Sociology

Which of the following statements about social structure is false? a. It is not essential for individual well-being b. It is essential for the survival of society c. It provides a web of familial support and social relationships d. It connects individuals to the larger society

a. It is not essential for individual well-being

During which life stage is socialization the most important? a. childhood b. early adulthood c. middle age d. late adulthood

a. childhood

All members of a society usually use a paper napkin and turn their heads away from others when sneezing. This appropriate way of sneezing followed by the members of the society shows that __________. a. culture channels the expression of human reflexes b. nature, not nurture, accounts for virtually all patterns of human behavior c. reflexes are learned behaviors common to all members of a species d. reflexes determine how people behave in human societies

a. culture channels the expression of human reflexes

The world's __________ are nations with highly industrialized economies; technologically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations; and relatively high levels of national and personal income. a. high-income countries b. middle-income countries c. low-income countries d. semi-periphery countries

a. high-income countries

Which of the following was one of the problems that led social thinkers to study societal changes? a. inadequate housing b. a shift among people from being consumers to producers c. an increased emphasis on agriculture and cottage industries d. a decrease in the size of cities

a. inadequate housing

At the __________, the social structure of a society has several essential elements: social institutions, groups, statuses, roles, and norms. a. mesolevel b. macrolevel c. metalevel d. microlevel

b. macrolevel

Which of the following is a key difference between a society and a culture? a. Cultures have political significance, whereas societies do not. b. A society can exist independently of a culture, whereas a culture is dependent on a society for its survival because society serves as the foundation for a culture. c. A society is composed of people, whereas a culture is composed of the ideas and behavior of those people and the shared meanings among them. d. Societies serve as the common core that enables communication between people, whereas cultures do not.

c. A society is composed of people, whereas a culture is composed of the ideas and behavior of those people and the shared meanings among them.

__________ refers to the state of being part insider and part outsider in the social structure, such as that of immigrants who simultaneously share the life and traditions of two distinct groups. a. Alienation b. Stigmatization c. Social marginality d. Anomie

c. Social marginality

Which of the following statements about socialization is false? a. Socialization involves both formal and informal processes. b. Socialization enables us to adapt to new environments. c. Socialization is complete by the time we reach late middle age. d. Socialization is essential for an individual to live in society.

c. Socialization is complete by the time we reach late middle age.

According to Ebaugh, an individual who decides that he or she must take some action to end a significant social role is in the first stage of role exit. a. True b. False

false

According to the symbolic interactionist perspectives of sociologists Cooley and Mead, our sense of self is permanently fixed once we reach adulthood. a. True b. False

false

All sociological theories and theorists can be categorized as functionalist, conflict, or symbolic interactionist. a. True b. False

false

All the major theoretical perspectives in sociology focus on macrolevel analysis, examining whole societies, large-scale social structures, and social systems. a. True b. False

false

Carol Gilligan supported Kohlberg's model of moral development because it took into account the effects of gender on social and moral development. a. True b. False

false

Freud's psychoanalytic theory of human development was a product of the Victorian era and has little or no relevance for understanding human development today. a. True b. False

false

Norms govern behavior considered essential to the stability of society. Therefore, they are always codified into laws and punishable with formal sanctions. a. True b. False

false

Pastoral societies are based on technology that supports the cultivation of plants to provide food. a. True b. False

false

Humanitarian values reflected in welfare programs for people in need can conflict with values emphasizing personal achievement because people in need may become less likely to work hard to achieve personal success after receiving aid from others. a. True b. False

true

Individuals are taught that the appropriate way to perform the reflexive behavior of yawning is to cover their mouth with their hand while yawning. This demonstrates how culture channels biological reflexes. a. True b. False

true

Language is a source of power and social control; language perpetuates inequalities between people and between groups because words create and reinforce our perceptions of gender, race, and ethnicity. a. True b. False

true

Most human behavior is influenced by social interaction. a. True b. False

true

Piaget suggested that some children move through the stages of cognitive development more quickly than others. a. True b. False

true

Roles are relational and are defined in the context of roles performed by others. For example, for an individual to perform the role of a mother, she must have one or more children. a. True b. False

true

Social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter had been in use for many years before laws related to the privacy and ownership of user information came into effect. This demonstrates the concept of cultural lag. a. True b. False

true

Status symbols for the affluent and for the homeless may have completely different meanings—a full grocery shopping cart is indicative of wealth among the affluent and of poverty among the homeless. a. True b. False

true

The media function as socializing agents because they provide an array of viewpoints on current issues and entertain individuals by providing them with the opportunity to live vicariously. a. True b. False

true

When members of an indigenous tribe migrated to a highly industrialized and technologically advanced country, they started living close to one another and gradually formed a close-knit community that retained the original beliefs and practices of the tribe. It can be said that the creation of a distinct subculture most likely helped these people adapt to the abrupt changes they experienced in material and nonmaterial culture patterns. a. True b. False

true

explain the difference between a social institution and formal organization. Provide examples from your life to illustrate the difference

A formal organization is a highly structured group formed for the purpose of completing certain tasks or achieving specific goals. Social institutions are more abstract. They are sets of organized beliefs and rules for how society will attempt to meet various social needs. College is an example of a formal organization, whereas education is an example of a social institution.

Describe Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality development and explain the role that socialization plays in his theory

According to Freud, human development occurs in three states that reflect different levels of the personality: the id, ego, and superego. The id is the component of personality that includes all of the individual's basic biological drives and needs that demand immediate gratification. By contrast, the ego develops as infants discover that their most basic desires are not always going to be met by others. The ego is the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restrictions on the innate pleasure-seeking drives of the id. The superego is in opposition to both the id and the ego. The superego, or conscience, consists of the moral and ethical aspects of personality. It is first expressed as the recognition of parental control and eventually matures as the child learns that parental control is a reflection of the values and moral demands of the larger society. When a person is well adjusted, the ego successfully manages the opposing forces of the id and the superego.

State the major assumptions of the conflict perspectives of sociology. How can a conflict approach be used to explain suicide

According to conflict perspectives, groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources. Conflict may take the form of politics, litigation, negotiations, or family discussions about financial matters. Today, advocates of the conflict perspective view social life as a continuous power struggle among competing social groups. The conflict perspective encompasses the following branches: (1) the neo-Marxist approach, which views struggle between the classes as inevitable and as a prime source of social change; (2) the branch that focuses on racial-ethnic inequalities and the continued exploitation of members of some racial-ethnic groups; and (3) the feminist approach, which focuses on gender issues. Conflict perspectives state that social-class pressures may affect rates of suicide among young people from lower-income families when they perceive that they have few educational or employment opportunities and little hope for the future. Feminist analysts employing a conflict perspective believe that social structural pressures on young women, such as cultural assumptions about women and what their multiple roles should be in the family, education, and the workplace, may contribute to suicide. Other conflict approaches suggest that racial and ethnic subordination may be a factor in some suicides.

Piaget believed that in each stage of development (from birth through adolescence), childrens activities are governed by their perception of the world around them. In this context, describe the four stages of cognitive development as set forth by phychologist jean piaget

Cognitive development relates to changes over time in how we think. According to Piaget, in each stage of human development (from birth through adolescence), children's activities are governed by their perception of the world around them. His four stages of cognitive development are organized around specific tasks that, when mastered, lead to the acquisition of new mental capacities, which then serve as the basis for the next level of development. In the sensorimotor stage (birth to age two), children understand the world only through sensory contact and immediate action; they cannot engage in symbolic thought or use language. In the preoperational stage (ages two to seven), children begin to use words as mental symbols and to form mental images. They have limited ability to use logic to solve problems or to realize that physical objects may change in shape or appearance but still retain their physical properties. In the concrete operational stage (ages seven to eleven), children think in terms of tangible objects and actual events. They can draw conclusions. Children begin to take the role of others and start to empathize with the viewpoints of others. In the formal operational stage (age twelve through adolescence), children have the potential to engage in highly abstract thought and understand places, things, and events they have never seen. They can think about the future and evaluate different opinions or courses of action. Piaget's stages of cognitive development provide us with useful insights into children's logical thinking processes and how children invent or construct the rules that govern their understanding of the world.

Define cultural diversity and differentiate between homogeneous and heterogeneous societies. Using the united states as an example, explain how immigration can cause social conflicts by creating a heterogeneous society

Cultural diversity refers to the wide range of cultural differences found between and within nations. Cultural diversity between countries may be the result of natural or social circumstances. Some nations are referred to as homogeneous societies, meaning that they include people who share a common culture and who are typically from similar social, religious, political, and economic backgrounds. By contrast, other nations are referred to as heterogeneous societies, meaning that they include people who are dissimilar in regard to social characteristics such as religion, income, or race/ethnicity. Immigration contributes to cultural diversity in a society. Throughout its history, the United States has been a nation of immigrants. Over the past 200 years, more than 60 million "documented" (legal) immigrants have arrived in the United States; innumerable people have also entered the country as undocumented immigrants. Immigration can cause feelings of frustration and hostility, especially in people who feel threatened by the changes that large numbers of immigrants may produce. Often, people are intolerant of those who are different from themselves. When societal tensions rise, people may look for others on whom they can place blame—or single out persons because they are the "other," the "outsider," the one who does not "belong."

Explain the terms cultural shock, ethnocentrism, and cultural relativism and provide and example of each

Culture shock is the disorientation that people feel when they encounter cultures radically different from their own and believe they cannot depend on their own taken-for-granted assumptions about life. For example, Napoleon Chagnon described his initial shock at seeing the Yanomamö tribe of South America on his first trip in 1964. The Yanomamö have no written language, system of numbers, or calendar. They lead a nomadic lifestyle, carrying everything they own on their backs. Ethnocentrism refers to the practice of evaluating other cultures based on the practices and beliefs of one's own culture. It is often based on the assumption that one's own way of life is superior to that of other people. For example, the school song, the pledge to the flag, and the national anthem are forms of positive ethnocentrism. However, negative ethnocentrism can also result from constant emphasis on the superiority of one's own group or nation. Negative ethnocentrism is manifested in derogatory stereotypes that ridicule recent immigrants whose customs, dress, eating habits, or religious beliefs are markedly different from those of dominant-group members. Cultural relativism is the belief that the behaviors and customs of any culture must be viewed and analyzed by the culture's own standards. For example, the anthropologist Marvin Harris uses cultural relativism to explain why cattle, which are viewed in India as sacred, are not killed and eaten there, a country in which widespread hunger and malnutrition exist. According to Harris, the Hindu taboo against killing cattle is very important to the Indian economic system. Live cows are more valuable than dead ones because they have more important uses than as a direct source of food.

Describe sociologist Emile Durkheims types of solidarity: mechanical and organic solidarity

Durkheim claimed that preindustrial societies are held together by strong traditions and by the members' shared moral beliefs and values. As societies industrialized and developed more specialized economic activities, social solidarity came to be rooted in the members' shared dependence on one another. Durkheim categorized societies as having either mechanical or organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity refers to the social cohesion of preindustrial societies, in which there is minimal division of labor and people feel united by shared values and common social bonds. Durkheim believed that people in such preindustrial societies feel a more or less automatic sense of belonging. By contrast, organic solidarity refers to the social cohesion found in industrial societies, in which people perform very specialized tasks and feel united by their mutual dependence. Social interaction is less personal, more status oriented, and more focused on specific goals and objectives. People no longer rely on morality or shared values for social solidarity; instead, they are bound together by practical considerations.

Describe ethnomethodology. Briefly explain it's strength and weakness as a method for understanding social interaction

Ethnomethodology is the study of the commonsense knowledge that people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves. Garfinkel initiated this approach because he believed people create reality and produce their own world. According to ethnomethodologists, interaction is based on assumptions of shared expectancies. To uncover Ethnomethodology is the study of the commonsense knowledge that people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves. Garfinkel initiated this approach because he believed people create reality and produce their own world. According to ethnomethodologists, interaction is based on assumptions of shared expectancies. To uncover people's background expectancies, ethnomethodologists frequently break "rules" or act as though they do not understand some basic rule of social life so that they can observe other people's responses. The ethnomethodological approach contributes to our knowledge of social interaction by making us aware of subconscious social realities in our daily lives. However, a number of sociologists regard ethnomethodology as a frivolous approach to studying human behavior because it does not examine the impact of macrolevel social institutions—such as the economy and education—on people's expectancies. Some scholars suggest that ethnomethodologists fail to do what they claim to do: look at how social realities are created. Rather, they take ascribed statuses (such as race, class, gender, and age) as "givens," not as socially created realities.

explain how human beings are a product of biology, society, and personal experiences

Every human being is a product of biology, society, and personal experiences—that is, of heredity and environment or, in even more basic terms, "nature" and "nurture." Sociologists focus on how humans design their own culture and transmit it from generation to generation through socialization. By contrast, sociobiologists assert that nature, in the form of our genetic makeup, is a major factor in shaping human behavior. Sociobiology is the systematic study of "social behavior from a biological perspective" (Wilson and Wilson, 2007:328). According to zoologist Edward O. Wilson, who pioneered sociobiology, genetic inheritance underlies many forms of social behavior, such as war and peace, envy of and concern for others, and competition and cooperation. Most sociologists disagree with the notion that biological principles can be used to explain all human behavior. Obviously, however, some aspects of our physical makeup—such as eye color, hair color, height, and weight—are largely determined by our heredity. There is hardly a single behavior that is not influenced socially. Except for simple reflexes, most human actions are social, either in their causes or in their consequences. Even solitary actions such as crying or brushing our teeth are ultimately social. Social environment probably has a greater effect than heredity on the way we develop and the way we act. However, heredity does provide the basic material from which other people help to mold an individual's human characteristics.

state the major assumptions of the functionalist perspectives of sociology and explain how this perspective differs from the symbolic interactionist perspective

Functionalist perspectives are based on the assumption that society is a stable, orderly system. This stable system is characterized by societal consensus, whereby the majority of members share a common set of values, beliefs, and behavioral expectations. A society is composed of interrelated parts, each of which serves a function and (ideally) contributes to the overall stability of the society. Societies develop social structures, or institutions that persist because they play a part in helping society survive. These institutions include the family, education, government, religion, and the economy. If anything, adverse happens to one of these institutions or parts, all other parts are affected, and the system no longer functions properly. The functionalist perspective focuses primarily on a macrolevel analysis. A macrolevel analysis examines whole societies, large-scale social structures, and social systems instead of looking at important social dynamics in individuals' lives. On the contrary, the symbolic interactionist perspective is based on a microlevel analysis, which focuses on small groups rather than large-scale social structures. According to this perspective, society is the sum of the interactions of people and groups. Behavior is learned in interactions with other people; how people define a situation becomes the foundation for how they behave.

Explain the term sociological imagination and provide and example

Mills described the sociological imagination as the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society. The sociological imagination helps us distinguish between personal troubles, which are problems that affect individuals and the networks of people with which they associate, and public issues, which are problems that affect large numbers of people and often require solutions at the societal level. For example, a person's unemployment can be understood as part of a more widespread pattern of unemployment resulting from economic changes such as plant closings and outsourcing.

Define the term sociology and explain how it helps us better understand our social world and ourselves

Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social interaction. Sociology helps us gain a better understanding of ourselves and our social world. It enables us to see how behavior is largely shaped by the groups to which we belong and the society in which we live. Sociology helps us look beyond our personal experiences and gain insights into society and the larger world order. Sociology enables us to move beyond established ways of thinking, thus allowing us to gain new insights into ourselves and to develop a greater awareness of the connection between our own world and that of other people. Sociology provides new ways of approaching problems and making decisions in everyday life. Sociology promotes understanding and tolerance by enabling each of us to look beyond our personal experiences.

Explain what Herbert Spencer meant by "survival of the fittest." What are the criticisms of his approach

Spencer believed that societies develop through a process of "struggle" (for existence) and "fitness" (for survival), which he referred to as the "survival of the fittest." Spencer's view of society is known as social Darwinism—Spencer equated this process of natural selection with progress because only the "fittest" members of society would survive the competition and the "unfit" would be filtered out of society. Critics say that he considered society similar to a biological system. Also, his idea of the survival of the fittest can be used to justify different kinds of inequalities.

The development and use of social networking sites such as facebook allow people to connect globally with others. However, the availability of this technology does not mean that it has been accepted by people who believe that such sites could result in privacy problems and increased cyberbullying. Identify and explain the concept illustrated in this scenario.

The given scenario illustrates the concept of cultural lag. All parts of culture do not change at the same pace. When a change occurs in the material culture of a society, nonmaterial culture must adapt to that change. Frequently, this rate of change is uneven, resulting in a gap between the two. Sociologist William F. Ogburn referred to this disparity as cultural lag, which is a gap between the technical development of a society and its moral and legal institutions. In other words, cultural lag occurs when material culture changes faster than nonmaterial culture, thus creating a lag between the two cultural components. The failure of nonmaterial culture to keep pace with material culture is linked to social conflict and societal problems.

Discuss the components of social structure. Use examples from your life to explain the relevance of the components and illustrate their relationship to each other

____

__________ is the process by which people act toward and respond to other people and is the foundation for all relationships and groups in society. a. Response patterns b. Social interaction c. Symbolic interactionism d. Structural functionalism

b. Social interaction

__________ focus on how humans design their own culture and transmit it from generation to generation through socialization. By contrast, __________ assert that nature, in the form of our genetic makeup, is a major factor in shaping human behavior. a. Psychologists; sociologists b. Sociologists; sociobiologists c. Sociobiologists; psychologists d. Sociobiologists; sociologists

b. Sociologists; sociobiologists

Sociologists use the term __________ to refer to the position of a person or group within a set of hierarchical social categories based on wealth, power, prestige, or other valued resources. a. caste b. class c. ethnicity d. ranking

b. class

The sociological term for any physical or social attribute or sign that devalues a person's social identity and disqualifies that person from full social acceptance is __________. a. deviance b. stigma c. anomie d. alienation

b. stigma

Which of the following is most likely to be determined by nurture? a. the color of a person's eyes b. the language a person speaks c. the gender of a person d. the race of a person

b. the language a person speaks

The socialization process yields the same outcomes in all societies. a. True b. False

false

Socialization is essential for the survival and stability of society. This statement reflects the __________ on socialization and society. a. conflict theory perspective b. postmodern perspective c. functionalist perspective d. symbolic interactionist perspective

c. functionalist perspective

Which of the following statements about culture is not true? a. Culture is essential to the survival of an individual. b. Culture allows individuals to understand one another. c. Culture establishes order within a society. d. Cultural behavior is instinctual.

d. Cultural behavior is instinctual.

_________ pioneered sociobiology, arguing that genetic inheritance underlies many forms of social behavior, including war and peace, envy of and concern for others, and competition and cooperation. a. Sigmund Freud b. Lawrence Kohlberg c. Jean Piaget d. Edward Wilson

d. Edward Wilson

Which of the following statements about social structure is false? a. Social structure gives us the ability to interpret the social situations we encounter. b. A predictable social structure makes it easier to develop one's self-concept. c. Social structure creates stability within society. d. Social structure creates relationships that are generally equal.

d. Social structure creates relationships that are generally equal.

__________ refers to the process by which an increasing number of people live in cities rather than rural areas. a. Ruralization b. Industrialization c. Suburbanization d. Urbanization

d. Urbanization

People almost always respond to involuntary resocialization in a positive way. a. True b. False

false

Quantitative research and qualitative research both follow the same research model. a. True b. False

false

Social networks function equally well for members of all social classes. a. True b. False

false

Social structure is essential for society, but it is not an essential part of any particular individual's life. a. True b. False

false

Sociologist George Herbert Mead was one of the first scholars to note that a dual heritage creates conflict for people of color. He called this duality double-consciousness—the identity conflict of being both a black and an American. a. True b. False

false

Sociologist Robert K. Merton stated that in order for social institutions and other social units to be considered functional, all their functions must be intended and recognized by the participants. a. True b. False

false

The most important aspects of racial identity and attitudes toward other racial-ethnic groups must be taught directly and intentionally; these beliefs cannot be transmitted in subtle or unconscious ways. a. True b. False

false

Unlike secondary groups, primary groups are large groups in which members engage in goal-oriented relationships for a limited period of time. a. True b. False

false

According to the functionalist perspective, societies develop social structures (institutions) that persist because they play a part in helping society survive. These institutions include the family, education, government, religion, and the economy. a. True b. False

true

Although clothing is a universal practice, the type of clothes considered acceptable in one culture may be considered improper in another. a. True b. False

true

As the number of one-parent families and families in which both parents work outside the home has increased dramatically, the number of children in day-care and preschool programs has also grown rapidly. This combined with the increasing amount of time that students spend in educational settings means that the importance of schools as agents of socialization has increased. a. True b. False

true