie into her room very warmly. In turn, Chrissie did not act very warmly toward Joyce, and even began to be unfriendly toward Joyce and her friends. This best illustrates the: a. negative effects of counter factual thinking b. self-fulfilling prophecy c. false-consensus effect d. correspondent inference theory

c. experience no cognitive dissonance

Mindy chose to write an essay for her English class that argued for a tuition hike even though didn't want one. Her instructor sent the essay to the president of the university, who decided that if students could write so well then there should not be a tuition hike. Recent research on cognitive dissonance theory would suggest that Mindy will a. experience physiological arousal b. feel responsible for her essay c. experience no cognitive dissonance d. change her attitude about tuition hikes

Covert Measures of Attitudes

Observable behavior Physiological measures Facial electromyograph (EMG) Electrical activity in the brain

c. can be measured with computer tasks without the respondent's awareness

Recent research on the measurement of modern racism shows that it a. is easily measured with a questionnaire b. is impossible to measure c. can be measured with computer tasks without the respondent's awareness d. is difficult to measure with a questionnaire, but possible if anonymity is assured

b. undermine the academic performance of women and minorities

Research on stereotype threat shows that stereotypes can a. motivate people to try harder in order to improve their performance b. undermine the academic performance of women and minorities c. only affect members of groups who do not have power in society d. lower the self-esteem of members of stereotyped groups

Availability Heuristic

Researchers have found that when participants are asked whether there are more English words that start with the letter r or that have the letter r as the third letter, most participants guess that there are more words that start with the letter r. This phenomenon most clearly reflects the a. covariation theory b. primacy effect c. availability heuristic d. confirmation bias

c. infer their attitudes from their behavior

Self-Perception theory suggests that people change their attitudes to match their behaviors because they a. feel a psychological tension b. want to maintain a positive self-image c. infer their attitudes from their behaviors d. want to impress other people

Willis + Todorov (2006)

Showed pictures of unfamiliar faces and asked participants to rate attractiveness, liability, competence, trustworthiness, and aggression First showed a picture for 1/10th of a second Then showed a picture for a 1/2 a second Lastly for one second Somehow we seem to judge people within 1/10th of a second based on what they look like