Sociology A level Res Methods Cie Questions

Describe two *advantages* of using questionnaires.

1. Reliable: *Standardised questions* mean the research can be *replicated* 2• Produces *hard/quantifiable* data - easily *compared.* 3• large scale study - representative . 4• Can be conducted anonymously - postal 5• appropriate for less educated - self-administered 6• Practical advantages - Easy to administer/record; data can be analysed by computer.

What is meant by the term positivist sociologists?

Positivists believe the social world can be studied objectively using scientific [quantitative] methods.

Explain why interpretivists support the use of participant observation.

• the ability to experience the way of life of the study group in a natural setting without imposing researcher's views - the depth of understanding gained and the validity of the research data - allows theories to emerge from the research as it progresses - the ability to observe interaction and understand meanings [verstehen] - the opportunity to study groups in a natural setting that might be otherwise difficult to access [deviant, subcultural groups]

Describe two difficulties in gaining access to a study group

• the group not wanting to be studied • being accepted by the group if a covert observer • blending into the group if the sociologist is from a different social background • making contact with the group in the first place • gatekeeper issues • explaining your presence in the group without arousing suspicion [for covert observers]

describe two reasons why researchers like to use pilot studies.

• using a pilot study enables researchers to identify potential problems with the method - e.g. whether it gives appropriate data; • using a pilot study enables researchers to identify potential problems with the research question e.g. whether it's well focused; • using a pilot study enables researchers to identify potential problems with the sampling procedure and make sure the sample is appropriate - issues of access and representativeness can be overcome; • using a pilot study enables researchers to prepare for a large scale study - these are expensive so a small-scale pilot study is essential to iron out any initial problems with methods or research devices before undertaking the full research; • a successful pilot study is useful in securing funding as the study is deemed viable; • a pilot study helps to identify ethical and practical issues which might occur; • a pilot study can be helpful in determining what resources (finance, staff) are needed for a planned study; • a pilot study can ensure the research question is appropriate and likely to find the information required; • a pilot study is useful in order to make sure the theoretical perspective of the researcher won't impact upon the respondents

Describe two ethical issues with participant observation.

- any deception by the researcher - the confidentiality / anonymity of the - information gained consent issues - psychological impact on the group - potential involvement in dubious activities

Ethical issues might include with participant observation :

- any deception by the researcher - the confidentiality / anonymity of the - information gained consent issues - psychological impact on the group - potential involvement in dubious activities.

Explain why interpretivists support the use of participant observation (8)

- the ability to experience the way of life of the study group in a natural setting without imposing researcher's views - the depth of understanding gained and the validity of the research data allows theories to emerge from the research as it progresses - the ability to observe interaction and understand meanings [verstehen] - the opportunity to study groups in a natural setting that might be otherwise difficult to access [deviant, subcultural groups]

Assess the strengths and limitations of adopting a scientific approach to sociological research

Ideas and concepts likely to be included: Hypothetico-deductive; Comte, Durkheim Objectivity, subjectivity and value freedom Reliable/valid/representative/generalisation Falsification/Popper Realism

Points for: ' The topics sociologists choose to study should reflect the values they hold and the people they want to help.' Explain 25 and assess this view. (25)

1) Partisans sociologists (e.g. Becker) or some Marxists and feminists believe that researchers should be 'committed' and open in their sympathies. 2) It is impossible to fully separate values from research so Respondent control may lead to greater depth and validity. should be open about their views. 3) These sociologists (e.g. Gouldner) are critical of those they regard as 'pretending' they are scientific, value free and neutral, e.g. Parsons, Merton confusing value-freedom and objectivity. 4) The interpretivist position on the nature of objectivity and how values affect the selection of topics and execution of research Weber's view that sociologists cannot be value free in selecting topics, and that their choice of topic (and methods) will reflect this but that they can be objective in their research.

What is meant by the term content analysis?

A research method used to analyse the meaning/content of qualitative material (e.g. in the media) by measuring patterns in the way the data is presented.

Arguments against:Assess arguments in favour of semi-structured interviews as a method of sociological research. (11)

1• *Unreliable*: SSI can *lack generalisability* - small scale study 2• Dependent upon *skilful interview*, ability to *build rapport*. 3• Dependent upon the *articulacy* of the *respondent*. • Primarily a *qualitative method* and therefore e.g. problems associated with *analysing and interpreting data.*

Explain why *interpretivist* sociologists are unlikely to use structured interviews. (8)

1• Desire for detailed data: Pre-coded questions may *limit* and/or inhibit responses. 2• Interviewer effect. 3• Potential for respondent misinterpretation of questions. 4• Reduced *validity* [deliberately lie].

Describe two advantages of using secondary data in sociological research. (4)

1• Practical: cost and/or time effective. 2• Access to information from the past. 3• Sometimes +the only available source* of data in a particular area. 4• Adds depth and support to primary data. • In the case of official statistics they are often comprehensive and therefore more likely to be representative. • Can be used to examine trends over time. • Can be used as a source of investigation e.g. content analysis.

Arguments for: Assess arguments in favour of *semi-structured* interviews as a method of sociological research. (11)

1• The researcher may wish to have elements of structured and unstructured interviews because this relates to their *overall aims* [e.g. factual and attitudinal]. 2• Gives a *degree of control* over proceedings: Respondent control may lead to greater depth and validity. 3• Allows for unpredictable responses and the possibility of *follow up* questions, in other words they are *flexible*. 4• *Less time consuming* than unstructured interviews [but still a lengthy process].

Points for: Assess the interpretivist view that qualitative methods produce data that is high in validity. (11)

1• They produce highly valid data that explores the subjective meanings actors hold from their point of view (interpretivist) - verstehen 2• Depth and detail - valid 3• Reduces researcher bias; hawthorne effect 4• Opportunity to build relationships based on trust [rapport] affording more valid data - o.p.o 5• Flexibility: can probe, clarify and change direction.

What is meant by the term hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a statement about a relationship between concepts/variables that a sociologist believes to be true and will be tested against evidence

What is meant by the term representative sample?

A representative sample is a study group whose social characteristics are a reflection of the wider survey population.

Structuralist theories offer the best understanding of the relationship between the individual and society.' Explain 25 and assess this view.

Although some of the assessment may be in the form of juxtaposing different sociological perspectives, there is also likely to be some direct engagement with the issues raised by the positivist view of society acting as an external force; this might include sophisticated reflections on different strands of determinism in sociological theory e.g. Durkheim and Parsons from a functionalist perspective, Marxist historical materialism, and structuralism. There is likely to be a well-formulated conclusion

Secondary data has no value in sociological research.' Explain and assess this view.

Answers are likely to highlight that official statistics provide an objective source of information while other forms of secondary data may be too subjective to be useful in sociological research. Another approach could be to question thoroughly both the idea that official statistics avoid the problems of subjectivity associated with other types of data and the view that other sources of secondary data are too subjective to be useful in sociological research. The idea of what is 'fit for purpose' is another angle that could be taken.

Assess the strengths and limitations of non-participant observation. (11)

Answers at this level will demonstrate good sociological knowledge and understanding applied to the question. There will also be an assessment of the strengths and limitations of non-participant observation. Those responses that usefully distinguish between overt and covert observation should be rewarded. • Distance view may reduce depth/richness Lower in the band, there will be a good account of a range of strengths and limitations and some attempt to assess issues raised by the question will be made e.g. perhaps by examining critically some of the strengths and/or limitations. At the top of the band, the assessment must either cover a good range of issues and / or demonstrate depth of understanding perhaps including an overall evaluation of the usefulness of non-participant observation.

Explain why values may vary between social groups. (8)

Areas that might be included: • Subcultural explanations. • Class cultures. • Youth cultures. • Gender culture. • Ethnic and religious division. • Differential socialisation.

To what extent does functionalism offer the best explanation of why individuals join youth sub-cultures? Arg for

Arguments for: • functionalists argue joining a youth sub-culture can be explained as a way of managing the transition from childhood to adulthood; • functionalists argue youth sub-culture helps detach the individual from their family so they can achieve their own status as an adult developing autonomy and independence; • functionalists argue youth sub-cultures act as a 'safety valve' and people join to help them manage going through adolescence; • functionalists claim that youth sub-cultures offer members an alternative opportunity structure where they can gain status and respect; • functionalists argue that young people join sub-cultures to gain status, moving from an ascribed status to an achieved status; • functionalists argue that youth sub-cultures are a way of dealing with stress caused by the transition from childhood to adulthood; • joining a youth sub-culture can be a way of gaining success and status for those young people who find other routes to success (such as education) blocked; • functionalists argue (Eisenstadt) that young people need to find a way to distinguish themselves from their parents and youth sub-cultures are a vehicle for this; • any other reasonable response

Sociologists have exaggerated the extent to which people conform to social norms and expectations in modern societies.' Explain and assess this view. 25

Assessment is likely to be reliant on the interactionist contribution to the study of socialisation and used to highlight the limitations of the functionalist and Marxist theories. References to substantive areas (crime, deviance, sub-cultures, rebellion, etc.) may be used to good effect in addressing the issues raised by the question, though it is not essential to go down this line in order to achieve top marks. Higher in the band (22-25 marks), there will be sustained assessment and the points offered will be explicit and well directed towards the question. For example, the post-modernist critique of traditional sociology would provide another useful angle to explore in assessing the claim made in the essay question.

Assess the view that ethical issues are the main problem in using 11 covert participant observation.

Ethical issues might include: • Any deception by the researcher • The confidentiality/anonymity of the information gained. • Psychological impact on the group who find out that they have be studied without permission. • Potential involvement in dubious activities

To what is extent is human behaviour learned through the processes of socialisation? [15]

For • Relative nature of behaviour from society to society and across time • Evidence of difference in gender role socialisation • Feral children • Agencies of socialisation • Processes of socialisation Against: • Instinct • Mothering instinct • Genetics and intelligence • Other reasonable responses.

To what extent should sociological research be scientific? (15)

For • Sociology needs to establish social facts to be able to make generalisations about society. • Researchers need to maintain objectivity in order to prevent their values influencing the research findings • Positivists think that scientific methods should be used because society is an external reality constraining the individual • Scientific research can be easily replicated and checked for accuracy • Other reasonable arguments. Against • Interpretivists would argue that humans are not inanimate objects. They would say humans interact with their surroundings and the researcher, so scientific methods shouldn't be used. • Science is not objective; researchers are influenced by their choice of research topic, method and funding. • Methods like experiments may be unethical and so shouldn't be used. • Subject may be manipulated by the researcher or vice versa. • Interpretivists would argue that variables cannot be controlled and may not even be known. • Other reasonable arguments.

'The data collected using questionnaires has little value in sociology compared to the data collected using unstructured interviews.' Explain and assess this view. (25)

Higher in the band (22-25 marks), there will be sustained assessment and the points offered will be explicit and well- directed towards the question. Although some of the assessment may be in the form of juxtaposing different sociological perspectives, there is also likely to be some direct engagement with the issues raised by the [interpretivist] view that questionnaires fail to yield the kind of insights that unstructured interviews are capable of. Very good responses are likely to counter pose elements of each method and assess the merits of each in line with the question. Sophisticated responses may question what is meant by the term 'limited' in relation to different types of sociological data and more generally question the basis on which different methods can be matched against each other in relation to how useful they are of the level of insight produced

What is meant by the term covert observation?

In covert observation, the research is carried out secretly, with the researcher concealing their identity from the study group.

What is meant by the term overt observation?

In overt observation the sociologist chooses to reveal their identity to the study group who will know they are there to study their behaviour.

interpretivism?

Interpretivism refers to that sociological perspective that focuses on the ways in which people give meaning to their own and others' actions.

Assess interpretivist arguments in favour of unstructured interviews in sociological research.

Interpretivist arguments in favour: • Opportunity to build relationships based on trust [rapport] affording more valid data. • Unstructured interviews are a method that enables verstehen (an understanding of how the respondent really thinks and feels). • Unstructured interviews may be particularly apt when the subject matter is personal. • Flexibility: can probe, clarify and change direction. • Depth and detail. Arguments against: • Their lack of reliability/replicability. • Sample size, lack of representativeness/generalisability. • The interviewer effect. • Social desirability bias. • Researcher imposition/researcher values. • Non-scientific characteristics. • Practical issues.

Assess positivist arguments against the use of interview methods that collect qualitative data.

Positivist arguments against qualitative interviews might include reference to: • Their lack of reliability/replicability. • Their lack of representativeness. • The interviewer effect. • Social desirability. • Researcher imposition. • Non-scientific characteristics (e.g. not quantifiable). In evaluation: • High validity: the use of qualitative interviews allows subjective meanings and interpretations to emerge. • Reduces researcher imposition.

Assess positivist arguments against the use of participant observation.

Positivist arguments: • Unscientific approach typically collecting qualitative data • Unreliable - cannot be replicated • Bias - covert PO leads to respondent behaviour being affected by researcher's presence or actions. Overt PO could lead to the Hawthorne effect. • Lacks objectivity - personal involvement can lead to invalid data ['going native'] • Subjective interpretation of data. • Unrepresentative samples. • Relevant practical issues: faulty recall, not always present. Evaluation points: • Ecological validity of the method arising from interpretivist thinking

Arguments for: Assess the importance of practical factors in shaping a sociologist's research design. (11)

Practical factors that may be referred to: • Time - often linked to money. Many methods/approaches can take considerable time e.g. longitudinal studies. • Money - often linked to funding source; some methods are cheap. • Location. • Sample issues: size, access, cooperation. • Funding source. • Nature of the study group e.g. easier to access poor/powerless groups. • Researcher's skill set e.g. the difficulties involved in types of observation.

Assess the importance of practical factors in shaping a sociologist's research design.

Practical factors that may be referred to: • Time - often linked to money. Many methods/approaches can take considerable time e.g. longitudinal studies. • Money - often linked to funding source; some methods are cheap. • Location. • Sample issues: size, access, cooperation. • Funding source. • Nature of the study group e.g. easier to access poor/powerless groups. • Researcher's skill set e.g. the difficulties involved in types of observation. In evaluation: • The impact on the above in relation to validity, representativeness. • The theoretical stance of the researcher in shaping choice of method. • Ethical considerations.

Describe two practical problems with observational research.

Practical problems might include: • Gaining access to a group • Remaining incognito • Influencing the behaviour of group members by actions • Hawthorne effect - influence by presence. • Recording events/note taking [faulty recall] • 'Going native' • Length of time • Expense • Data overload

What is meant by the term primary data?

Primary data is information collected by sociologists themselves. E.g. interviews, questionnaire

What is meant by the term qualitative data?

Qualitative data refers to written sources that provide a *detailed account* of *people's meanings* and *understandings*.

Explain why positivists favour the use of experiments in sociological research. 8

Reasons might include: • Ease of controlling and manipulating variables • Ability to identify causation • Reliability • Scientific status of the research method • Results can be quantified and correlations and comparisons drawn.

What is meant by the term social roles?

Roles are the patterns of behaviour that are expected from people in different positions in society.

What is meant by the term semi-structured interview?

Semi-structured interviews usually involve some pre-determined questions or list of topics, but the interview has the flexibility to explore issues raised by the answers.

Assess the strengths and limitations of structured interviews in sociological research.

Strengths: • Standardised questions means the research can be replicated. • Produces hard/quantifiable data that is easily compared. • Reliability [links to positivism] • Sampling more likely to be systematic/large enough to be representative (by comparison with other interviews) • Practical advantages - Easy to administer/record; data can be analysed by computer • Some SIs allow interviewers to clarify the meaning of questions. Limitations: • Interviewer effect • Pre-coded questions may limit and/or inhibit responses • Potential for respondent misinterpretation of questions • Reduced validity [links to interpretivism] • Teams of researchers may produce variations in response depending on their interviewer characteristics. • Practical: cost and time

What is meant by the term structured interview?

Structured interviews are *pre-coded questionnaires* administered by an interviewer.

Explain why questionnaires are considered to be high in reliability.

Supporting reasons might include: • Easy to replicate - it is likely that the same or similar results will be obtained by other researchers. • All respondents asked same questions in same order. • Minimal/no involvement of the researcher - avoids researcher effect. • Facilitates comparability - patterns/trends to be identified.

Explain why it is difficult to ensure that sociological research is free from bias.

Supporting reasons might include: • Personal values of the sociologist - choice of topic, methods and interpretation, theoretical stance. • The effect of the researcher on the respondent. • Funding and/or other institutional support for research. • The way in which the research is conducted - is a full account given. • Publication of data so that research can be checked/repeated by others. • Unrepresentative sample. • Points linked to a specific method - e.g. observation requires interpretation by the researcher which may introduce bias; questionnaires collecting quantitative data require pre-coded responses which may reflect the responses the researcher expects.

What is meant by the term unstructured interview? (2)

Unstructured interviews are *informal* and conversational. The interviewer has topics in mind to cover but few if any pre-set questions

What is meant by the term validity?

Validity is the term used in sociology to describe data that gives a true measurement or description of what it claims to measure or describe

Assess the view that questionnaires have little value in sociological research.

assessment must either cover a good range of issues and/or demonstrate depth of understanding that explicitly addresses the view in the question. There will also be a concerted attempt to evaluate the use of questionnaires. Features that might help distinguish answers that merit the top of the band may include, for example, linkage made between the critique of questionnaires and quantitative data generally [i.e. the failure to show complexity] and of the interpretvist perspective.

Qualitative methods have little value in sociological research because they lack reliability.' Explain and assess this view. (25)

assessment will be supported by a more direct analysis of the value of qualitative research methods and of what constitutes 'good' sociological research. This may lead some candidates to even question the extent to which those who conduct qualitative research are at all concerned to achieve reliable outcomes. Another possible assessment route might be to outline those 'qualitative' methods that arguably lead to a measure of reliability in the data produced e.g. semi- structured interviews, structured observations. There may be a discussion of research aims and values, and reflections on the influence of topic on the choice of research methods.

Sociologists should always aim to study society in an objective way.' Explain and assess this view. (25)

candidates may question whether it is even theoretically possible to achieve objectivity in research i.e. that sociology can be a value free enterprise. is is desirable to attempt objectivity on the grounds that sociologists should recognise the imposition of their own values and to take a committed stance. Reference to Becker or Marxism or feminism might support this line of argument.

Évaluation for: Assess the importance of practical factors in shaping a sociologist's research design. (11)

evaluation: • The impact on the above in relation to validity, representativeness. • The theoretical stance of the researcher in shaping choice of method. • Ethical considerations.

'It is both desirable and possible for sociology to be objective.' Explain and assess this view. (25)

example, candidates may question whether it is even theoretically possible to achieve objective research, in other words to question explicitly the premise view that sociology can be a value free enterprise. A possible further tack is for candidates to question whether it is desirable to attempt objectivity on the grounds that sociologists should recognise the imposition of their own values and to take a committed stance. Reference to Becker or

Explain and assess the view that quantitative data provides a better understanding of society than qualitative data. (25)

expect candidates to recognise that the claim that a quantitative methods produce data that gives a more accurate and detailed understanding of society to a qualitative methods, is problematical on a number of counts. Good answers at this level may also make appropriate links between quantitative/qualitative approaches and the positivist/interpretivist perspectives.

To what extent are positivist methods the most effective way of carrying out sociological research? Arguments against;

some positivist methods may cause ethical issues such as experiments (e.g. deception in a covert observation) and this will need to be taken into account in the research design; • many sociologists will use a triangulation of methods to overcome the perceived weaknesses of positivist methods thus illustrating that a solely positivist approach may be inadequate; • some methods are expensive so are difficult to fund such as experiments or large scale social surveys and this means that a positivist approach is not always possible even if desired; • methods that are high in reliability may lack validity and interpretivists would argue that it is more important to have an accurate picture of what is being studied; • interpretivists argue that qualitative data is more valuable than quantitative data because it gives access to the feelings, perceptions, thoughts and meanings behind social action and interaction - without understanding this the numbers are blind;

Sociologists should always aim to study society in an objective way.' 25 Explain and assess this view.

there will be sustained assessment and the points offered will be explicit and well-directed towards the question. For example, candidates may question whether it is even theoretically possible to achieve objectivity in research i.e. that sociology can be a value free enterprise. A possible further approach is for candidates to question whether this is desirable to attempt objectivity on the grounds that sociologists should recognise the imposition of their own values and to take a committed stance. Reference to Becker or Marxism or feminism might support this line of argument.

Explain why questionnaires are considered to be high in reliability.

• *Easy to replicate* - it is likely that the same or similar results will be obtained by other researchers. • All respondents asked *same questions* in *same order*. • Minimal/no involvement of the researcher - *avoids researcher effect* postal. • Facilitates comparability - patterns/trends to be identified.

Interpretivist Arguments for: Assess interpretivist arguments in favour of unstructured interviews in sociological research (11)

• *Opportunity to build relationships* based on trust [rapport] affording more valid data. • Unstructured interviews are a method that enables verstehen • Unstructured interviews may be particularly apt when the subject matter is personal. • Flexibility: can probe, clarify and change direction. • Depth and detail.

Describe two reasons why a researcher might use a pilot study

• A test run on the feasibility of the full study, thereby saving the researcher time and money. • Overcoming potential problems with the research design e.g. how questions are worded, its language and format. • Might reveal the need to shorten questionnaire or interview in order to complete the research in a timely manner. • Problems with non-cooperation or non-response by respondents. • The suitability or otherwise of a sampling frame. • May help to highlight deficiencies in the researcher's skill set. • Feedback may be sought that might lead to new or refined objectives.

Arguments for: Assess the view that ethical issues are the main problem in using covert participant observation. (11)

• Any deception by the researcher • The confidentiality/anonymity of the information gained. • Psychological impact on the group who find out that they have be studied without permission. • Potential involvement in dubious activities

Describe two limitations of using a group interview

• Dominant respondents take over the discussion/results unduly reflect their views. • Timid respondents less likely to participate. • Social desirability: fear of being seen as deviant is heightened in a group setting. • Researcher effect. • Retention of focus on topic under discussion. • Difficult to replicate (reliability). • Representativeness may be weak. • Potential for 'group consensus' to subdue individual differences. • Practical problems e.g. can be difficult to record.

Explain why positivists favour the use of experiments in sociological research. (8)

• Ease of controlling and manipulating variables • Ability to identify causation • Reliability • Scientific status of the research method • Results can be quantified and correlations and comparisons drawn.

Evaluation points: Assess positivist arguments against the use of participant observation. (11)

• Ecological validity of the method arising from interpretivist thinking

Describe two examples of sanctions that encourage people to follow 4 the norms of society.

• Formal sanctions [prison, criminal record, expulsion from school, etc] • Informal sanctions [ostracism, criticism, threats, withdrawal of privileges etc]

Describe two practical problems with observational research.

• Gaining access to a group • Remaining incognito • Influencing the behaviour of group members by actions • Hawthorne effect - influence by presence. • Recording events/note taking [faulty recall] • 'Going native' • Length of time • Expense • Data overload

Describe two advantages of using a structured interview.

• Good response rate. • Ease of coding answers/creating statistical data. • High in reliability. • No requirement for highly trained/skilled interviewers. • Cost and time efficient compared with other methods. • Overcomes problems with illiteracy. • Clarification role.

Describe two ways a structured interview is different from a questionnaire

• In a structured interview the researcher is present and asks the questions • They are able to explain questions and clarify any queries held by the respondent • Provide reassurance and encouragement • The sample size will be smaller • The response rate will be higher • Collect additional information by observing the respondent • Ensure that the person answering the question is the intended respondent • In an interview the respondent will have less time to reflect upon their answers • Researcher effect • Feel under pressure to give socially desirable responses/affected by interviewer bias

Describe two ways a structured interview is different from a questionnaire.

• In a structured interview the researcher is present and asks the questions • They are able to explain questions and clarify any queries held by the respondent • Provide reassurance and encouragement • The sample size will be smaller • The response rate will be higher • Collect additional information by observing the respondent • Ensure that the person answering the question is the intended respondent • In an interview the respondent will have less time to reflect upon their answers • Researcher effect • Feel under pressure to give socially desirable responses/affected by interviewer bias

Explain some of the problems sociologists face when conducting structured interviews.

• Inflexibility of the interview schedule • The imposition problem • Respondent may be unwilling to answer personal questions • Possibility of the interviewer effect and the difficulties in putting interviewees at ease. • Linked to the above, the danger that personal contact beyond politeness could affect the reliability of the research. • Practical issues, for example, little time to reflect on answers • Theoretical [interpretivist] objections as to the validity of the data

Limitations: Assess the strengths and limitations of structured interviews in sociological research. (11)

• Interviewer effect • Pre-coded questions may limit and/or inhibit responses • Potential for respondent misinterpretation of questions • Reduced validity [links to interpretivism] • Teams of researchers may produce variations in response depending on their interviewer characteristics. • Practical: cost and time

Explain why interpretivist sociologists are unlikely to use structured 8 interviews.

• Interviewer effect. • Desire for detailed data. • Pre-coded questions may limit and/or inhibit responses. • Potential for respondent misinterpretation of questions. • Reduced validity [links to interpretivism]. • Teams of researchers may produce variations in response depending on their interviewer characteristics

Explain the difficulties for a researcher of achieving a representative sample. (8)

• Obtaining a sampling frame • Obtaining a sufficiently large sample. • In gathering sufficient information about the sampling frame to divide the population into representative groups • High dropout rate • Low response rate • Self-selecting samples • Reluctance of some groups to take part in research e.g. minority groups • Any specific points about methods e.g. questionnaires lost in the post

Points for: 'The topics sociologists choose to study should reflect the values they hold and the people they want to help.' Explain and assess this view. (25)

• Partisan sociologists (e.g. Becker) or some Marxists and feminists believe that researchers should be 'committed' and open in their sympathies. - It is impossible to fully separate values from research so researchers should be open about their views. - These sociologists (e.g. Gouldner) are critical of those they regard as 'pretending' they are scientific, value free and neutral, e.g. Parsons, Merton confusing value-freedom and objectivity. • The interpretivist position on the nature of objectivity and how values affect the selection of topics and execution of research Weber's view that sociologists cannot be value free in selecting topics, and that their choice of topic (and methods) will reflect this but that they can be objective in their research.

Explain why it is difficult to ensure that sociological research is free from bias. (8)

• Personal values of the sociologist - choice of topic, methods and interpretation, theoretical stance. • The effect of the researcher on the respondent. • Funding and/or other institutional support for research. • The way in which the research is conducted - is a full account given. • Publication of data so that research can be checked/repeated by others. • Unrepresentative sample.

Points against : ' The topics sociologists choose to study should reflect the values they hold and the people they want to help.' Explain 25 and assess this view. (25)

• Positivist argument that via the hypothetico-deductive method objectivity can be achieved - in choice of method, execution of research and interpretation of results can be achieved. • It is important to resist the imposition of subjective elements like values that distort research. • Popper's view that value laden theories will eventually be falsified. • A realist or postmodern position.

Points against : 'The topics sociologists choose to study should reflect the values they hold and the people they want to help.' Explain and assess this view. (25)

• Positivist argument that via the hypothetico-deductive method objectivity can be achieved - in choice of method, execution of research and interpretation of results can be achieved. • It is important to resist the imposition of subjective elements like values that distort research. • Popper's view that value laden theories will eventually be falsified. • A realist or postmodern position.

Strengths: Assess the *strengths* of using qualitative secondary sources in sociological research. (11)

• Practical - access to material that would otherwise involve great cost, time and effort. • Practical - obtain material otherwise not available, e.g. historical records. • Documentary evidence can be in great depth and detail, hence high in validity (e.g. diaries such as Frank/Pepys). • Of interest to interpretivists in particular. • Facilitate comparison between past and present (e.g. Pearson on hooligan behaviour). • Facilitate semiological analysis.

Limitations of: Assess the strengths of using qualitative secondary sources in sociological research. (11)

• Practical - hard to know if the sources is credible/authentic. • Potentially lacking validity they may be incomplete, inaccurate or unrepresentative/ungeneralizable. • Reliability - do the documents mean the same now as then; rely on the subjective view of those interpreting them.

Explain and assess the strengths of using official statistics in sociological research.

• Product of a reliable method that is objective and value-free. • Large scale nature of the surveys leads to representative, generalisable data • Tend to be comparable as they are typically conducted on a regular basis - enables patterns and trends to be identified [positivists]. • Can be used to test hypotheses. [Durkheim] • Can be used to study groups that otherwise might be inaccessible • Practical reasons

Explain why some sociologists have questioned the usefulness of qualitative research (8)

• subjective and open to interpretation • lacks reliability • lacks representativeness etc. • difficult to operationalise • problem of researcher imposition. • impact of the presence of the researcher • practical and/or ethical issues impacting on usefulness

Explain why positivists think official statistics are a useful source of data. (8)

• Product of a reliable method that is objective and value-free. • Large scale nature of the surveys leads to representative, generalisable data. • Tend to be comparable as they are typically conducted on a regular basis - enables patterns and trends to be identified. • Can be used to identify patterns between variables/test hypotheses [Durkheim]. • Can be used to study groups that otherwise might be inaccessible. All points are likely to be linked to key concepts, e.g. validity, reliability, representativeness

Assess the interpretivist argument that data produced using questionnaires lacks validity. (11)

• Questionnaires are *socially constructed* and they will reflect the *values/interests* of the researcher - the imposition problem. • Low response rates may affect representativeness and validity. • No opportunity for clarification over what the questions mean. • The limited options to respond/explain reduces complexity and validity. • No option for researchers to probe and go into depth. • Absence of opportunity to build relationships [rapport].

Assess the interpretivist argument that data produced using questionnaires lacks validity.

• Questionnaires are socially constructed and they will reflect the values/interests of the researcher - the imposition problem. • Low response rates may affect representativeness and validity. • No opportunity for clarification over what the questions mean. • The limited options to respond/explain reduces complexity and validity. • No option for researchers to probe and go into depth. • Absence of opportunity to build relationships [rapport].

Types of sampling might include

• Random • Systematic • Stratified • Quota • Multi-stage • Snowball • Or any other legitimate technique

Explain the problems that a sociologist may face in seeking to understand other people's behaviour.

• Researcher bias: the preconceptions and values of the observer may result in subjective interpretations. This may be linked to positivism. • Researcher effect and the possibility that the people being observed may deliberately mislead the observer (Hawthorne effect) • The ambiguous nature of many social actions • A variety of practical difficulties, e.g. the difficulty in some cases of obtaining adequate access to the individuals or groups concerned. • Researcher's skill set

Strengths: Assess the strengths and limitations of structured interviews in sociological research. (11)

• Standardised questions means the research can be replicated. • Produces hard/quantifiable data that is easily compared. • Reliability [links to positivism] • Sampling more likely to be systematic/large enough to be representative (by comparison with other interviews) • Practical advantages - Easy to administer/record; data can be analysed by computer • Some SIs allow interviewers to clarify the meaning of questions.

Describe two reasons why official statistics may lack validity

• Survey design is not by researcher - hence, they may not be precisely the questions they would choose to ask. • Concepts used not operationalised by the researcher - e.g. poverty. • Official statistics may be prone to government manipulation - especially in areas such as crime or employment. • Partial picture because they only provide data on recorded events - i.e. they don't show unrecorded crime. • Interpretivist critique of validity - don't reveal much of the reasons why behaviour takes place. • Researchers have to decide what the data means - it may be subjective. • The statistics are socially constructed (shaped by decisions/interpretations) rather than being objective facts. • Outdated - e.g. census returns relating to years previous. • Recognition that official statistics are generated from a primary source - e.g. questionnaire that may have faults.

Explain and assess the limitations of using official statistics in sociological research.

• Survey design is not by researcher; hence, they may not be precisely the questions they would choose to ask. • Concepts used not operationalised by the researcher e.g. poverty. • Researchers have to decide what the data means. • Official statistics may be prone to government manipulation, especially in areas such as crime or employment. • Partial picture because they only provided data on recorded events i.e. they don't show unrecorded crime. • Interpretivist critique of validity - don't reveal much of the reasons why behaviour takes place • Serve interests of elite groups [Marxist / feminist criticism]

Pts against Assess the interpretivist view that qualitative methods produce data that is high in validity.

• The data from qualitative methods lack objectivity are value laden and subjective. • Qualitative data lacks reliability and cannot be easily replicated. • Respondents in qualitative research are likely to be influenced by the presence of the researcher. • There are sometimes ethical problems linked to qualitative methods. • Potential for researcher bias. • The small numbers involved often leads to unrepresentative samples. • Practical considerations - time, money etc.

Points against: Assess the interpretivist view that qualitative methods produce data that is high in validity. (11)

• The data from qualitative methods lack objectivity are value laden and subjective. • Qualitative data lacks reliability and cannot be easily replicated. • There are sometimes *ethical problems* linked to qualitative methods. • Potential for researcher bias. • The small numbers involved often leads to unrepresentative samples. • Practical considerations - time, money etc.

Explain why it might be important to observe people in their own environment.

• The depth of understanding gained and the validity of the research data. • The ability to experience the way of life of the study group in a natural setting without imposing researcher's views [ecological validity] • The ability to observe interaction and understand meanings [verstehen, interpretivism]. • The opportunity to study groups that might be otherwise difficult to access [deviant, subcultural groups]. • Allows theories to emerge from the research as it progresses

Explain why some sociologists have questioned the usefulness of qualitative research. (9)

• subjective and open to interpretation • lacks reliability • lacks representativeness etc. • difficult to operationalise • problem of researcher imposition. • impact of the presence of the researcher • practical and/or ethical issues impacting on usefulness

Explain why it might be important to observe people in their own environment. (8)

• The depth of understanding gained and the validity of the research data. • The ability to experience the way of life of the study group in a natural setting without imposing researcher's views [ecological validity] • The ability to observe interaction and understand meanings [verstehen, interpretivism]. • The opportunity to study groups that might be otherwise difficult to access [deviant, subcultural groups]. • Allows theories to emerge from the research as it progresses

Explain why a sociologist might use a group interview as a method of research.

• The naturalistic setting allows respondents to feel more relaxed, encouraging more valid responses. • A group dynamic allows respondents to spark off discussions; this may stimulate a greater range and depth of responses. • The researcher can control the pace and scope of discussion as well as ensuring that focus is retained. • Group identity and shared meanings may emerge/be better understood. • Discussion allows group members to rethink and develop their ideas leading to more in-depth and valid responses. • Empowers the respondent and reduces researcher imposition - less chance of researcher bias. • Reflects theoretical stance (interpretivism). • Cheaper than comparable forms e.g. unstructured interviews or observations. • Opportunity to observe group dynamics.

two research topics that might be suitable for sociological investigation using content analysis.

• The representation/portrayal of different social groups, e.g. gender, ethnicity, class, disability, etc. These may be quantitative or qualitative analyses • Moral panics; • Cases of bias and distortion in news reporting; • Media influences on youth culture • Any other reasonable response.

Describe two features that make laboratory experiments scientific.

• The research takes place in a controlled setting - allowing the sociologist to observe behaviour free from external influences. • Controlled conditions permits researcher to manipulate the environment - dependent/independent variables. • Use of experimental vs. control group - the ability to test a hypothesis; correlations and causality; replication.

Arguments for: Assess arguments in favour of semi-structured interviews as a method 11 of sociological research. (11)

• The researcher may wish to have elements of structured and unstructured interviews because this relates to their overall aims [e.g. factual and attitudinal]. • Gives a degree of control over proceedings. • Enables a [limited] measure of comparability. • Allows for unpredictable responses and the possibility of follow up questions, in other words they are flexible. • Respondent control may lead to greater depth and validity. • Less time consuming than unstructured interviews [but still a lengthy process].

Arguments against : Assess interpretivist arguments in favour of unstructured interviews in sociological research (11)

• Their lack of reliability/replicability. • Sample size, lack of representativeness/generalisability. • The interviewer effect. • Social desirability bias. • Researcher imposition/researcher values. • Non-scientific characteristics. • Practical issues.

Evaluation of Assess the view that ethical issues are the main problem in using 11 covert participant observation.

• Theoretical issues revolving around validity and reliability • Justification of unethical practice • Practical issues e.g. access

Evaluation: Assess the view that ethical issues are the main problem in using covert participant observation. (11)

• Theoretical issues revolving around validity and reliability • Justification of unethical practice • Practical issues e.g. access

Pts for Assess the interpretivist view that qualitative methods produce data that is high in validity.

• They produce highly valid data that explores the subjective meanings actors hold from their point of view (interpretivist). • Depth and detail . • Reduces researcher imposition. • Opportunity to build relationships based on trust [rapport] affording more valid data. • Range of methods that enable verstehen (a respondent really thinks and feels). • Qualitative interviews may be particularly apt when the subject matter is personal. • Flexibility: can probe, clarify and change directio

Explain why a sociologist might use more than one method in their research.

• To provide a check on the findings of different types of method/data. • To overcome/compensate for the limitations of one method by the strengths of other methods. • The use of different methods or data to check the validity and reliability of the approach taken. • Methods that produce the best fit (most suitable, practical) for the subject being studied whether they be quantitative or qualitative i.e. methodological pluralism. • To build up a fuller picture of the study group. • Theoretical position.

Arguments against: Assess arguments in favour of semi-structured interviews as a method of sociological research. (11)

• Unreliable: SSI can lack generalisability depending on the degree of structured, i.e. the nature of the interview schedule used. • Researcher imposition. • Dependent upon skilful interview, ability to build rapport. • Dependent upon the articulacy of the respondent. • Primarily a qualitative method and therefore subject to many of the objections levelled at unstructured interviews e.g. problems associated with analysing and interpreting data. • Sample size likely to be small.

Positivist arguments: Assess positivist arguments against the use of participant observation. (11)

• Unscientific approach typically collecting qualitative data • Unreliable - cannot be replicated • Bias - covert PO leads to respondent behaviour being affected by researcher's presence or actions. Overt PO could lead to the Hawthorne effect. • Lacks objectivity - personal involvement can lead to invalid data ['going native'] • Subjective interpretation of data. • Unrepresentative samples. • Relevant practical issues: faulty recall, not always present.

AGAINST Data produced using participant observation is of little value in sociological research.' Explain and assess this view.

• Unscientific approach typically collecting qualitative data. • Lacks objectivity - personal involvement ['going native'] can lead to invalid data. • Unreliable - cannot be replicated. • Practical issues - time, money, access, recording data, selective memory etc. • Unrepresentative samples. • Bias - covert PO leads to respondent behaviour being affected by researcher's presence or actions. Overt PO could lead to the Hawthorne effect. • Potentially unethical.

Points Against : Data produced using participant observation is of little value in sociological research.' Explain and assess this view. (25)

• Unscientific approach typically collecting qualitative data. • Lacks objectivity - personal involvement ['going native'] can lead to invalid data. • Unreliable - cannot be replicated. • Practical issues - time, money, access, recording data, selective memory etc. • Unrepresentative samples. • Bias - covert PO leads to respondent behaviour being affected by researcher's presence or actions. Overt PO could lead to the Hawthorne effect. • Potentially unethical.

Describe two qualitative research methods

• Unstructured, semi-structured or focus group interviews • Qualitative observations [specific types need not be cited as identification i.e. overt and covert/direct and indirect/participant and non-participant] • Qualitative content analysis [semiology] • Case studies • Open ended questionnaires • Any other reasonable response

Arg for Data produced using participant observation is of little value in sociological research.' Explain and assess this view.

• Valid data collected - high in ecological validity. • Detailed, in depth research of groups and of the meaning they attach to their actions (verstehen). • Research carried out in a 'natural environment'. • Ability to study groups that are difficult to access e.g. deviant groups. • Distinctions between covert and overt variations (validity and ethics).

Points for: Data produced using participant observation is of *little value* in sociological research.' Explain and assess this view. (25)

• Valid data collected - high in ecological validity. • Detailed, in depth research of groups and of the meaning they attach to their actions (verstehen). • Research carried out in a 'natural environment'. • Ability to study groups that are difficult to access e.g. deviant groups. • Distinctions between covert and overt variations (validity and ethics).

Explain why a sociologist might decide to use overt rather than covert observation (8)

• desire to retain objectivity • ethical reasons e.g. wanting to ensure the consent of those being observed • to avert the possibility of going native • practical reasons e.g. ability to record events contemporaneously, easier to obtain permission • cost - covert studies are like to be more expensive • not suitable for the study.

Explain why a sociologist might decide to use overt rather than covert observation.

• desire to retain objectivity • ethical reasons e.g. wanting to ensure the consent of those being observed • to avert the possibility of going native • practical reasons e.g. ability to record events contemporaneously, easier to obtain permission • cost - covert studies are like to be more expensive • not suitable for the study.

Outline and explain two practical disadvantages of using documents in 10 sociological research

• difficult to access or locate • manipulation or doctoring of documents • fragmented or limited in scope • analysis is time consuming • practical difficulties with interpretation of meanings • may not fit the researcher's brief • difficulties in establishing representativeness • authenticity

To what extent is validity the most important aspect of social research? 15 Arguments for;

• interpretivist approaches prioritise micro or small-scale phenomena favouring qualitative methods that are high in validity; • in sociological research it is vital we are measuring what it is we want to measure - hence validity is central to any research programme; • validity is important because it refers to the extent to which the research findings accurately reflect reality - without this the value of the research is compromised; • validity comes from detailed and in-depth research - this is useful as we may need to uncover why people act as they do as well as the meanings they attach to their actions; • building validity into the research method allows for participants to develop their point of view e.g. in more unstructured methods like unstructured interviews, covert participant observations etc.; • building validity into the research may enable us to achieve verstehen or a holistic understanding - we seek to understand every aspect of the subject's experience; • research high in validity allows us to see the subjective factors, such as intent, motive, and unintended consequences etc - these add another dimension to our understanding of social life which is missing in 'scientific' approaches; • feminists regard validity as important so they can understand the experiences of women in order then to fight for change - without a full understanding appropriate action is impossible; • validity is particularly important in ethnography field research - as it is a sociological method that explores how people live, their culture and how and make sense of their lives; • the use of triangulation demonstrates the importance of validity in research, it is the use of two or more research methods in a single piece of research in order to check the validity of research evidence;

To what extent is validity the most important aspect of social research? 15 Arguments for;

• methods high in validity often suffer from the researcher effect - such as the Hawthorne Effect or the Interviewer Effect and this can serious detract from the worth of the study; • positivists argue that it is important to be sure that if we repeated the measurement we will get the same or similar results, so reliability is the most important aspect of research; • comparative studies are difficult with most methods that gather valid data and hence if the aim is to compare different groups and social factors then a more quantitative approach is likely to be more appropriate; • structuralists regard reliability as important so social policy can be developed on the basis of solid 'scientific' results; • without reliable measures, sociologists cannot build or test theory as in an extreme case every research project would simply stand alone and no real generalisations could be made; • methods high in validity are often small scale and so difficult to generalise findings from unrepresentative samples; • ethics are more important than validity as it is crucial to safeguard participants and their data - even high valid methods like covert observation may be ruled out if ethics are breached

To what extent are positivist methods the most effective way of carrying out sociological research? Arguments for;

• positivist approaches focus on macro issues so often use social surveys as these will give a bigger picture of big social issues; • positivists are interested in 'social facts' and therefore often use official statistics which are large scale, cheap and easy to access; • positivists methods are high in reliability, such as questionnaires, and therefore they can be repeated to check for consistency of results; • positivists prefer standardised measurements so that comparisons can be made and thus they favour methods like surveys or structured interviews; • positivists like to identify trends so choose methods that yield quantitative data that will allow them to analyse the data in order to identify any patterns; • positivists like to explain cause and effect relationships so they choose methods such as experiments where variables may be controlled to ensure reliability of results; • positivists model their approach on scientific methodology and so use methods that are objective and not as open to researcher bias; • any other reasonable response.

Explain why sampling is important for sociological research.

• practical issues - sampling makes the research more manageable by reducing the number of respondents whilst maintaining the characteristics of the research population • having a representative sample is important - because it enables researchers to make generalisations about their research • random sampling is useful - because ensures every person in the group has an equal chance of being selected - this makes the sampling more objective and less biased so positivists would be in favour of this technique • systematic sampling is useful - because it is an effective way of creating a sample from a larger sample frame - it is a quick and easy way to do one's research and practicalities matter • stratified samples tend to have smaller sampling errors - the sample is divided into several groups in proportion to construct a sample that is representative of the whole population making generalisations possible • quota sampling might be useful - because it is a practical way of ensuring the correct amount of people from each strata identified • panel sampling involves questioning the same sample at regular intervals to observe trends of opinion - this is particularly useful because many researchers like to do longitudinal research • snowball sampling is used in the collection of in depth qualitative data - because often on sensitive topics, where an sampling frame does not exist it is the only way to gain access to the group under investigation e.g. when investigating criminal gangs.

Explain why sociologists should follow ethical guidelines when 10 carrying out research. Possible responses:

• research involving human subjects must follow certain ethical standards to make sure the subjects are not harmed e.g. when studying gangs; • sociologists should protect the privacy and confidentiality of their subjects - this will improve the validity of the data as it will encourage participants to be more honest; • in field research, anonymity must be maintained, and aliases should normally be used when the researcher reports what they have been observing; this is particularly important when studying sensitive or illegal activities; • subjects must have the right to refuse to take part in a research project without any penalties whatsoever; otherwise, they may feel pressured to participate in the project without really wanting to do so; • informed consent is important so that participants are fully aware of what they are agreeing to take part in; • if researchers want to study minors (under age 18), they must obtain a signature from a parent or legal guardian - will ensure informed consent; • unethical research is likely to bring the field of sociology into disrepute - researchers could be criticised by their peers for a lack of ethics; • unethical research is less likely to receive funding as research bodies will not want to be linked with it;

Explain why objectivity is difficult to maintain when carrying out sociological research

• sociological is not a pure science and so it is difficult to eradicate human factors from research - sociological research does not take place in a test tube; • with case studies the researcher can become too close to the subject matter and lose a sense of objectivity; • questionnaires often suffer from the imposition problem - there may be inherent bias in the questions; • observations may lead to the researcher 'going native' - hencethe researcher becomes too involved and loses objectivity; • focus groups may affect individuals differently - some maybecome dominated by one respondent and so lose objectivity; • official statistics used as secondary data may have been recorded to support the government's position; • interviewees may give socially desirable answers and hence thedata gathered may be biased; • when designing content analyses researchers construct categories according to their own preconceived ideas; • when using historical documents the body of material may only represent a small portion of the views apparent at the time; • when using diaries as secondary data it can be difficult to verify thetruth of what was written, individuals may have lied or exaggerated;

To what extent are macro structuralist approaches the most useful for 15 understanding society? Possible arguments against

• structuralist approaches are not unified and there is disagreement between conflict and consensus theorists; • structuralist theories fail to recognise the power of the individual - interpretivists see this a weakness; • structuralism fails to show us how social reality is made through individuals interacting; • Marxists tend to consider people treated as 'cultural dopes' - these structural theories can be seen as too deterministic; • Marxism is very value laden - capitalism has no advantages, whereas many sociologists would argue capitalism has helped raise many out of poverty; • interpretivists see major weaknesses in the structural methods such as social surveys, arguing these methods lack validity; • interpretivists see society from the point of view of its members andgive value to individual meanings and social interactions; • interpretivists do not see the individual as simply a recipient of external social forces and recognise the complexity of factors influencing an individual's actions; • individual qualitative interviews are able to drill down and explore deeper meanings that surveys and questionnaires cannot; • individual qualitative interviews enable a rapport between interviewee and interviewer to develop giving the respondent more of a stake in the research; • participant observation has the advantage of seeing respondents intheir natural environment, structuralists wouldn't employ this type of method; • structural functionalists' organic analogy is too simplistic to account for the complex range of factors that impact members of a society; • functionalists often rely upon official statistics as objective evidence however interpretivists would argue official statistics are socially constructed e.g. criticisms of Durkheim's study of suicide;

To what extent are macro structuralist approaches the most useful for 15 understanding society? Possible arguments for:

• the macro structuralist is a top down approach that sees social institutions and structures as more important than individual actions ; • structuralist theories are supported by key sociological thinkers and perspectives such as Durkheim, Marx and Functionalism, they are supported by a large body of work produced by eminent sociologists; • structuralism is a macro sociological approach that examines the relationship between key institutions such as family, education, religion, media, and law; • structuralist approaches allow us to see the relationship between key institutions in society; • structuralist approaches often use big studies such as social surveys to establish social facts; • positivists use official statistics which are often large quantitative data sets so they can spot patterns, trends, correlations and causal relationships; • Durkheim's (a key Functionalist thinker) structural study of suicide remains a key sociological study despite having been carried out over 100 years ago - this provides a model for establishing large scale correlations; • Marx's conflict theory can be applied to the major institutions in society and this structural theory seeks to establish ideological links between the key institutions in a society e.g. education and the workplace; • functionalists offer a consensus theory which can be can be applied to the major institutions in society and this structural theory seeks to establish functional links between the key institutions in a society e.g. the family and education; • structuralists work with large samples which are representative and so can make generalisations; • Marxism unveils the interests of the dominant and powerful groups in society - a micro study couldn't make these claims;

Arguments against: Explain and assess the view that an individual's identity is shaped by social forces beyond their control. (25)

•Structuration [Giddens]. • Weberian or neo-Marxists who combine elements of both approaches. • Postmodern thinking. • Mead's concept of the 'social self' as created through social interaction.

Arguments for: Explain and assess the view that an individual's identity is shaped by social forces beyond their control. (25)

•Studies that demonstrate the impact of social forces on human behaviour e.g. Durkheim on suicide, or cross-cultural variations in gender roles. • Conflict and consensus structuralism.