Sociology Chapter 18 and 20 Test

Singlehood

- 2010, this share had risen to 27 per- cent, a total of 31.4 million single adults -In 1960, 28 percent of U.S. women aged twenty to twenty-four were sin- gle; by 2010, the proportion had soared to 79 percent.

Inequality in Public Schools

- schools in more affluent areas will offer a better education than schools in poor communities -policy of busing to transport students to achieve racial balance and equal opportunity in schools -school funding varies depending on location

Academic Standards

-Nationwide, 26 percent of twelfth-graders are below the basic skills in reading, 36 percent are below the basic level in math, and 40 percent are below the basic level in science

Socialization In Schooling

-all schooling teaches cultural values and norms -instruction on political way of life and rituals such as saluting the flag -activities like spelling bees develop competitive individualism and sense of fair play

American Indian families

-migration from reservation to cities creates community in those cities -creates "fluid households with changing membership"

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

-people who expect others to behave a certain way often encourage that very behavior -can relate to strong stereotypes actually coming to life because people act as though it is true when they are told so

Latent Functions of Schooling

-provides childcare for the growing number of one parent and two career families -occupies young people who would otherwise be competing for limited opportunities in job market -bring together people of marriageable age -establish networks that serve as a valuable career resource throughout life

Dropping out

-school dropouts account for more than 50 percent of all people receiving welfare assistance and more than 80 percent of the prison population -For children growing up in families with income in the lowest 25 percent, the dropout rate is more than six times higher than for children living in high-income families

Schooling and Social Control

-schooling is a way of controlling people, reinforcing acceptance of the status quo

Causes of U.S High Divorce Rate

1. Individualism is on the rise -families spend less time together, people more concerned with personal happiness and earning income opposed to ell being 2. Romantic love fades -relationships may fail as sexual passion fades -often ends in favor of new relationship with renewed excitement and romance 3. Women are less dependent on men -women have increasing participation in labor force -easier to leave unhappy marriages 4. Many of today's marriages are stressful -both parents working, less time and energy for family life -raising children harder than ever 5. Divorce has become socially acceptable 6. Legally, a divorce is easier to get

Structural-Functional Theory of Families

1. Socialization of children -first and most important setting for child rearing -teaches how to become well-integrated contributing members of society -marriage, having kids etc, teaches lessons for all parties involved 2. Regulation of sexual activity -every culture regulates sexual activity in the interest of maintaining kinship organization and property rights -incest taboo -matrilineal Navajo forbid marrying any relative of one's mother 3. Social Placement -parents pass on social identity (race, ethnicity, religion, and social class- to their children at birth)

neolocality

a residential pattern in which a married couple lives apart from both sets of parents

family violence

emotional, physical, or sexual abuse of one family member by another

Cohabitation

sharing of a household by an unmarried couple -6.5 million today (5.9 mil- lion heterosexual couples and 581,000 homosexual cou- ples), or about 6 percent of all households. -favors gays and lesbians

family

social institution found in all societies that unites people in cooperative groups to care for one another, including any children

Gay and Lesbian Couples

-1989 Denmark first country to permit registered relationships with the benefits of marriage to same sex couples -In US Massachusetts was first state to legalize same sex marriage in 2004

Remarriage and Blended Families

-3/4 people who divorce remarry, most within 4 years -More than 1/3 of all new marriages are now remarriages for at least one partner -Men are more likely than women to remarry -young people in blended families face the challenge of defining many new relationships and deciding just who is part of the nuclear family.

One Parent Families

-30% of U.S. families with children under eighteen have only one parent in the household, a proportion that more than doubled during the last generation -27 percent of U.S. chil- dren now live with only one parent, and almost half will do so before reaching eighteen -Single parenthood increases a woman's risk of poverty because it limits her ability to work and to further her education. -1.7 million births to unmarried women each year, which represents more than 40 percent of all births in this coun- try.

Student Passivity

-5 ways in which large bureaucratic schools undermine education 1.Rigid uniformity: generally ignore the cultural character of local communities and the personal needs of their children 2. Numerical ratings: schools define success in terms of numerical attendance records and dropout rats and teach to the tests overlooking dimensions of schooling that are difficult to quantify like creativity and enthusiasm 3. Rigid Expectations: age and grade expectations hold people back. rarely exceptionally bright and motivated students are able to advance more quickly or graduate early 4. Specialization: students shuffle between teachers and subjects so no school official comes to know the child well 5. Little individual responsibility: do not empower students to learn on their own -schools must be bureaucratic to get the job done but dehumanizes schools in the process

Access to Higher Education

-70% of US High school graduates enroll in college immediately after graduation -people 18-24 about 41% are enrolled in college -Family income affects access to US higher education - 6.7 million families have at least one child enrolled in college. Of these families, 47 percent have incomes of at least $75,000 annually (roughly the richest 30 per- cent, who fall within the upper-middle class and upper class), 44 per- cent have incomes of at least $20,000 but less than $75,000 (the middle class and working class), and only 9 percent have incomes of less than $20,000 a year (the lower class including families classified as poor) -2009, men who were high school grad- uates averaged $39,478, and college graduates averaged $62,444.

Inequalities in Types of Schooling

-89% of the 55.6 million primary and secondary school children attend state-funded public schools, the rest go to private schools -Most private school students attend parochial schools (Roman Catholic Church) -6900 nonreligious private schools, enroll mostly wealthy young people, usually expensive and prestigious -advantages of private schools are smaller classes, more demanding coursework, and greater discipline

Ethnically and Racially Mixed Marriages

-Before a 1967 Supreme Court decision (Loving v. Virginia), interracial mar- riage was actually illegal in sixteen states. -Today, African, Asian, and Native Americans repre- sent 18.5 percent of the U.S. population; -Actual proportion of racially mixed marriages is 4.2 percent, showing that race remains important in social relations. -age at first marriage has been rising to an average of 28.2 for men and 26.1 for women. Young people who marry when they are older are likely to make choices about partners with less input from parents. -"Mixed" marriage couples are likely to live in the West; in five states—Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon, California, and New Mexico—more than 10 per- cent of all married couples are interracial

Schooling in Great Britain

-British law requires every child to attend school until age 16 -Wealthy children are sent to British public schools which are the equivalent of US private boarding schools, these are elite schools that enroll only 7% of students and teach social graces and mannerisms as well -Exams are in place to create opportunities for all students to get acceptance into college regardless of social background

Violence against children

-In 2009, there were more than 3 million reports of alleged child abuse or neglect -700,000 were confirmed to be victims and 1,770 children died from abuse or neglect. -child abusers more likely to be women (54 percent) than men (46 per- cent).

Gender and Marriage

-Jessie Bernard (1982) claimed that every marriage is actually two different relationships: the woman's marriage and the man's marriage. -Although patriarchy has weakened, most people still expect hus- bands to be older and taller than their wives and to have more important, better-paid jobs. -However, Bernard claimed, married women actually have poorer mental health, less happiness, and more passive attitudes toward life than single women. -Married men, on the other hand, generally live longer, are mentally better off, and report being happier overall than single men

Latino Families

-Many Latinos enjoy the loyalty and support of extended families. -Latino parents exercise considerable control over chil- dren's courtship, considering marriage an alliance of families, not just a union based on romantic love. -Some Latino families also follow conventional gender roles, encouraging machismo—strength, daring, and sexual conquest—among men and treating women with respect but also close supervision. -traditional male authority over women has also lessened, espe- cially among affluent Latino families

African American families

-The typical African American family earned $38,409 in 2009, which was 64 per- cent of the national average. -people of African ancestry are three times as likely as non-Hispanic whites to be poor, and poverty means that both parents and children are likely to experience unemployment, substandard housing, and poor health. -31 percent of African American women in their forties have never married, compared to about 9 percent of white women of the same age -women headed 44 percent of all African American families in 2010, com- pared to 27 percent of Hispanic families, 13 per- cent of non-Hispanic white families, and 13 percent of Asian or Pacific Islander families (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). -poverty rate among families headed by African American women (37 percent) and Hispanic women (39 percent) is strong evidence of how the intersec- tion of class, race, and gender can put women at a disadvantage. -African American families with both wife and husband in the home, which represent 46 percent of the total are much stronger economically, earning 81 percent as much as comparable non-Hispanic white families. -ut 72 percent of African American children are born to sin- gle women, and 36 percent of African American boys and girls are growing up poor today, meaning that these families carry much of the burden of child poverty in the United States (Martin et al., 2010; U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).

Violence against Women

-U.S. Department of Justice (2011) estimates that about 500,000 adults are victims of domestic violence each year -women are three times more likely than men to be a victim. -35% of female victims of homicide are killed by spouses, partners, or exes (only 3% for men) -1100 women a year die from family violence

Standardized testing

-arguably test questions will always reflect our society's dominant culture, minority students are placed at a disadvantage

tracking

-assigning students to different types of educational programs(college preparatory classes, general education, vocational and technical training) -rigid tracking is a disadvantage to students from disadvantaged backgrounds who will initially score lower and then be forced into a subpar track where they may not reach their full potential

Cultural Innovation

-colleges and universities create culture and pass it on to students

Schooling in Japan

-early grades transmit Japanese traditions -in early teens students take series of difficult and highly competitive examinations, their scores decide their future -95% of men and women graduate from high school compared to 86% in US -Only 48% of high school graduates enter college based on examinations compared to the 70% in the US -half attend cram schools to prepare for exams -Japanese students rank 4th in the world and outperform students in almost every other high income nation including the US which is ranked 26th

Schooling in the United States

-educational system stresses the value of practical learning, knowledge that prepare people for future jobs -young people typically do not have to work and there is an ideal that schooling should be provided to everyone -tries to promote equal opportunity -only behind in Norway in terms of the amount of adults who have earned a University degree

Community Colleges

-expansion of state-funded community colleges has further increased access to higher education. -1,721 two-year colleges across the United States now enroll 41.3 percent of all college undergraduates. -relatively low tuition cost places college courses and degrees within the reach of millions of families that could not otherwise afford -40 percent of all African American and 51 percent of His- panic undergraduates in the United States attend community colleges.

families of affinity

-includes both homosexual and heterosexual partners and unmarried as well as married couples who live together

Schooling and Economic Development

-low and middle income countries (most of the world's people) families and communities teach young people important knowledge and skills -formal schooling, especially learning not directly connected to survival is available mainly to wealthy people who may not need to work and who can pursue personal enrichment -school is from Greek root that means leisure -1/4 of children never get to school in poorest nations -1/3 of children worldwide never reach secondary grades (high school) -1/6 of worlds people cannot read or write

Schooling In India

-middle income country, people earn 7% of average US income -child labor although outlawed, still occurs and prohibits children from schooling opportunities -91% of children complete primary school, one teacher for 40 students on average -Patriarchy shapes education because boys will contribute to income of family and their wife will too -girls are burden because they must offer a dowry and their work will benefit the husband's family, so they invest less in their education -only 56% of girls reach secondary grades, 64% of boys do -most children in factories are girls

Divorce

-more than nine out of ten people at some point "tie the knot." -U.S. divorce rate has more than tripled over the past century. Today, about 25 percent of marriages end in separation or divorce within five years, and about four mar- riages in ten eventually do so (for African Americans, the rate is about six in ten). From another angle, of all people over the age of fifteen, 21 percent of men and 23 percent of women have been divorced at some point. -fourth highest divorce rate in the world;

Adult Education

-older students range in age from the mid- twenties to the seventies and beyond and make up about 40 percent of students in degree-granting programs. -Adults in school are more likely to be women (61 percent) than men (39 percent), and most have above-average incomes.

Social Integration

-schooling molds diverse populations into one society sharing norms and values

Social Placement

-schools identify talent and match instruction to ability

Divorce and CHildren

-usually women get custody men pay child support payments - courts award child support in 54 percent of all divorces involving children. -Some 3.4 million "deadbeat dads" fail to sup- port their youngsters. -children can blame themselves for divorce -divorce is usually better for children then stay in a family torn by tension and violence

Who Divorces

-young spouses are at greatest risk -those who lack money and emotional stability -more likely for those with unexpected pregnancy or if there are substance abuse problems -people with divorced parents

Social Conflict and Feminist Theories of Families

1. Property and inheritance -Friedrich Engels traced origin of family to men's need to identify heirs so they could hand down property to sons -families concentrate wealth and reproduce the new class structure in each generation 2. Patriarchy -feminists link family to patriarchy -men must control the sexuality of women to know their heirs, therefore family transforms women into sexual and economic property of men 3. Race and Ethnicity -racial and ethnic categories persist over generations because most people marry others like themselves -endogamous marriage supports racial and ethnic hierarchies

What percent of children born to married couples? single women?

59% born to married couples 41% born to single women who may or may not live with partner

Symbolic Interaction Approach to Family

Family living offers an opportunity for intimacy

School Choice

Giving parents options for schooling their chil- dren might force all schools to do a better job. -magnet schools, more than 3,000 of which now exist across the country. Magnet schools offer special facil- ities and programs that promote educational excel- lence in a particular field, such as computer science, foreign languages, science and mathematics, or the arts -charter schools, public schools that are given more freedom to try out new policies and programs.

extended family

a family composed of parents and children as well as other kin, also known as a consanguine family

functional illiteracy

a lack of the reading and writing skills needed for everyday living

patrilocality

a residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the husband's family

matrilocality

a residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the wife's family

kinship

a social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption

bilateral descent

a system tracing kinship through both men and women

latchkey kids

after school, some 5.3 million children (14 percent of five- to fourteen-year-olds) are latchkey kids who are left to fend for them- selves (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).

Social Exchange Approach to Family

describes courtship and marriage as forms of negotiation -Dating allows each person to assess the advantages and disadvantage of a potential spouse -traditionally men bring wealth and power to marriage and women bring beauty

nuclear family

family composed of one or two parents and their children, also known as a conjugal family

schooling

formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers

Home Schooling

gaining popularity across the United States. About 1.5 million children (almost 3 percent of all school-age children) receive their formal schooling at home.

matrimony

in latin means "the condition of motherhood" -follows the US traditional belief that people should marry before having children

mainstreaming

integrating students with disabilities or special needs into the overall educational program.

marriage

legal relationship, usually involving economic cooperation, sexual activity, and chldbearing

Teacher Shortage

low salaries, frustration, and retirement, as well as rising enrollment and reductions in class size—have combined to create almost 400,000 teaching vacan- cies in the United States in 2011.

exogamy

marriage between people of different social categories

endogamy

marriage between people of the same social category

homogamy

marriage between people with the same social characteristics

polygamy

marriage that unites a person with two or more spouses

polygyny

marriage that unites one man and two or more women

polyandry

marriage that unites one woman and two or more men

monogamy

marriage that unites two partners

Infidelity

sexual activity outside one's marriage

patrilineal descent

system tracing kinship through men -ensures fathers pass property their sons -characterizes most pastoral and agrarian societies

matrilineal descent

system tracing kinship through women. -found more frequently n horticultural societies

Grade inflation

the awarding of ever-higher grades for average work

education

the social institution through which society provides its members with important knowledge, including basic facts, job skills, and cultural norms and values

descent

the system by which members of a society trace kinship over generations