Sociology Review II

Gender (ch 8)

-"socially scripted dramatization of the culture's idealization of feminine and masculine natures" we act out our gender -Actively constructed in the social world -Created through interaction and also structures interaction -Based on assumptions about people's sex, we interact with them in gendered ways -Doing gender is unavoidable and there are social consequences -Hegemonic masculinity: men are dominant and privileged and this power difference is often invisible

$2 per day notes

--Many people do not apply for assistance because they are not aware to do so. Others do not apply because they fear repeated rejection. Some think it doesn't exist anymore or prefers to work. Work Conditions --Low wages, part-time, varying hours, bad job conditions, no benefits --Low wage service jobs --Shift from manufacturing to service jobs --Hard to find work. Cannot complete online applications without any computer access. Some tests that must be taken do not have clear cut correct answers. Also, employers discriminate against black and latino applicants relative to whites. Living Conditions --Housing costs high relative to wages. --Bouts of homelessness, shelters, or with family or friends --Frequent moves and housing insecurity --Terrible living conditions --No guarantee to housing assistance --Adverse childhood experiences Coping Mechanisms --Income generating strategies. Donating plasma or selling food stamps. Collecting cans for cash. --Utilizing public spaces and private charities (Public libraries, food pantries, shelters, etc) --Stretching resources to do with less (moving in with family and pooling resources)

Rural Poverty

--Many rural areas in severe poverty --Collapse in coal mining and mechanization in farming --Food pantries are miles away, no police officers, transportation problems, hard to buy groceries --Informal economic system or shadow economy

Living on less than $2.00 per day per person

-4% live on less than $2.00 per day -These people live with extreme material deprivation -Most had at least one household member covered by government program -Risen significantly since 1996 welfare reform laws -New form of poverty

What is gender? (ch 8)

-A master identity ---Influences who we are and how we are treated in the world. -Especially important in families (families socialize us along gender lines)

Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC)

-Aimed at the working poor, especially those with dependent children. Low income working parents get tax refunds that are actually bigger than the taxes they had withheld from their paychecks. Acts as a supplement to their income. This program is popular amongst both democrats and republicans because it encourages work. -This has grown significantly -Only for people who work

Problems with Poverty Threshold Measures

-Does not factor in that costs of basic goods have changed -Does not reflect cost differences geographically -Does not account for family size (such as increases when a child is born) -Does not reflect well being (such as neighborhood characteristics) -Does not reflect needs or resources -Does not recognize serious expenses (childcare and medical expenses) -Does not look at relative poverty (the position of a person in relation to the way the rest of society lives)

Families today (ch 10)

-Fathers spending more time with kids -Mothers (even working moms) spend more time with each child -Longer lifespan: people more likely to divorce -More couples reach 40th anniversary than any other time in history -More life choices -Men doing more at home -Older people less likely to be poor -Lack of institutional support for current family forms

Goals of Welfare Reform of 1996

-Increase state flexibility (cutting back on cash assistance and increasing childcare assistance, promoting work) -End "dependence of needy parents on government benefits by promoting job preparation, work, and marriage" -Prevent and reduce out wedlock pregnancies -Require work -Encourage formation and maintenance of 2 parent families. -No individual entitlement (can be taken off of assistance for a variety of reasons). -Cultural ambivalence (wants moms to work nontraditional- but also to marry -traditional-)

Changes in Welfare Law

-No entitlement to benefits (even if eligible) -Time limit (5 years over entire lifetime) -States can exempt 20% of caseload -States must require work after 2 years, but most require it immediately. States cant penalize women who have children under the age of six if no childcare is available. -Penalties: reduce or terminate assistance, terminate medicaid -States have to pay for increases in caseloads. States are given a set amount (called a block grant) and are required to pay for it themselves.

Sociological Theories of Deviance and Social Control (ch. 6)

1. Functionalist theories --Crime and deviance result from structural tensions and a lack of moral regulation --They serve a purpose in society ------------------------- Durkheim: His functional analysis sought to explain social cohesion (bonds) Social cohesion --> how well people relate to each other and get a long on a daily basis. Thought that there were two ways that society is held together: --Mechanical solidarity= social cohesion based on sameness. Deviance results in punitive justice (making the offender suffer). --Organic solidarity= social cohesion based on differences and interdependence (this is the case for modern society). We depend on each other for efficiency and productivity. Committing acts of deviance offend the collective conscience. The deviant individual is realigned through punishment or rehabilitation. collective conscience: the common faith or set of social norms by which a society and its members abide. ---without it, there would be chaos and no sense of moral unity. Social control= mechanisms that create normative compliance in individuals Formal social sanctions= mechanisms of social control by which rules or laws prohibit deviant criminal behavior Informal social sanctions= unexpressed by widely known rules of group membership (ex: riding in an elevator the wrong way and being looked at weirdly). The bedrock upon which the formal social control rests

Three Big Booms in Family Support Policy

1. New Deal --Prior to the New Deal: focused on providing assistance to poor families by enforcing work (Called Poor Laws). Distinction made between deserving and undeserving. Assistance was kept very low and was done through local agencies, not national government. --New Deal (1930s) introduced Social Security and Aid to dependent families (ADC), which were both entitlements (programs where the government is obligated to provide benefits to anyone who qualifies regardless of program cost). ADC excluded two parent families from getting benefits. Privacy was often invaded in ADC. Social security is earnings based. 2. War on Poverty (1964) --Created medicare (insurance for elderly) and medicaid (insurance for poor). --Made changes to ADC, became AFDC (Aid to Families with Dependent Children) 3. Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 --AFDC was abolished and became TANF (Temporary Assistance to Needy Families)

African Americans (ch 9)

13% of population Greater percentage of single parent families ---Over half of AA children grow up in single parent homes High rates of poverty, health problems, unemployment, and crime. More than 9 percent of the black population is foreign born. Grandparents play a strong role Black churches--social support

Nonmarital Parenthood (ch 10)

1950: 1 in 20 births to unmarried mothers Now: over 4 in 10 U.S. births to unmarried women More common among poor women with lower education than among middle-class women with more education --More than half of women or less are married when they have their children, compared with just 9% of those with a college degree. Biggest group is women in their 20s

Is the family in crisis or simply changing (ch 10)

1950s TV sitcoms: ideal family; breadwinner-homemaker; separate spheres ideology ----1900s many men began to devote their day to the market economy. 1950s sitcoms (and visions of this period) glossed over many problems that existed in families Today's sitcoms portray vastly different families

Middle Eastern Americans (ch 9)

2 million people in U.S Classified as white by U.S census Immigration reform in 1965 enabled several subsequent migration streams associated with political and religious conflicts in the middle east. Increased discrimination, ethnic profiling, and racialization since 9/11 Christian or muslim --Assimilation easier for Christians because they fit with dominant religious group Widespread misunderstandings and stereotypes

Families are in crisis perspective (ch 10)

2 parent families are most successful; alternative family forms are inferior Evidence: -Nuclear families are declining (due to high rate of divorce and unmarried child birth) -Nature of marriage has changed (less emphasis on economic bond between family members and obligation) -Move toward individualism

Same sex marriage (ch 10)

2015: Legalization of same sex marriage nationwide Over 1,000 legal benefits of marriage (preferences for guardianship and medical decision making for a partner, automatic inheritance rights, the right to leave work to care for an ill spouse, hospital visitation rights, the right to be treated as an economic unit for tax purposes) Gay and lesbian parenting more widely accepted and common. ---About 1/4 of lesbian couple households and 1/10 of gay couple households have children in them

Native Americans (ch 9)

280 distinct cultural groupings Way of life completely destroyed by European settlers --The seizing of land and the diseases they brought with them Today, 5.2 million native americans, 1/5 live on reservations

Crime (ch 6)

A formal sort of deviance. Subject to social sanction and punishable by law.

What is Poverty?

Absolute poverty: the absence of minimal standards necessary to sustain a reasonably healthy and secure existence. --> Poverty line has been at about 15% in recent years. 15% of Americans live below the official governmental policy line. --> Rise during recessions and declines during boom periods. Relative poverty: a person's position in relation to the living standards of the majority of any given country. --> Not being able to afford what is considered normal in a given society. --> 18% of the US population has incomes less than 50% of the median. In comparison to other countries, in the US, about 12-15% of the population is living in absolute poverty. -The U.S also has the highest rate of child poverty.

Residential Segregation and Social Distance (ch 9)

African Americans= more segregated than other minorities Decreases opportunities to meet each other ---reduces contact between black people and whites Concentration by race into poverty areas Schools are tied to neighborhoods

Poverty Trends

Age: poverty has been getting younger since mid 1970s. People under 18 are the largest group of poor people in the United States. --> Used to be elderly, but the creation of medicare lifted many elderly out of poverty. Race: African Americans and Latinos have higher poverty rates than whites By marital status (and gender): Female headed households are the poorest group. Homelessness: increasingly families with children. Working Poor: fastest growing category. Caused by a large number of jobs being created in the new economy that are very low wages (such as fast food and retail). Welfare recipients: as a result of legislation, fewer people on welfare.

Youth and Crime (ch 6)

Ages 16-24 is the highest risk period. -"War on drugs": a policy that tends to criminalize large segments of the law abiding youth population Imprisoning young people means they are less likely to complete highschool. --and more likely to commit crimes as an adult --more likely to learn negative things while imprisoned

Sexuality (ch 8)

Assumption=heterosexuality 3 dimensions (these do not always line up): -Behavior: what you are doing -Desire: what you want to be doing -Identity: how you see yourself

Theories of Gender (ch 8)

Biological Determinism: -Natural sex differences based on biology that impact our behavior, attitudes, outlook on the world, and abilities ---"we're born that way" -Essentialism: social phenomena are viewed as natural phenomena Gender as a social construction: -Sociological view of sex, gender and sexuality (reality is produced through social interaction) -West and ZImmerman "rather than as a property of individuals, we conceive of gender as an emergent feature of social situations" ---

Norms around love (ch 10)

Bounded by culture and society Defined differently by culture or subculture What people are taught structures when and how people define love

Conflict theories (ch 6)

Competing interests between social groups Preservation of power among elites --Some acts get chosen as deviant or criminal and others do not. --Which acts get chosen is usually based on power differences and on inequalities. Laws become an instrument for the powerful to maintain order and power Ex: street crime vs corporate crime

Group behavior (ch 5)

Conformity Asch (1952): participants were asked to say which of the lines matched the standard line they were given. fake participants gave wrong answers first. people conformed by giving an answer they knew was incorrect Milgram (1963): ordinary people conform to orders given by someone in position of power or authority, even if the orders have bad consequences. Groupthink: members of group go along with group consensus, and ignore alternative ways of thinking.

sex and housework (ch 10)

Couples who share housework have the most sex, are most satisfied with their sex lives, and express higher levels of sexual intimacy Egalitarian couples are happier with division of labor around the house Only 30% of married couples said they were in egalitarian relationships

Deviance cont (ch. 6)

Crime = formal deviance, violation of laws enacted by society. Laws= legalized norms ---Laws reflect what is considered to be normal. Norms and rules are historically and culturally variable Deviance and crime depend on norms. Deviance and crime are relative. What is considered deviant during one period of time may not be deviant in another. Deviance, crime, and laws are socially constructed, and are NOT rooted in an inherent definition of good and evil. It depends on society and norms.

Teen and Young Adult Sexual Behavior (ch 8)

Decline of dating Rise of hookup culture Hooking up: sexual encounters outside of committed relationships with no expectation of a committed or exclusive relationship Mens pleasure in hookups is often prioritized over womens. Location and social class matter Dating tensions for adolescents and young adults from immigrant families More acceptance of gay and lesbian youth identities

Crime Reduction (ch 6)

Deterrence theory= crime results in a rational calculation of its benefits and costs. To reduce crime, we need to engage in both specific and general deterrence. Specific deterrence= monitors and tries to prevent known criminals from committing more crimes. --Ex: prison parole system General deterrence= punishing people who commit crimes will result in fear of going to jail. However, prisons operate as schools for crimes. (serves as a place in which people become more hardened as criminals, can interact with more serious criminals and become socialized)

Racial Segregation and Integration (ch 9)

Detroit Area Index of dissimilarity= degree to which two groups are even spread among areas or schools in a given city -0 to 100, % of one group who would have to move or change schools to achieve racial balance -Detroit has a segregation level of 87 -60 or above is very high -40 or 50 is moderate -30 or less is low

Deviance (ch. 6)

Deviance = non-conformity to the norms of society. Any transgression of socially established norms. Minor violations are acts of informal deviance. ---such as picking your nose In order to see what is deviant, we need to think about how people make sense of their social world. Garfinkel (ethnomethodology) = 3 elements of social deviance --existence of a shared social expectation --marked violation of expectation --social response to violation

Race vs Ethnicity (ch 9)

Ethnicity= ones nationality or affiliation Learned cultural heritage: history, values, language, taste, habits; often shared by people of same race or nationality Symbolic ethnicity= sense of identifying with a past or future nationality --Often a matter of choice for whites (ex: identifying as irish) Voluntary and self defined Racialization= formation of a new racial identity by drawing ideological boundaries of difference around a formerly unnoticed group of people ---Currently, we have witnessed the racialization of muslims

groups (ch 5)

Group size matters Small groups (more fragile): -face to face interaction -lack of formal arrangements or roles -level of equality (not 100% though) -unifocal perspective Party: multifocal perspective Large group (more stable): formal structure mediates interaction and leads to status differentiation (ex: university)

Crime in the US (ch 6)

High crime rate (particularly in urban areas) Results from easy access to firearms, general impact of the frontier tradition, and subcultures of violence in large cities Many crimes are never reported Many different measures of crime rate, but they are hard to interpret because they change over time Crime rates change over time because reporting rates change over time

Occupational Inequalities (ch 9)

High level of discrimination. --Young black men were rejected three times as often as their white peers for jobs. Occupational stratification: -Occupation and industry -Income -Employment opportunities

Foucalt and Punishment (ch 6)

In prison, disciplinary techniques include monitoring and examining prisoners. Jeremy Bentham devised a panopticon (a circular building composed of an inner ring and an outer ring in which guards can watch prisoners without being detected). The system was meant to include: -persistent feeling of permanent visibility (guards can always see the prisoners) -power over the prisoners by the guards -metaphor for the functioning of disciplinary techniques in our society overall (thinks that these practices are dispersed in our society) For example: school (the teacher can see students in the classroom at all times)

How the Census Bureau Measures Poverty

Income is used to compute poverty status: -Money income (also earnings, unemployment compensation, workers compensation, etc.) -Noncash benefits (foodstamps and housing subsidies) do not count -If a person lives with a family, add up the income of all family members (non relatives do not count) Measure of need (poverty thresholds): -Dollar amounts used to poverty status -Each person or family is assigned a threshold. -Thresholds vary according to: --size of family --ages --median income= 56000 in 2016 Median income is significantly higher than poverty levels. Food was assumed to cost one-third of a family's budget in 1960s. --> Problem with this: Now, other costs are a much higher percentage of people's budgets. -----Example: Food typically costs about 20% and housing costs up to a half. Medical and childcare costs are also much higher.

Racial Inequalities (ch 9)

Inequalities in social structure: financial inequalities, segregation, and discrimination. unequal power and privilege in institutions. --non-white racial groups at an extreme disadvantage. Segregation in Education and Housing: -Jim crow -Brown v Board of Education --most US schools are only slightly less segregated than in the 1960s -Restrictive covenants -redlining -realtors and bankers who discriminate -urban renewal

Gender inequalities (ch 8)

Inequalities in socialization Occupational stratification: job crowding, "short job ladders" ---Women have less career choices Sexual harassment and discrimination Pay gap -- 81 cents for women for every dollar that men earn. Glass ceiling

Hispanics/Latinos (ch 9)

Latin American Ancestry 17% of population Cuban americans migrated first Mexican Americans largest grouo Central and South America Puerto Rican Americans are U.S citizens

Experimental Measures of Poverty

Living Wage- actual cost of living --> People take the governments on estimates, regionally, for food, medical, housing, utilities, transportation, daycare, clothing, laundry, etc, and then a living wage is estimated based on these various factors. --> A living wage is estimated to be over $25 per hour (for a family with one adult and two children). For one adult without children, it is estimated to be over $10 per hour. Minimum Wage --> Federal minimum wage was $7.25 in 2017. For Michigan, it was $8.90 per hour. The real costs of poverty is somewhere in between the official government line and the minimum wage.

Risks of basing marriage on love (ch 10)

Marriage based on love= radical, risky idea Marriage= vulnerable institution

Balancing work and family (ch 10)

Most families have all adults in family working Separate spheres ideology: -men=provider role in public sphere -women= homemaking in private sphere Dual earner families have changed family dynamics: -work-family conflict -society assumes breadwinner-homemaker model, but that is rare today -cultural ideologies pressure women -cultural contradictions for working mothers

Motherhood (ch 8)

Mothers: "fathers have wage premium, mothers have earnings penalty" ---men with children work longer and have higher earnings than childless men Housework and carework: -feeding work, housework, kin work, consumption work, child care -invisible -men's housework has increased, but not equal

Women's Labor Force Participation (ch 10)

Movement of married women into labor force Vast majority of families are breadwinner/homemaker, much more common for families to be dual earner Women are increasingly larger share of labor market. The percentage of mothers who work is higher than the percentage of women overall who work (although some of the mothers work part time)

Affirmative Action (ch 9)

Myth 1: Affirmative action has one goal. ---but there are many affirmative actions with many different rationales including present day discrimination Myth 2: Affirmative action has always meant the same thing. ---the policy has changed so much over time Myth 3: Affirmative action equals quotas. ---quotas are illegal Myth 4: African Americans are the main beneficiaries of affirmative action.

How the Census Bureau Measure Poverty Cont.

Near poor: up to 125% of poverty line, reaches the threshold of absolute poverty. --> Unofficially recognized by the government to be reaching the threshold of absolute poverty. Depth of poverty: measures the severity of poverty, those who fall below 50% of the poverty line.

Summary

New poverty: households surviving on virtually no cash income. Suggested policies: job creation (better quality jobs), raising minimum wage, affordable housing, utilizing EITC.

Cohabitation (ch 10)

New stage in courtship process. Now the normative way to begin a co residential union. Almost two thirds of women have cohabitated before their first marriage. -Most common path to marriage ----Postponement of marriage More common among those with less income and education Less common among the religious and those with traditional ideas about gender and family Large number of cohabitating couples have children: about 40% Association with divorce due to age at cohabitation

Durkheim cont (ch 6)

Normative theory of suicide: social norms generate variations in suicide rates Social integration: how well you are integrated into your social group or community Social regulation: how many rules guide your daily life, what you can expect from the world daily Anomic suicide: insufficient social regulation (anomie= a feeling of anxiety, aimlessness, and disorientation from the breakdown of traditional life in modern society). When there are no clear guidelines to guide behavior (not enough norms) Fatalistic suicide= too much social regulation. Day to day life is oppressive with no variation. Egoistic suicide= people are not well integrated into a social group. Altruistic suicide= occurs when one experiences too much social integration, a group dominates the life of an individual too much (a widow considering their life meaningless because her social role as a wife dominated her life)

Control theory (ch 6)

People act rationally. When given the opportunity everyone would engage in deviance if they had the chance. Focus on controlling crime and deviance. --Zero tolerance policing Deterrence theory: crime results in a rational calculation of its benefits and costs --People will weigh the costs and benefits of committing a crime and determine whether or not that crime should take place.

street vs corporate crime (ch 6)

People say that street crime is more threatening Sociologists say that we have been trained to see crime as being a problem of lower class society. Conflict Theory: acts get chosen as deviant based on power differences and inequalities; laws become an instrument for the powerful to maintain order and power. Consequences: -Culture of fear/ being afraid of the wrong things -Racism -Inaccurate perceptions -Politicians, media, and corporations get let off the hook even when committing serious crimes.

Discrimination vs Prejudice (ch 9)

Prejudice= thoughts and feelings about an ethnic or racial group which lead to preconceived notions and judgements about that group Discrimination= harmful or negative acts against people deemed inferior on the basis of their racial category, without regard to their individual merit Laissez-faire racism= race neutral rhetoric but relies on culture and nationality to explain differences

Love and marriage historically (ch 10)

Prior to 1700s, love was seen as separate from marriage ---Love was viewed as a serious threat to social order Marriage was political and economic arrangement between two families Wealthy= marriage was a way to consolidate wealth Poor= a way to provide extra people who could help work Marriage was too vital an institution to be entered into for irrational love

(ch 9)

Race= group of people who share a set of characteristics and are said to share a common bloodline ---Racial groupings are about domination and struggle for power Biological differences are minimal or nonexistent Socially constructed Racism= belief that members of separate races possess different and unequal traits One-drop rule (belief that if you have one drop of African American blood, then you are black): -Present in miscegenation laws (used to prevent interracial marriage) -Used to maintain Jim Crow segregation America runs on the one drop rule

The second shift (ch 10

Second shift= work that one does after coming home from a full time job Gender differences Leisure gap= difference between men and womens leisure time Stalled revolution=women have gone into workforce but men have not changed as much at home

Teen pregnancy (ch 10)

Sex, abortion, pregnancy AND births to teens have all decreased Teen births were highest in 1950s, but these teens were married When teens get pregnant today, they are more often unmarried than in the past

What is love (ch 10)

Social construction regulated through existence of norms Basis in society's expectations Mainstream American culture around love rarely existed in other cultures or historical periods Feelings patterned by social world

Types of Racism (ch 9)

Statistical racism= confusing some with all ---assuming that all black people are poor Biological racism= absolute beliefs about biological inferiority --socially learned --includes darwinism and eugenics Institutional racism= occurs in organizations and institutions -Includes: --Cultural racism --representations (who do you see and how do you see members of a school) --hidden and resistant to change --hiring patterns by employers --laws

Robert Merton (ch. 6)

Strain theory= society does not give all an equal chance at achieving socially acceptable goals. --When people dont have access to legitimate means to achieve economic success, they resort to illegitimate means. (Ex: drug dealing when there are no jobs available) Deviance results from economic inequalities.

Successes and Limitations of Welfare Reform

Successes: 1. Caseload reduction - people are moving off of welfare. However many people have simply hit their time limits and cannot receive any more. 2. Increased work 3. Income. Lots of people saw income gains initially. Note: income gains are offset by new expenses related to working. 4. Work support (EITC) 5. Public support and consensus Limitations: 1. Poverty 2. Eligibility gap 3. The most disadvantaged 4. Increase in nonmarital births 5. Child support enforcement 6. Education/training programs. Mixed conclusion: Little agreement about whether the program has succeeded or failed.

The current Laws (ch 9)

Supreme Court has supported certain aspects of while striking down other aspects. Recently upheld "race conscious" decisions; race can be one factor among many in making admissions decisions in order to ensure diverse student body.

Interactionist Theories (ch 6)

Symbolic interactionists focus on the meanings that individuals bring to their actions Deviance= socially constructed Differential Association theory = society contain subcultures. Some contain illegal activities and some do not. Labeling theory= people subconsciously notice how others see or label them; reactions form self identity. --Primary deviance: first act of rule breaking. Influences how people act towards you. --Secondary deviance: subsequent acts of rule breaking. Occurs as a result of the deviant label and peoples expectations of you. This can quickly evolve into stigma. Deviance is created through social process of labeling. Once labeled, people conform. stigma= negative label that not only changes others' behavior but self concept and social identity (for example: mental illness or criminal record) Broken Windows Theory: social context and social cues impact whether individuals act in deviant ways. Assumes that small deviant behaviors can lead to larger ones. ----Stopping small crimes in hope of preventing larger crimes

Cybercrime (ch 6)

Technology based crime Includes: -Illegal interception of telecommunication systems -Electronic vandalism and terrorism -Steal telecommunication services, telemarketing fraud, electronic fund transfer crimes -Electronic money laundering There is a lot of cybercrime going on that we are not typically aware of.

Prisons as total institutions (ch 6)

The institution controls all basics of day-to-day life and all activity is placed under a single authority Another example of total institution is a mental hospital (patients have no control of their activities).

Inequalities in Poverty (ch 9)

The majority of people who live in poverty are white, but poverty rate higher among African Americans and Hispanics than whites. --also more likely to have long term poverty "Chronically poor"

Social Exclusion

The process by which certain individuals and groups are systematically barred from access to positions that would enable them to have an autonomous livelihood in keeping with the social standards and values of a given social context (cut off from full involvement in society) -Denied opportunities for self betterment --> Example: homelessness

Sex (ch 8)

Things we cant see or cant ask to see Classification is a social process, not a biological one Classification is meant to reflect biological realities Some people defy these categories (ex: intersex). Also defied by sex-reassignment

The US criminal justice system (ch 6)

Two approaches: rehabilitation and punishment US has one of the highest incarceration rates in the world (1 in 35 Americans were under correctional supervision in 2013), and there has actually been an increase (most of this increase is due to the arrests of first time offenders) Racial differences. AA men are disproportionally represented in the prison system. AAs are five times more likely to be arrested than whites for serious crimes (and three times more for less serious crimes).

Background on Race and Ethnicity (ch 9)

United States: five racial ethnic groups -Native Americans -African Americans -Hispanics -Asian and Islanders -Non hispanic whites

Divorce

We have always had some divorce Prevalence has fluctuated throughout time Not currently rising!! ---has risen in the past 100 years but ---Has been declining since 1981 Probability of divorced doubled since early 1960s (nearly half of all marriages); but people who marry today are less likely to divorce than people married in earlier decades If current trends continue, nearly two thirds of marriages will never involve a divorce.

Families are NOT in crisis perspective (ch 10)

We idealize the past too much; it actually had many problems Our worries about families reflect how much better we want to be, not how much better we used to be. -Child labor and infant mortality in past families -Children went from being considered economically useful to emotionally priceless -Childhood now seen as a distinct life stage

1950s families (ch 10)

We often believe 1950s families= a better age of family life However, 1950s families also had many problems: -high level of poverty -unhappy housewives -women had limited rights -high drug abuse -lots of teen mothers -spouse abuse and legal rape -many of these problems were hidden

Whites (ch 9)

Whiteness as an ethnicity= socially constructed Differs over time and place Most european immigrants Most whites have little awareness of the meaning of whiteness as a category Rise of white consciousness

Inequalities in Wealth (ch 9)

Whites have larger assets. Whites have higher net worth. 2013: African American family average net worth=$11,000; Latino families=$13,700 white family=$141,900 Wealth is passed down over generation.

Asian Americans (ch 9)

Wide range of countries 6% of population High socioeconomic status and education (model minority) ---Model minority is problematic because it obscures wide variation among different subgroups (such as cambodians with high poverty rates) ---Also puts great pressure on young adults

Gender Equality (ch 8)

Young adults attitudes: emphasize equality, egalitarianism Education attainment: womens educational attainment now exceeds mens (57% of college students are women) ---Among those aged 25-29, women are more likely than men to have completed a highschool degree Womens work: womens work trajectories more closely parallels mens ---Women are less likely to interrupt work for childbearing Laws: Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (illegal to fire women because of pregnancy or refuse to hire women for unsuitable occupations), Title IX of the education amendments of 1972 (eliminated refusal to admit women), Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 (allows women the ability to CHALLENGE unequal pay)

Types of groups (ch 5)

dyad: group of 2; members are dependent on each other. If either leaves, the group ceases to exist triad: group of 3, the group holds more power over the individual; types of relations include -mediator: someone who tries to resolve conflict between two other people -tertius gaudens: someone benefits from disagreement between two other people -divide et impera: divide and conquer; someone drives wedge between two other people

housework (ch 10)

housework hours changed over time total housework = declined housework time between women and men became more equal, but still unequal overall Women perform about sixteen hours while men perform about ten per week (not including childcare)

groups (ch 5)

primary groups: enduring, intimate, face-to-face relationships strongly influence attitudes of those involved; commitment. limited in the number of members. (ex: family, friends) -----key agents of socialization, noninterchangeable secondary groups: large and impersonal; no powerful emotional ties or commitments (ex: businesses or schools) -----roles are more important than the people who fill them In groups: powerful group (often the majority) Out groups: stigmatized and less powerful groups, often minority Reference groups: helps us understand our position in society relative to other groups. Provides standards with which we judge ourselves.

networks cont (ch 5)

social capital: the information, knowledge of people or things and connections that help leverage social networks ----not what you know but WHO you know Application of social network theory social media

(ch 5)

social groups: collection of people who share sense of common identity and regularly interact with one another on basis of shared expectations social aggregate: collection of people who happen to be together in particular place and time but do not significantly interact or identify with one another (people at a bus stop or at a restaurant)

Organizations (ch 5)

social network defined by common purpose and has boundary between its membership and the rest of the social world Own culture (shared beliefs and behaviors) and structure (ways in which power and authority are distributed) formal organization: have a set of governing structures and rules for their internal arrangements informal organization: do not have rules/a continuum exists Isomorphism: forces organizations to resemble each other when they face the same conditions

Networks (ch 5)

social network: relationships held together by ties between individuals (may be extremely important in business and politics) ---not everyone has equal access to networks narrative: the sum of stories contained in a set of ties embeddedness: degree to which ties are reinforced through indirect paths within social network strength of weak ties: relatively weak ties often turn out to be quite valuable. Ex: in a job search

street crime vs corporate crime (ch 6)

street crime= committed in public and associated with violence, gangs, and poverty (largely in the domain of young, poor, working class men) white collar crime= committed by professionals against a corporation or other institution Corporate crime= particular type of white collar crime committed by officers of a corporation. Often gets less attention and goes unpunished. (Ex: dumping toxic waste, advertising cigarettes using cartoon character joe camel, etc).