Sociology Unit 3

If you were researching into crime in the 1950s, what types of historical and personal documents might you find useful? Take each of the sources you have identified and explain why you might be cautious in using them.

- the autobiographies and biographies of criminals, police officers and judges - newspaper archives - official records of previous court cases - government reports on crime and policing and statistics. The most obvious problem with all but the official government materials is subjectivity and bias; even newspaper archives and biographies of prominent people can carry potential problems of objectivity. Criminals who get their autobiographies published are likely to want to justify their behaviour and may not, in any case, be representative of typical criminals.

Define the term 'paradigm'.

A paradigm is the world view that underpins the theory and methodology of a particular scientific subject.

Define the term 'sampling frame'. (2 marks)

A sampling frame is a list of people in the target population from which a sample can be selected. For example, it could be the electoral roll, or a list of pupils in a school.

Define the term 'target population'. (2 marks)

A target population is the whole population of the society or group of people being studied. It may be the entire population of the country, or a particular group within the society or a neighbourhood.

Secondary data sources

Both positivist and interpretive sociologists use secondary data. Advantages of using secondary data: Sociologists find secondary data useful for the following reasons: - Because they already exist, the data are usually readily available in an accessible form (often electronically these days). - Such data are usually available free or fairly cheaply (certainly more cost-effectively than the researcher collecting it again). - Historical documents are necessary if researchers need to put a topic area in its historical context, or if subjects are dead or too elderly to participate in the research. - Practical reasons may necessitate the use of secondary sources, for example the time needed to collect primary data, especially if a group is inaccessible geographically. - As we shall see in this topic, specific secondary sources have their own value. For example, personal documents may be high in validity offering insights into people's perceptions. Disadvantages of using secondary data The problems associated with using this kind of data are as follows: - The data may have been collected for different purposes and the operationalisation of concepts or definition of terms may not always be the same as those of the current researcher. - There may be errors or biases with the data so they must be interpreted with care. - Quantitative data such as statistics are invariably subject to social construction. It can be difficult to analyse data without knowing how they were collected. - Some documents are false and not produced by those to whom they are attributed. Secondary sources most commonly used by sociologists include: - documents (personal documents: diaries, letters, autobiographies; novels; social networks) - oral history - media content analysis - previous sociological research - official publications and statistics. Official statistics and documents tend to yield quantitative data, whereas personal documents (letters and diaries) and oral histories tend to be richer in qualitative data. Media and content analysis (whereby texts are scrutinised in detail for their meaning) can yield both quantitative and qualitative data.

Outline one advantage and one problem of using oral histories in Sociology. (4 marks)

By interviewing ordinary people about their personal experiences, oral histories can generate data high in validity. At the same time, people may want to justify their own involvement in events and might therefore give a biased account in their life histories. This refers to occasions when sociologists ask people to keep diaries documenting what they do during a normal day.

Define the term 'cause-and-effect relationship'. (2 marks)

Cause-and-effect relationships show where one factor or variable can cause another. They are more certain than correlations. Even in the natural sciences cause and effect relationships are rare, so in social life they are extremely difficult to find and prove.

How might the characteristics of the interviewer (age, gender, etc.) affect the responses gained?

Characteristics of the interviewer can also be important. For example, older respondents might respond more positively to a well-dressed and well-groomed interviewer. However, younger respondents may link these characteristics to authority and be less willing to co-operate. They might trust more informally dressed interviewers.

Using one example, briefly explain what sociologists understand by correlations. (2 marks)

Correlations are the relationships between social factors. For example, being female correlates with higher levels of examination success in contemporary society. As a correlation is simply a relationship, being female does not necessarily guarantee examination success. Correlations can be strong (when the likelihood of something happening is high) or weak (when the likelihood of something happening is low).

Briefly outline why divorce statistics only give us a partial picture of marital breakdown. (2 marks)

Divorce statistics do not include separations or empty-shell marriages or cohabitations that have broken down.

Define the term 'ethnography'.(2 marks)

Ethnography is the first-hand study of the way of life of a particular culture or social group.

Define the term 'content analysis'. (2 marks)

Formal content analysis involves the systematic counting of particular categories of stories or articles in newspapers, magazines and comics.

Using one example, briefly outline how the source of funding may influence a sociological research project.

Funding may have an impact on the choice of research topic, the types of research method used and the way that findings are presented. For example, in a government-funded project the government is likely to define the topic to be studied. The researchers may also find it difficult to be highly critical of government policy in their findings.

Outline two ways in which a lack of rapport in an unstructured interview may lead respondents to make responses that lack validity. (4 marks)

If respondents feel ill at ease they may put forward their 'best face'. Instead of answering honestly, they give answers they think the researcher wants to hear. Similarly, 'public accounts' are responses that the respondent feels are socially acceptable and may help them come across in a good way, but do not say how they truly feel. They are the opposite of 'private accounts' which are honest expressions of people's feelings (the terms originate in the work of Jocelyn Cornwell).

Briefly outline how the environment in which an interview is being conducted may undermine the validity of the data received from it. (2 marks)

If the environment is very formal the respondent may feel nervous or threatened while an informal environment may relax people and they may be more willing to open up to the interviewer.

Unstructured interviews

In Topic 4 we discussed the role of structured, formal interviews, where the researcher asks a series of set questions. We now go on to look at the much more informal, unstructured interviews where the interviewer asks open-ended questions about a topic, to which the respondent is able to answer freely and in depth. Unstructured interviews have several strengths: - They are more intimate in nature and can be quite lengthy in time (perhaps occurring over several sessions). This allows trust and a rapport to develop between the interviewer and the respondent. When this occurs, the interviews generate qualitative information, high in validity, about the respondent's interpretation of the world. - Unstructured interviews are more flexible than structured interviews because the interview is not constrained by a questionnaire. The conversation is allowed to flow freely, again adding to the validity of the data produced as respondents feel that their input is valued. - The method also allows probing for deeper meanings, especially about feelings and attitudes. - Finally, they provide an opportunity for respondents to say what they want rather than what the interviewer expects and as such can be a valuable method for practising Verstehen or empathy. As with all other methods, there are certain weaknesses to this approach: - Unstructured interviewing is both time-consuming and expensive to undertake. - Unstructured interviews tend to be low in reliability because it would be hard to replicate the unique relationship between interviewer and interviewee. - Unstructured interviews are not standardised and do not produce quantifiable statistical data. The data derived can be viewed as lacking objectivity and be seen as subjective in nature. - They are associated with small samples which can undermine their representativeness and make generalisations difficult. - In some cases respondents may change their behaviour as the result of the research. In some cases this can raise ethical issues, especially with topics such as domestic violence. - The nature of unstructured interviews means that interviewees sometimes respond to questions by asking questions of their own. If the researcher then answers these this may influence people's behaviour. - There is a risk of interviewer bias and if different interviewers are used they may provoke different responses. Ultimately, successful interviews stand or fall by the skills of the interviewer. A practical aspect of unstructured interviews is that the researcher cannot be sure how long each one will last. For example, when Ann Oakley (1974) interviewed pregnant women for her book From Here to Maternity the interviews lasted from between one and a quarter to three and a half hours. Clearly, the quality and depth of qualitative data depend upon a number of factors including: - Securing a sample of respondents willing to take part in the research. The use of 'gatekeepers' is one means of gaining access to a sample. Gatekeepers are people who can organise a group of people prepared to be interviewed. - The willingness of the respondent to open up to their private feelings. Being interviewed can be stressful, especially if the subject matter is personal or private in nature. Therefore some people may be more positive about the procedure than others. - The rapport that exists between interviewer and respondent. Interviewees may feel threatened by the 'expert' status of the interviewer and may offer only best face responses (what they think the researcher wants to hear) or public accounts (what they feel is socially appropriate) rather than their honest feelings. If this happens the data produced lacks validity and has no value. Only if people feel comfortable will they freely offer up private accounts of how they really feel about their life and provide truly valid data. - The types of questions asked. The interviewer needs to guide the discussion without influencing the respondent unduly. They will use subtle prompts and probes (phrases like, 'that's interesting', 'why was this?', 'could you expand on that', etc.) to gain information. Ideally, the informant leads the direction of the discussion so that the researcher can gain an insight into the informant's interpretation and view of the world. The validity of the qualitative data generated in such cases can be both detailed and in-depth. In an unstructured interview a balance has to be struck. On the one hand, the interview has to flow freely to enable the respondent to share their genuine feelings and experiences. On the other hand, if the respondent strays away from the topic, the interviewer needs to carefully bring the subject matter back on course. In practice many interviews are developed around a preconceived programme and could even have an agenda of issues to help shape the overall discussion.

Outline the disadvantages of using official statistics as perceived by interactionists, Marxists and feminists. (6 marks)

Interactionist sociologists adopt the view that all official statistics are socially constructed in the sense that officials select some factors while ignoring others. They conclude that official statistics give sociologists very little information, other than who compiled them, how and for what purpose. They therefore have limited use. - Marxists see official statistics as often used for ideological reasons, such as softening the impact of capitalism or encouraging divisions within the working class. They therefore see official statistics as being manipulated for political purposes. - Feminists also challenge the ideological and sexist assumptions that may lie behind official statistics. They challenge the tradition of assuming the head of a household is automatically male or how girls' achievement in education, far from being a source of congratulation, is portrayed as a 'problem' of failing boys.

Using one example, briefly explain why positivism is accused by interpretivists of being over-deterministic? (2 marks)

Interpretivists say that positivist sociology underestimates the degree of choice that people have and their ability to resist structural influences. For example, Willis (1977) showed how working class pupils make conscious choices about how to approach their time in school.

How might non-verbal communication affect the responses gained?

Non-verbal communication is important. If the interviewer shows some kind of displeasure at a response, this may lead the respondent into giving future responses in such a way as to 'please' the interviewer.

Briefly outline how novels can be of use to sociologists in terms of research. (2 marks)

Novels should be used with caution but can offer useful background information to the sociologist's research.

Official publications and statistics

Official publications reflect the wide range of data collected by government departments and agencies. They are an important source of data for sociologists, are often freely available and accessible, and cover many social issues. Only the government is able to fund collection of statistics on this scale, such as the Census questionnaire distributed to every household every 10 years. Researchers can use statistics to make comparisons between different groups as we saw when looking at the impact of social class, gender and ethnicity on education in Section 2. Official statistics are also useful for examining trends over time. However, interpretive sociologists argue that we must look critically at official statistics as they reflect the government's definitions, priorities and procedures. In some cases statistics tell us more about who collected them, and how and why they were collected. They argue that statistics such as crime figures are socially constructed as the way they are counted only accounts for the crimes reported and recorded by the police. People may not report a crime, and the police themselves do not necessarily record all crimes reported. So an unknown number of crimes are not included in the official statistics.

Using one example, outline the main research method used in ethnographic studies.(2 marks)

Participant observation is the main research method used in ethnographic studies. For example, Ken Pryce used the approach in his study of Black culture in Bristol. As the culture involved use of drugs, Pryce felt that covert observation was necessary.

In your own words, define the term 'qualitative data'. (2 marks)

Qualitative data take the form of words and reflect the feelings and meanings that lie behind the actions of the people being researched. They are seen as getting to the heart of the matter and so are often viewed as high in validity but may be low in reliability (hard to replicate).

Using one example, briefly explain why quantifiability is so important to positivists. (2 marks)

Quantifiability is important to positivists because it means that groups of statistics can be compared and cause-and-effect relationships can be established. For example, social surveys and official statistics can provide reliable quantitative data.

Outline three reasons why sociological researchers may find official statistics valuable. Outline three reasons why sociological researchers need to interpret official statistics with care.

Reasons why sociological researchers may find official statistics valuable include: - Some official statistics cover the whole population and are therefore highly representative. For example, the Census is a survey of every household. Rates of birth, death, marriage, divorce, etc. are also extremely accurate. - Official statistics are often based on large samples which can help ensure that the findings are representative. For example, the British Crime Survey is based on 40 000 households. - Official statistics are published regularly by governments, usually at least once a year. This means that they can be a good source of up-to-date data. - Data from different years is usually directly comparable. This means that they can be used to identify trends over time. - Official statistics cover an extremely wide range of subjects. This means that they can help generate further insights and sometimes inspire new directions of study. Issues with using official statistics include: - The definitions used in official statistics (such as social class used in the Census) do not match those of the sociologist. This makes it difficult to make comparisons. - Official statistics can be incomplete. As we have seen, crime figures only include crimes reported to and recorded by the police. Even the Census misses some groups, such as illegal immigrants. - Official statistics are socially constructed and reflect the priorities and perceptions of the government. For example, school league tables focus on a limited range of measures, such as exam results, and ignore other criteria that could contribute towards judging a school. In 2014 the criteria for league tables changed - for example, they now longer included IGCSEs - and this meant that the rating of some schools suffered. - Some official statistics may be manipulated for political reasons, to 'spin' the best possible picture of government policy. For example, the way in which unemployment figures are collected has changed many times and it is possible to argue that they do not reflect the real nature of unemployment. The official definition of 'unemployment' changed 33 times between 1979 and 1999! Feminists challenge the ideological and sexist assumptions that can underpin official statistics, such as assuming that the head of a household is male.

Taking representative samples

Representative samples: When undertaking research, the whole group of people being studied is called the target population. Sometimes it is possible to research every single member of this target population. For example, if you were researching those with total visual impairment in a small town it might be possible to survey or interview them all. However, when your target population is either too large or too geographically dispersed to survey or interview everyone, you need to take a sample - a selected group - of the target population. It is important for any sample to be representative - to reflect as closely as possible the characteristics of the target population. Researchers select a sample from a sampling frame - this is the list from which a sample is chosen, such as a school roll, electoral roll, postcode area, etc. This can be done in several ways: - A random sample is where everyone in the target population has the same chance of being selected. This works a little like the National Lottery. To select a random sample of pupils in a school you could allocate each pupil a number, and then choose numbers randomly. - A systematic sample is where people are selected in a logical or orderly way - for example, selecting every fifth name from a school roll. In the ONS longitudinal study the sample is based on people born on specific dates. - A stratified sample is where people are selected to make sure that they represent the characteristics of the whole population. For example, you might wish to choose the proportion of people of the gender, age, ethnicity or income level of the overall population. This is potentially time-consuming. - Cluster sampling: when a sampling frame or list is not available, some sociologists will randomly choose clusters of households by randomly selecting areas or streets from a map. The sample itself may need to be fairly sizeable to ensure representatives. For example, in an attempt to gain a more accurate picture of the true levels of crime in Britain the Home Office interviews 40,000 households in its annual British Crime Survey. Non-representative samples: Taking a representative sample allows researchers to make predictions or generalisations about the whole target population. For this reason, researchers usually aim to make as representative a sample as possible. However, this is not always possible or indeed desirable. There are two main kinds of non-representative sampling: - A snowball sample (sometimes called opportunity sampling) is where members are gained by recommendation or word of mouth. This may be the only way of accessing subjects when a sampling frame is not available - for example, if you were researching a deviant group. However such a sample is likely to be less representative. - A purposive sample is where researchers deliberately use a non-representative sample for the purposes of their research. For example, Ann Oakley (1992) challenged anthropologist George Murdock's view that gender roles were consistent across cultures. To gain evidence, Oakley looked for untypical examples of gender behaviour such as women working in mining or labouring, or men being responsible for domestic roles. Oakley was still able to make the generalisation that gender roles are variable, despite the evidence coming from an unrepresentative sample. In Goldthorpe's 1964 study of car workers in Luton, subjects were purposely chosen as a group of untypical workers. They were house-owners (unusual for working-class people in the 1960s), many had moved to Luton from other parts of Britain to acquire high-paid jobs in the car industry, and they identified with the nuclear family rather than the traditional (at that time) working-class extended family. Goldthorpe chose these workers because he wanted to see whether these factors led them to acquire more middle-class values - a process he called embourgeoisement.

Outline three ways in which the research design may affect how representative the findings are. (6 marks)

Research is said to be representative when the people studied have the same characteristics as the target population being studied. If research is representative then the knowledge gained from the research can be safely used to make points that are applicable to wider society.Samples are necessary when the target population is either too large or too dispersed to research every member. - Samples are more likely to be representative if they are taken on a random or systematic basis. A random stratified sample is chosen to deliberately reflect the characteristics of the target population. - In some cases it is difficult to use representative samples - for example, when it is difficult to gain access to a group being studied. In such cases it may be necessary to use a snowball sample, where members are gained by recommendation or word of mouth. - A purposive sample is a deliberately non-typical sample, where participants are chosen because they are non-representative in order to prove a theoretical point. However, snowball or purposive samples will be less representative of the whole population.

Outline two reasons why sociologists use secondary data. (4 marks)

Secondary sources of data are useful because they already exist, are often freely available and are accessible. Sometimes inaccessible groups, or the study of illegal activities, necessitate the use of secondary data. They are also useful if a group is geographically dispersed or does not want to co-operate with the research process. They can help generate further insights and sometimes inspire new directions of study.

Define the term 'semiological analysis'. (2 marks)

Semiological analysis involves interpreting images and use of language in order to uncover cultural or ideological messages.

Outline three reasons why sociologists use official statistics. (6 marks)

Sociologists use official statistics for several reasons. Firstly, official statistics are usually up to date and accessible. Secondly, they are often based on much larger samples than sociologists could research (e.g. the Census of every household, which helps ensure the findings are representative). Thirdly, official statistics are often extremely accurate (though they still need interpreting with care, as is the case with crime statistics).

Think about the following statements. Note next to each whether you think it is positivist or interpretivist in origin: a) All capitalist societies are characterised by class conflict. b) Working-class culture is anti-education. c) Working-class kids feel threatened by what goes on in the classroom. d) Crime is the product of young people's feelings of deprivation and powerlessness. e) Children from single-parent families lack discipline. f) The decline in church attendance indicates moral decline. g) The patriarchal organisation of society ensures women's subordination. h) Women no longer interpret marriage and motherhood as their primary goals in life.

Statements (a), (b), (e), (f) and (g) focus on how people as a social group may be influenced by factors beyond their control: capitalism and social class, working-class culture, the nature of single-parent families, religion and patriarchy respectively. These statements are therefore positivist in origin. Statements (c), (d) and (h) place individuals at the centre of the study and consequently are interested in their interpretations: of whether they feel threatened (c) or deprived and powerless (d) and how females feel about marriage and motherhood (h). These statements are therefore interpretivist in origin.

Using one example, briefly explain what the structuration theory involves. (2 marks)

Structuration theory acknowledges the influences of social constraints, such as social class, on people but points out that these influences depend on how those affected interpret them. For example, you can choose to be a passive victim of the constraints imposed on you by your social class or you can attempt to resist such pressures.

Using one example, briefly outline the comparative method. (2 marks)

The comparative method applies many of the principles of experiments to the world outside the laboratory. It involves the systematic comparison of apparently similar phenomena between societies or of groups within a society. Examples include Durkheim's study of suicide or Weber's study of the influence of great religions.

Briefly outline what sort of data is collected and what type of questions are asked by structured interviews. (2 marks)

The data collected in structured (or formal) interviews is quantitative and the questions asked are mainly closed questions.

Outline two reasons why the experiment is rarely used in sociological research. (4 marks)

The experimental method is regarded as having practical and ethical problems when used in sociological research. In practical terms, it is impossible to find an experimental and a control group of human beings that are exactly alike. In ethical terms, it is regarded as immoral at worst and problematical at best to experiment on human beings without their knowledge, while if they are aware of the experiment then this could affect their behaviour. For example, Rosenthal and Jacobson's (1968) use of a false IQ test to investigate the impact of teacher expectations on pupils' educational achievement may have changed the achievement of the children being studied.

Outline two ways in which covert observation may be considered advantageous.(4 marks)

The main advantage of covert observation is that it should not interfere with the natural behaviour of a group because no one in it knows that the sociologist is studying them. It is a naturalistic approach, observing people's natural behaviour in their natural setting, and is therefore high in validity.

Anthony Ashworth (1980) used the novels of Robert Graves (Goodbye to All That, 1929) and Erich Maria Remarque (All Quiet on the Western Front, 1929) to help build an understanding of the experiences of soldiers in the trenches in World War I. How valid and reliable do you think this was?

The novels helped to give a valid account of the soldiers' experiences. However, the novels were only one of many sources of information that Ashworth used. In some respects he used the novels to check and confirm information he obtained from other more reliable sources.

Which of the sociological perspectives that we discussed in Section 1 are most likely to be interpretivist?

The perspective associated with interpretivism is the interactionist or social action perspective that we studied in Section 1, Topic 3. As a perspective, interactionism focuses on how the interactions between individuals and groups are dynamic processes, not due to the impact of structures but due to an individual's ability to interpret the social world. These sociologists are interested in how we are influenced by the behaviour of others towards us and how we give meaning to the social situations in which we find ourselves.

Cause and effect and correlations

The ultimate goal of positivist research is to find cause and effect relationships where a social situation can be linked explicitly to a cause. However, even in the natural sciences such cause and effect relationships are rare. Positivist sociologists therefore tend to seek correlations - relationships that exist between social phenomena, such as the relationships between achievement in schooling and social class, gender or ethnic group we studied in Section 2. Researchers differentiate between: - positive correlations - for example, hot days tend to increase the demand for ice cream - negative correlations - for example, the greater use of car-sharing schemes the less road congestion there is - strong correlations - for example, wet weather and the use of umbrellas - weak correlations - for example, an endorsement of a product by a celebrity and only a slight subsequent rise in demand for that product.

Briefly outline what is meant by 'best face' or social desirability' in respondents. (2 marks)

This refers to how the very presence of the interviewer can influence the answers given by the respondent who may feel pressured to give answers that paint them in a good light.

Briefly outline what Ray Pawson means by 'yea-saying'? (2 marks)

This term is used by Pawson to describe how people (wanting to appear nice) will agree rather than disagree or will come across as satisfied rather than dissatisfied, etc.

In your own words, define the term 'triangulation'. (2 marks)

Triangulation is a mixing of quantitative and qualitative research methods in order to get results that will be both valid and reliable.

How might interviewer bias occur if the respondent gives vague or ambiguous responses?

Vague or ambiguous responses might be interpreted on the basis of the interviewer's personal opinion about the type of person the respondent is, and this interpretation may be wrong and invalid. There is also scope for researcher bias when interpreting the lengthy data collected. Between structured and unstructured interviews a third option exists, semi-structured interviews, when there is a set of questions but the interview can develop and expand according to the answers given.

Define the term 'Verstehen'. (2 marks)

Verstehen is a term meaning empathetic understanding - being able to put yourself inside the heads of the people you are studying so you see the world through their eyes.

Documents

When sociologists use the term 'document' they do so in the widest sense of the word to include any paper or electronic resource. They can include historical documents, personal documents (diaries and letters) and novels as well as newspapers, journals, television, radio and possibly even art, music and theatre. Assessing the content of any document must always be undertaken with caution. Historical documents: Historical documents include parish records, census data, etc. Fulcher and Scott (1999) suggest that the reliability and validity of any historical document can be assessed by asking four key questions: 1. How authentic is it? Is it complete and can it be credited to a particular author? 2. Does it have credibility? What were the motives for writing it? Under what conditions was it produced? Might it involve exaggeration, deception and justification leading to bias? 3. Is the document representative or typical? A document may only represent the views of an articulate minority and provide a partial and selective picture of society. For example, Jane Austen's novels mainly allow us insight into the lives of the middle classes. 4. Is the meaning of the document clear? Do we share the author's interpretations? There is the danger that we may misinterpret the author's intentions, and that other sociologists may interpret the data in different ways. Personal documents: diaries, letters and autobiographies: Personal diaries, memoirs and letters are sometimes referred to by sociologists as 'personal and life documents'. These can provide a good source of qualitative data since they can offer a detailed insight into an individual's view of the social world. The fact that letters and diaries are personal in nature can make them high in validity. However, they must be used with care by sociologists since they are just one person's view of the world. Often it is difficult to establish just how representative letters and diaries are or to evaluate their accuracy or validity. Sometimes sociologists encourage their sample to keep diaries. For example, Charles and Kerr (1988), in their study of women, families and food, asked their sample to keep diaries recording what every member of the family ate and drank. However, the very fact of asking people to keep a diary may make them self-conscious about their behaviour and more likely to behave in an unnatural way (perhaps to eat more healthily than they would have done). This would therefore generate data that may be low in validity. Novels: Although novels are fictional and therefore to be used with extreme caution, they can still offer useful background information to the sociological research process. For example, the novels of nineteenth-century writer Charles Dickens can give us insight into poverty in the nineteenth century, while those of Jane Austen may help us understand gender relations in the early nineteenth century. Social networks: A secondary source of increasing value to sociologists is the range of social networks such as Facebook, Twitter or Instagram. For example, a sociologist researching youth culture, the riots of 2011 or the Egyptian revolution of 2011 would almost certainly wish to draw on social network data from the participants.

How might the environment for an interview affect the responses gained?

Where the interview takes place can also be important. Formal environments may be interpreted as threatening and it may be harder to put the respondent at ease.

Summary of Research Methods for Quantitative Data

You have seen in this topic that the collection of quantitative data centres on the accumulation of statistical data. This is closest to the positivist position, which adopts an approach similar to the natural sciences. The typical methods used in quantitative research are social surveys, experiments and comparative research. One of the key characteristics of quantitative methods is that the data can be checked and tested. However, in practice researchers may well adopt a variety of quantitative and qualitative research methods in order to ensure maximum reliability and validity of results. In addition, the choice of methods used today may be influenced by practical and ethical considerations rather than by a blind adherence to positivist principles. In this topic you have explored the relative merits of the two research methods most commonly used in social surveys: self-completion questionnaires and structured interviews. In addition you have learned about the importance of operationalising concepts and how indicators and coding are used to facilitate this.

Define the term 'going native' in the context of ethnographic methods?(2 marks)

'Going native' means becoming emotionally involved with the group to the extent that scientific detachment and objectivity are lost.

How might you operationalise the concepts of: - educational success - bullying at school?

- You could operationalise the concept of educational success by using measures such as GCSE results, A level results or going on to higher education. - Operationalising a concept like bullying is perhaps harder because there is a certain subjectivity involved. You could suggest specific behaviours such as hitting or kicking, name calling or making threats. Or you could look for another kind of measure - for example, children who have been disciplined by the school for bullying behaviour.

Bridget Byrne (2014) researched the experience of parents who were migrants to Britain in three different areas of Manchester and were choosing secondary schools for their children. She carried out 47 hour-long semi-structured interviews and also conducted group interviews with a further 54 participants. The interviewees were parents of Year 6 children who the researchers met during parents' evenings in primary schools. Byrne found that choosing schools 'is often an emotional experience for parents' and that the migrant parents interviewed 'demonstrated an active role in their children's education and in the process of choosing schools'. They 'invested considerable emotional and practical time and effort into attempting to get the best education for their children. 1. From what you have read in this topic, would you say that Byrne's research was largely positivist or interpretivist? 2. Which was the main research method that Byrne used? 3. Was her data quantitative or qualitative? 4. Suggest one strength and one weakness of Byrne's research.

1. Byrne's research was largely interpretivist - she was interested in the experience of parents. 2. The main method used was semi-structured interviews. 3. The bulk of her data was qualitative though she gathered a certain amount of quantitative data, e.g. about the gender, age and length of time that parents had spent in the country. 4. Strengths include the validity of her findings in describing the parents' experience; the fact she studied more than one area of the city also made the study representative. Weaknesses include the relatively small number of people interviewed and the limitation to one city; critics might ask how representative and reliable the findings were.

Interpretivists strongly imply that the only way we can understand naturally occurring human behaviour is by first-hand contact. All other methods of obtaining data about social behaviour are regarded as artificial and are sometimes responsible for generating the attitudes or behaviour of those being studied. In studying 'natural settings', the researcher should seek to minimise his or her effects on the behaviour of the people being studied. Adapted from M Hammersley, 'Introducing Ethnography', Sociology Review, 1992, 2 (2) (Nov.), p. 19 I soon found that people were developing their own explanation about me: I was writing a book about Cornerville. This might seem entirely too vague an explanation, and yet it sufficed. I found that my acceptance in the district depended on the personal relationships I developed far more than upon any explanations I might give. Of course, people did not satisfy their curiosity about me simply by questions that they addressed to me directly. They turned to Doc, for example, and asked him about me. Doc then answered the questions and provided any reassurance that was needed. Doc gave me many valuable lessons on how to deal with people. 'Go easy on that "who", "what", "why", "when", stuff, Bill. You ask those questions and people will clam up on you. If people accept you, you can just hang around, and you'll learn the answers in the long run without even having to ask the questions.' I found this was true. As I sat and listened, I learned the answers to questions that I would not even have had the sense to ask if I had been getting my information solely on an interviewing basis. Adapted from Bill Whyte, Street Corner Society, University of Chicago Press, 1955, pp. 300-2 1. How do the two extracts support each other in their attitude towards other research methods? 2. How did Whyte seek to minimise his effect upon the subjects? 3. In what sense were trust and rapport important in Whyte's research?

1. Hammersley argues that other methods are artificial and may sometimes generate the behaviour and attitudes they claim to study. Whyte also notes that observation generated more natural data than question-asking, which tended to be met with suspicion. 2. By just hanging around, observing and listening Whyte tried to reduce his impact. He also adopted the role of a 'writer' rather than that of a sociologist. 3. Whyte had a rapport with 'Doc' that helped him considerably. People trusted 'Doc' and because he said Bill Whyte was okay, he was accepted. People were also more likely to trust Whyte when he was not asking direct questions.

Some interviewers have been found to be better at gaining reports of sexual and domestic violence than others but the reasons for this are complex. To use our study as the example, we had six women interviewers. We regarded women interviewers as essential to help women take their experiences seriously. The power imbalance automatically built into a social situation where one person interviews another is partly reduced if both parties are women. On a more conscious level, we felt that women would be less likely to minimise the importance of violent incidents if talking to another woman. If interviewers had been men the superior status of men, together with the need to defer to their feelings when discussing the subject of male violence, would have made it very difficult to acquire any information. All the women interviewers were White feminists, between the ages of 30 and 50, and all had been through higher education. We looked for women who knew that violence to women is a reality and who were knowledgeable about women's organisations offering support. We also thought it essential that all of us were motivated to work on the project because of a desire to know in a more systematic way about women's experiences of violence. Adapted from J Hanmer and S Saunders, Well-Founded Fear: A Community Study of Violence to Women, Hutchinson, 1984, pp. 13-29 1. How do Hanmer and Saunders see status as negatively influencing interviews? 2. What advantages do they see in using female interviewers? 3. In your opinion, have they totally eradicated the possibility of their data being undermined by status differences? Ben Malbon also used unstructured interviews in his study of drug users in a nightclub, Clubbing, Dancing, Ecstasy and Vitality (1999). He chose this method because it helped to put clubbers at ease and allowed him to 'sketch in details of clubbers' clubbing preferences, motivations and histories'.

1. Hanmer and Saunders believe that the status of male interviewers might result in women respondents being uncomfortable in talking about male violence. They also argue that there is a power inequality in male and female relationships that may impact negatively on women's responses. 2. They believe that women interviewers reduce this power imbalance. Women are more likely to be relaxed with other women and therefore more open. 3. All the female interviewers were university educated and White, which could still raise issues of 'expert' status.

I had to enter the subculture as would any newcomer and to make contact with respondents under the guise of another gay guy. By serving as a voyeur-lookout (somebody who derives pleasure from watching others) I was able to move around the toilet at will from window to window and to observe all that went on in the cubicles without alarming my respondents or disturbing the action. I employed the methods described because they promised the greatest accuracy in terms of faithfulness to people and actions as they live and happen. These are strategies that I judged to be the least obtrusive measures available - the least likely to distort the real world. Adapted from Laud Humphreys, Tearoom Trade, Duckworth, 1970, p. 24 1. What ethical problems did Humphreys face? 2. How does Humphreys justify his choice of method? 3. Apart from ethical problems, what other problems did he face?

1. Humphreys engaged in deviant activities on two levels: gay sexual activity and voyeurism were criminal offences when he conducted his study; and he acted as a lookout in order to warn the subjects of his study about police attention. He obviously did not have the informed consent of the people he was observing, effectively spying on them. 2. Humphreys believed the method provided the greatest accuracy in terms of faithfulness to people as they live and actions as they happen and that it was the least obtrusive and distorting method. 3. Humphreys ran the risk of being caught, arrested and charged with criminal behaviour. Many sociologists regard observation as case studies that can back up statistical data so it is often used as part of a triangulation approach by modern researchers.

During the course of the research programme, a total of 125 heroin users were interviewed. For the first stage of the field work, a random sample was taken from the client list of the local Detoxification Unit and Drugs Council. The second stage of the field work involved contacting 'hidden' heroin users, that is, those who had not come into contact with the drug agencies. It was at this stage that the perception of the sociologist as 'alright' became important. Word quickly spread through the heroin-using community that a research programme was being undertaken and informants frequently mentioned that the sociologist had previously interviewed someone known to them. A further factor was that the sociologist came from the region and had an accent and working-class background similar to those of many of the interviewees themselves. Adapted from Howard Parker, Living with Heroin (Open University Press, 1988), pp. 70-1 1. What sampling methods were used in this study? 2. What factors helped make the second, non-random method such a success? 3. What problems can you see in the use of the non-random method used in the heroin study?

1. Systematic sampling and snowball sampling were used. 2. The heroin users' perception that the researcher was 'alright' and the fact that the researcher was working-class and had a regional accent helped the researcher get results. 3. Despite this trust, some heroin users may have been unwilling to contact researchers because of the criminal nature of heroin use. These people may have had different characteristics from those who did co-operate.

The research act in sociology is invariably a meeting between people and so is itself a social situation. In such a meeting, it is incredibly difficult to isolate the particular questions, variables and measures that the sociologists are interested in from the totality of other influences present. For instance, confront any normal living, breathing subject with a stranger asking questions and he or she will be thinking 'Who is this person?', 'Why does she want to know this stuff?', 'What is she doing it for?', 'Who is she doing it for?', 'Why have I been selected?', 'Am I getting anything out of this?', 'Do I really want to tell her this?' and so on. In the face of all this, there is little wonder that the original intentions of the researcher may get distorted and the meaning of that apparently simple questionnaire or interview schedule may get mangled. This totality of cues and concerns which confront the research subject are known as 'demand characteristics'. The reverse side of the coin consists of 'subject effects'. During the course of the research, subjects will make up their own mind in respect of their own anxieties and queries. Thus, what the researcher gets back from the subject are not mere 'responses' but a mixed bag of intuition, helpfulness, courtesy, curiosity, guesswork, vigilance, guardedness, pluck and bloody-mindedness.Some questions will be seen as a 'threat'. Accordingly a social desirability effect comes into play in which respondents are, for instance, likely to over-report 'voting', 'giving to charity', 'participating in education', 'being employed', and so on, but under-report 'illness', 'disability', 'alcohol consumption', 'savings', 'being unemployed' and so on. Another admirable tendency is yea-saying. Because people are just so nice, they prefer on balance to agree rather than disagree, to be satisfied rather than dissatisfied and so on. Adapted from R Pawson in Steve Taylor (ed), Sociology: Issues and Debates, Macmillan, 1999, pp. 35-6 1. Identify four broad sets of problems that Pawson identifies with social research. 2. Why are these problems more likely to be associated with using a questionnaire and structured interview than another method such as observation?

1. There are 'demand characteristics' - people's responses are affected by their concerns and anxieties about the researcher's motives and so on. Then there are subject effects - people respond in a variety of ways according to the situation: for example, they may be guarded or say things to be helpful. There is also social desirability - people want to present themselves in the best possible light. Note that Pawson also uses the term 'best face' to describe what respondents think the researcher wants to hear. The last factor Pawson calls yea-saying - people generally prefer to agree or be satisfied rather than to disagree or appear dissatisfied. 2. People are active, choice-making individuals and consequently they react to the research process and researcher rather than passively answering questions. What this means is they may give answers that show them in the best light. Structured interviews are formal methods and don't really allow time to establish trust and rapport, or perhaps even put people at ease. This exercise makes us aware that people are active participants in the construction of their own realities and they may give artificial or incorrect answers about themselves in structured interviews. In an observation situation where people are behaving naturally the researcher gets a much more realistic view of what people are really like.

Previous sociological research

Existing published sociological studies are an important source of information for researchers. They can indicate the nature and extent of existing data on the topic area being studied. They can help formulate the direction of future study or research questions. They may even make primary research redundant since there is no need to replicate a study simply to get the same results. However, previous sociological research does need to be used with caution since, as with any secondary source, there may be errors or bias within the data, or issues with how the data was collected. The definitions and concepts, research procedures and methods of collecting data can vary considerably and this can make it harder to interpret or compare findings.

How might the interactionist researchers we met in Section 2 take issue with positivist research?

Interactionists are less concerned with social structures and more with the experience of individuals and groups, which tend not to be revealed by positivist methods and quantitative data. They argue that within our complex social world, cause and effect relationships and correlations are almost impossible to isolate. For example, suicide statistics disguise the fact that many suicide cases are not always clear-cut and we can never really know the meanings involved in their construction: did the person really intend to kill themselves or did they just want to draw attention - was it an accident that has become defined as a suicide?

Outline two problems with using diaries and letters as sources of secondary data? (4 marks)

It is difficult to establish just how representative diaries (or letters) are of people at the time. It can also be difficult to evaluate their accuracy or validity.

Which of the following statements are seen as characteristics of qualitative research methods? 1. Research can provide insights into the meanings that lie behind people's actions. 2. Research is modelled on the methods of the natural sciences. 3. Research is undertaken in a naturalistic setting. 4. Research is high in objective statistical data. 5. Research is high in reliability. 6. Research is high in validity.

Questions 1, 3 and 6 are normally considered common characteristics of qualitative research methods.

Which of the sociological perspectives that we discussed in Section 1 are most likely to be positivist?

The perspective most closely associated with positivism is functionalism. Functionalists believe that human behaviour is determined by the wider social structures, and that it is possible to measure these as social facts. For example, Emile Durkheim, whose work influenced the development of the functionalist perspective, adopted a positivistic approach with his study of suicide statistics.Like functionalism, Marxism also adopts a structuralist view of society and sees human behaviour as shaped or determined by society. However, because Marxists argue that social facts are often obscured by ideology, they may be harder to measure using a positivist methodology.

Using one example, briefly explain what is meant by a positivist approach to research. (2 marks)

The positivist approach to research adopts the methods and approach of the natural sciences. It studies observable phenomena, and, like science, its goal is to identify facts through the recognition of correlations between variables and ultimately the revelation of cause-and-effect relationships. For example, Emile Durkheim, whose work influenced the development of the functionalist perspective, adopted a positivistic approach with his study of suicide statistics.

As a covert researcher of the police I was documenting the work of people who regarded me as a colleague. The risk of being found out was always present and I had to be sensitive to any indication that the others - sometimes friends - might know what I was doing. I kept shorthand notes on a scrap of paper in the back pocket of my trousers; if I had to leave the station or charge office to make notes, I listened for approaching footsteps. The stress of covert research cannot be avoided and it has to be managed to the advantage of the researcher. I used my situation to heighten my consciousness of what was going on around me. For example, I was able to make a particular study of police use of force, finding I could tolerate its use more satisfactorily if I took detailed notes. Adapted from Simon Holdaway, Inside the British Police (Blackwell, 1983), pp. 10-11 1. What ethical problems did Holdaway face? 2. How might Holdaway justify his choice of method? Other studies have encountered issues with ethics. Howard Parker, in his study of delinquent youth in Liverpool, The View from The Boys, engaged in deviant and criminal behaviour by receiving stolen goods and acting as lookout when the 'boys' broke into cars: My position in relation to theft was well established. I would receive 'knock-off' and 'say nothing'. If necessary I would 'keep look-out' but I would not actually get my hands dirty. There were occasions when I in fact interfered with a car-radio theft and suggested to those about to get involved that given the situation and their strategy someone was likely to get caught. My advice was always taken. The major problem in 'writing up' is an ethical one. My main concern was that no harm should come to The Boys. Thus what I have published is what Authority already knows aboutAdapted from Howard Parker, The View from The Boys: a Study of Delinquent Youth in Liverpool (David & Charles, 1974), p. 15

1. Holdaway faced several ethical problems. His role meant that he risked betraying friends and colleagues. He also witnessed police use of excessive force without objecting to his colleagues' behaviour. 2. Holdaway justified his choice by saying that police officers would not behave naturally or be open with more formal methods of research, especially with regard to the use of force or their attitudes towards minority groups.

As I was boarding a no. 11 bus going into the St. Paul's district, a very friendly and talkative Jamaican saw me and asked me if I was new to Bristol. He had heard me ask the conductor if the bus would take me to the section of the city where Black people lived. Without revealing my true identity as a researcher, I told him I was a Jamaican like himself and that I was a student but that I was new to Bristol. My concealment as a researcher was not intended to deceive, but merely to sustain the rapport which I was developing with the stranger. Segie, as he was called, took me to the Panorama Club. After the club I accompanied him to Grosvenor Road, where he bought 'johnny cakes' in the Sea-Island Café and hung around until he was able to find a friend from whom he could buy a 'smoke'. Segie hated the hustling scene but still visited the café regularly to buy drugs. Adapted from Ken Pryce's Endless Pressure, Penguin, 1975, p. 284 In an amazing three-year experiment, Pat Moore, a young product designer, lived as an elderly woman on the streets of New York. As 'Old Pat' she roamed around trying to find out what it was like to be old. During the controversial study, Pat was short-changed by shopkeepers, verbally abused when she got in the way and assaulted and left for dead by a gang of youths out for drug money. She found that those who treated 'young Pat' so well were condescending, aggressive and only too willing to take 'old Pat' for a ride. Adapted from Lucie Young, 'The Incredible Ageing Woman', Guardian, August 1989 1. How were the researchers' characteristics important in both extracts? 2. Why did researchers feel they needed to adopt a covert role?

1. Pryce is Black and this may have made it easier for him to establish a relationship with Segie. Moore was able to experience ageism first-hand by disguising herself as an old person but the extract illustrates that the study depended on her ability to act as an old person. 2. Pryce was interested in a side of Black culture which was engaged in deviant behaviour, drugs, so felt that covert observation was necessary. Moore operated covertly because she wanted people to get used to 'Old Pat' so that their behaviour towards her would be natural.

Official statistics are those collected by government agencies. By reference to these statistics, one can soon discover what proportion of children go to comprehensive school, how many people attend church, the numbers of deaths caused by suicide and whether or not there has been an increase in offences of violence. The Census is the only compulsory social survey carried out by Governments at ten-yearly intervals. Sociologists have tended to rely heavily on the statistics produced by this and have often used them as raw data upon which sociological theories are based, e.g. many theories of crime are based on official figures of crime. Adapted from K J Cowen, 'Fact and Figures', in Perspectives on Society, ed. Meighan et al, Nelson, 1979 1. Why does the government produce these statistics? 2. Do you think these statistics are likely to be reliable and valid?

1. The government gathers these statistics because they want to uncover trends so that social policies can formulated - for example, an increase in the elderly population will require extra provision of care and nursing homes and geriatric hospital care. 2. Most sociologists would accept the reliability and validity of statistics from the Census. However, the reliability of statistics relating to crime, unemployment, the NHS and poverty can be undermined by political purpose. For example, if crime statistics show a disproportionately high number of Black criminals, does this reflect criminal activity on the ground or higher arrest or punishment rates for some ethnic minority groups? There is also evidence that some police officers and courts treat criminal females more leniently (the police themselves refer to this as the 'chivalry factor').

Identify the problem with each of these questions. How might you redesign the question so that it is more precise and effective? 1. Do you think educational standards have declined since the introduction of comprehensive schools? 2. Have you been ill recently? 3. Are you a racist?

1. This is a leading question in that the question seems to invite the respondent to blame comprehensive schools. The respondent may agree that educational standards have declined but may also believe that other factors are responsible and that comprehensive schools have actually done a good job. This question needs to be broken down into two: 'Do you believe that educational standards have declined?' Yes/No/Don't know A closed question could follow such as 'Which of the following factors do you blame?' followed by a list of possible factors and tick-boxes. 2. This is an ambiguous question because illness means different things to different people. Here are two other possible questions: 'Have you taken time off work because of illness in the past three months?', or 'Have you visited a doctor or made a hospital appointment due to illness in the last three months?' 3. This is a loaded question because racism is socially unacceptable so few people are likely to admit to this behaviour in the UK. Another way that attitude surveys try to measure issues like racism is by providing a statement and then seeking a reaction on a scale of 1-5, for example: 'I would be happy if my son or daughter married someone of a different ethnic origin.' 1 strongly agree/2 agree/3 not sure/4 disagree/5 strongly disagree. The terms, 'upper-class, middle-class and lower-class' are essentially technical terms and consequently the sociologist and general public's understanding of these concepts may differ slightly. It is also a leading question in that few people would be willing to identify with the category 'lower-class' because of its negative connotations. Sociologists are likely to operationalise these concepts by breaking them down into a series of questions exploring the employment status, income, education, housing, lifestyle, wealth and so on of the respondents.

Wilmott wanted to identify factors which influenced friendship patterns. He was particularly interested in finding out whether class or gender had any effect on these. In order to look closely at these variables he needed to choose a sample which was fairly similar. To obtain roughly equal numbers of middle-class and working-class people, two adjacent housing areas were chosen, a council estate and an area of fairly high quality owner-occupied housing. Households were selected from these areas and to provide a sex balance, a statistical method was developed to ensure that roughly equal numbers of males and females were selected. However, the sampling technique was not totally successful since the council estate contained large numbers of middle class people. Also Jewish people were found to make up a quarter of those found in the middle-class area. Adapted from A Dunsmuir and L Williams How To Do Social Research (Collins, 1993), p. 25 1. What sampling method was being used by Wilmott here? 2. Why was Wilmott's sampling technique not totally successful? 3. Why is it important to take care in choosing a sample?

1. Wilmott used cluster sampling. 2. The problem was that middle-class people also lived on the council estates while Jewish people lived in the middle-class area. In other words, the clusters were not pure class clusters. For example, in the case of the Jewish people, their ethnicity might be a crucial influence in their friendship patterns. 3. Care needs to be taken to minimise the possibility of bias in order to use the data to make generalisations about the wider population.

Using one example, briefly outline the longitudinal study. (2 marks)

A longitudinal study monitors a group over a period of years. These surveys enable the effect of the variables to be studied over a long-term period in order to measure how patterns of behaviour may change over time. For example, the ONS longitudinal study uses census data for about a million people to compare information about things like health, life expectancy and educational achievement.

Outline two problems with poor response rates. (4 marks) Record my answers in my Blog

A low response rate can undermine the representativeness of a sample because researchers can be less sure that those responding reflect the characteristics of the target population. In addition, it makes it more likely that certain types of people have responded, possibly because they are particularly interested in the topic. This combination of factors may make the responses less valid and prevent accurate generalisations being made.

Define the term 'structural theory'. (2 marks)

A structural theory is one that asserts that the social structure of society (the way it is socially organised) has a profound influence on people's behaviour.

Experiments

An experiment is a scientific procedure, conducted under controlled conditions, to demonstrate how specific variables affect the outcome of what is being studied. Experiments are usually carried out in a laboratory. So a scientific researcher may conduct an experiment where one of the variables that influence plant growth (e.g. light, water or soil fertility) is controlled in order to measure the impact it has on plant growth. Experiments can be repeated time and time again, so they are regarded as being high in reliability and can demonstrate cause and effect relationships. As we saw in Topic 1, experiments are normally associated with the natural sciences, and to some extent Psychology. There are several reasons why experiments are not often used in Sociology: - The laboratory is an unnatural environment. Attempts to conduct research in laboratories usually produce doubtful results as the artificial location makes it unlikely that people will behave naturally as they are aware they are under investigation (this is called the Hawthorne (or 'observer') effect). - Interpretivists in particular argue that the number of variables affecting human behaviour is too great, that people are very different and that they respond varyingly to similar situations. - Some experiments that have been carried out by psychologists in laboratories (such as Bandura's bobo 1963 doll experiment or Milgram's 1974 study into authority obedience) have been criticised on ethical grounds (such as exposing young children to violence, or putting people in humiliating situations). One type of experiment that is sometimes used in Sociology is the field experiment, where the study takes place in the real world instead of a laboratory. However, field experiments fail to meet the rigorous criteria of scientific research since it is still impossible to identify and control all variables in people's lives. Ethical issues can also arise in field experiments since they are usually covert, meaning participants have not given their informed consent to being studied. An example of a field experiment was Rosenthal and Jacobson's (1968) use of a false IQ test to demonstrate that if teachers have high expectations of a child this can have a positive impact on their achievement (see Section 1, Topic 3). The experiment, while useful, had severe ethical issues as it may have had a direct impact on the educational achievement of the children being studied. Exam hint: Note that, while experiments are rarely appropriate in Sociology, this is still a topic that may come up in the exam. You could even be asked to write an essay entitled, for example, 'Evaluate the problems of using experiments in sociological research'. So make sure that you revise both the strengths and weaknesses of the method.

Ethics and sociological research

As we saw in Topic 5 of Section 2, sociologists must consider the ethical issues surrounding their actions. They need to consider the impact their research can have on both their respondents and on themselves. Ethical issues must be considered before, during and after the research process has taken place. Sociological researchers must also ensure they conform to professional ethical guidelines such as those published by the British Sociological Association. Ethical guidelines offer a code of conduct that is underpinned by moral principles designed to protect everyone during the research process. Here are some of the key ethical issues: - Informed consent: research should be based on the freely given, informed consent of those being studied - subjects should be aware that the researcher is undertaking research, and should be told about the nature and purpose of the research. They should always be able to refuse to co-operate and withdraw. - Avoid harm: the research should not adversely affect the physical, social and psychological well-being of the subjects. Topics such as attempted suicide, rape, victims of violence, eating disorders, etc. are all highly sensitive, and even where respondents are willing participants, the research can bring back unpleasant memories for them or stir up issues they may have thought they had dealt with. Research must therefore provide support to deal with these issues. - Preserve confidentiality: subjects should be guaranteed anonymity with all data collected treated in strictest confidence. It is important that people are not unwittingly identified when the research is published. To avoid this, the context of a person's statements or actions should only be described in a limited way. - Competence: Researchers must perform their duties in a professional and competent manner that does not bring the subject into disrepute. For example, research into powerless groups, such as the poor, homeless or frail elderly people, must not exploit the vulnerability of such people or reinforce already low self-esteem. - Future use of research findings: sociologists must consider also the use that may be made of their results. For example, Laud Humphreys (1975) found that the findings of his research into male homosexual encounters in public toilets were used negatively by homophobic elements in society. - Research relationships: research should not involve an intrusion of privacy. This can raise real issues in interpretative research studies - for example, Tony Sewell (1996) set out to build bonds in order to identify with his Black students. It was important that he thought through all the implications of building relationships in this way. Ultimately, professional judgements and practice have to be relied upon when research involves 'close' relationships.

Practical influences on sociologists' choice of method

Choice of research method can also be influenced by a range of practical considerations: The source of funding can have a big influence: - A range of bodies fund university-based research including: research councils (e.g. the Social and Economic Research Council); HE funding councils (e.g. Higher Education Funding Council for England); International funding bodies (e.g. Community Research and Development Information Service). These bodies may allow the researcher freedom in their choice of research methods and how they present their findings, but may only fund specific pieces of research. - Government departments (e.g. Home Office, Department of Health, etc) may also fund research. They will also wish to focus research on specific topics. - Commercial funders - businesses - are likely to want the researcher to carry out certain types of research that will be of value to them. They may not wish findings that run counter to their interests to be published. The cost of the research is going to be important: - Some research methods (e.g. a long-term observation study over a period of years) can be very time-consuming and consequently costly. - Other research methods (such as using official statistics) may be cheaper, but the researcher is then limited to the data available. The size of the research team is important. For example: - For a larger team, interviewing may be an option. - For a smaller team, questionnaires might make more sense. Timescale is a factor: - If the research can take several years, observation may be possible. - If the research has a shorter timescale, then it will need a method that results in a quick response, like questionnaires and interviews. The people who are being researched are important: - Are they accessible? - Might they feel threatened by the research? - Might issues such as language or literacy levels be important? - Are they geographically scattered across the country or concentrated in one place? - Are they powerful enough to be able to refuse to be studied? Sudhir Ventakesh: American sociologist Sudhir Venkatesh spent several years inside a crack-dealing gang in Chicago (Venkatesh 2009). He gained the trust of a gang leader, JT, and spent his time there under JT's protection. He got to know other gang members as well as people in the local community including officials, activists, prostitutes and pimps. It is likely that JT saw Venkatesh as his biographer. This exceptional access allowed him to gain valuable insights into the behaviour and experiences of the people involved.

Briefly outline why closed questions are generally asked in questionnaires. (2 marks)

Closed questions are generally used in questionnaires, in order to collect quantitative data. However open questions can sometimes be used to collect limited amounts of qualitative data as well.

Outline three ways in which closed questions will result in different research findings than open questions.

Closed questions can be quickly completed and the results can be easily collated and presented as graphs and tables. Open questions are more time-consuming to answer and are harder to collate and represent in graphical form that can be easily read and digested by others. Closed questions collect quantitative data, and are viewed as more reliable as it is easier to replicate such questionnaires compared to unstructured interviews. Open questions may be harder to replicate and so may be less valid. Closed questions provide little qualitative data and so tend to lack validity. Open questions are more detailed, collect more qualitative data and are viewed as more valid as the depth of answer results in qualitative data richer in meanings.

Ethnographic studies

Ethnographic studies have their origins in social anthropology. They set out to study a whole culture. A classic early anthropological study is Margaret Mead's Coming of Age in Samoa. The approach is also used to study groups and subcultures, for example the studies of school subcultures that we looked at in Section 1, Topic 3. The principal method used by ethnographic studies is participant observation, though this may be backed up by additional methods such as interviews. Again, as a methodological approach it embraces Max Weber's concept of Verstehen by stepping into the shoes of the subjects to understand the meanings behind their actions. It can generate data that are very high in validity, though as it is almost impossible to replicate, it is lower in reliability. Interpretive sociologists argue by immersing themselves in the activities of the group the researcher gains an understanding of how people's perspectives, behaviour and attitudes give rise to their actions in social life. Researchers are able to develop hypotheses throughout the duration of the research. However, again, there are problems with this approach: - Researchers may lack the necessary inside knowledge, skills or have the right sort of personality to be accepted by a particular group. It is no surprise that the role of a participant observer has been likened to having excellent acting skills. - In addition, there is the practical problem of recording data. Taking notes is only an option in a private place so researchers often have to rely on memory at the end of the day. - Secret recording raises further ethical issues.

Topic 1 - The relationship between theory and methods

In Sections 1 and 2 on education we referred to many research studies that have helped develop our understanding of education. In Paper 1 of either the AS or A level exam you will be required to show your knowledge of research methods in relation to your study of education. In Paper 2 of the AS exam (and Paper 3 of the A level) you will also have to answer questions on research methods. In this topic we will meet some of the basic concepts of research methods used by sociologists in their attempt to study and make sense of society. In particular we will analyse and critically evaluate the theoretical frameworks or paradigms that lie behind and underpin the research process. A paradigm is the world view that underpins the theory and methodology of a particular scientific subject.

Theoretical influences on topic and method

In Topic 1 we saw how the researcher's basic paradigm - positivist, interpretivist or realist - may influence their approach to research. A researcher's perspective can influence their choice of topic: while functionalists may be more interested in researching factors that strengthen social bonds, Marxists may focus on issues to do with class and feminists on gender issues. In turn, the subject matter or research question influences the choice of research method(s). For example: - Does it call for data on social structures or individual experiences? - Can it be measured in statistical terms, or does it demand more qualitative data? - Is the subject matter sensitive or embarrassing in some way? The values of the researchers have an impact: - They may have their own interests and ambitions. Being a prominent and famous researcher in a fashionable field may invite promotion or positions at high status universities. - They may be motivated by current debates and issues, or tempted into an expanding area of research. - Some sociologists are committed to bringing about social and political change, particularly Marxists and feminists. Operationalising concepts Operationalising concepts is the process of turning an abstract concept such as class or cultural capital into a question that can be studied. For example: - The concept of social class might be operationalised by using measures like income, wealth or profession. - Alice Sullivan (2001) operationalised the concept of cultural capital by using measures like the books children read, the television programmes they watched and their vocabulary.

Structured interviews

In a structured (or formal) interview the interviewer asks a series of questions from an interview schedule (very like a questionnaire) as part of a social survey. As with questionnaires, all respondents are exposed to the same set of questions, asked in the same order. Positivists view structured interviews as scientific because they are standardised, reliable and generate quantifiable results. As with questionnaires it is common to use closed, often multiple-choice, questions, so the interviewer will tick the appropriate boxes. With any open questions the interviewer will record the exact, word-for-word answers of the respondent. Advantages of structured interviews include: - The response rate tends to be higher than with questionnaires and the interviewer can make sure the right respondent answers the questions. - An interviewer can clarify terms or explain ambiguous questions. - An interviewer can assess whether a person is telling the truth. If they have doubts they can put the response to one side or mark it as possibly unreliable. - An interviewer can observe the social context in which answers are given - for example, the facial expression, tone of voice, body language, status and so on of the respondent. - Moreover, the interviewer, using a scientifically designed questionnaire with a randomly selected sample, is neutral and objective in the gathering of data. - Compared to unstructured interviews, it is easier to replicate the study, so structured interviews are higher in reliability. Disadvantages of structured interviews include: - They are more time-consuming and expensive than questionnaires. - There is the risk of an 'interviewer effect', whereby interviewees may see the interviewer as an 'expert', or may be influenced by tone of voice, appearance, gender, ethnicity or age of interviewer. - As with questionnaires, responses are still limited to the questions on the interview schedule.

What might be the practical issues involved in choosing methods to research a government-sponsored study of football hooliganism?

In the research into football hooliganism, issues might be: - Government funding may bring with it political pressures to reflect the current government's agenda. - Should the research focus on statistics or on perceptions of hooligans themselves or those of the police and club officials? - The size of the research team and length of the project may determine how many clubs or matches you might investigate. This might create issues of reliability - how sure could you be that factors in one club would be similar elsewhere? - The nature of hooliganism may make it hard to contact the hooligans themselves who may be suspicious of your motives and may feel threatened by the source of your funding. It may also raise issues of validity - could you be sure of getting truthful replies to your questions?The nature of the subject means that it could also carry physical risks to the safety of researchers.

Focus groups

In this method the group is invited to discuss their views on an issue raised by the researcher. The method shares a lot of characteristics with interviews. Focus groups were quite rare as a means of collecting qualitative data until the end of the twentieth century. However, Paul Willis (1977) used them in his research for Learning to Labour that we met in Section 1. His group discussions with the 'lads' provided rich data, though Willis was conscious that they carried the risk that the lads would encourage each other to make comments that they might not have made individually. The role of the researcher is to stimulate the discussion and guide it back to the subject. By being present and listening, the researcher can also assess the personality dynamics of the group and whether the collective opinion seems to be influenced by one or two dominant characters, which may make findings less representative. Good transcribing skills are necessary (such as shorthand or audio recording) in order to ensure all contributions are recorded. Focus groups are also extensively used by political parties to gain an insight into people's attitudes towards issues. However, political parties are not sociologists, and do not necessarily follow the same code of ethics as sociologists.

Topic 4 - Research methods for quantitive data

In this topic and Topic 5 we look at the research methods that sociologists can use to gather primary data. In this topic we look at the methods that are most commonly used to gather quantitative data: experiments, the comparative method, social surveys, questionnaires and structured interviews - though it is important to stress that some at least may also be used to gather qualitative data. We will examine strengths and weaknesses of each method and evaluate which of them is most appropriate to use in different areas of research.

Topic 5 - Research methods for qualitative data

In this topic we focus on the methods of primary research that are generally associated with collecting qualitative data that reflects feelings, attitudes and emotions of people's experiences, closely associated with Max Weber's concept of Verstehen. Qualitative data are normally collected in relatively small-scale research, which seeks to understand the quality of people's lives in both detail and depth. Qualitative research is generally associated with the interpretive approach and, ideally, the goal is to undertake research and gain data that is as naturalistic as possible. The methods we will look at are unstructured interviews, observation and ethnographic studies, as well as case studies and focus groups.

Summary of Planning Research

In this topic we have explored some important concepts and terms associated with designing research and gathering data. You have seen how sociologists have to consider how theoretical and practical issues may impact on their research. We have also discussed some of the ethical issues that can arise when conducting research. Finally, you have explored some of the issues involved in ensuring that sociological research is reliable, valid and representative.

Topic 3 - Secondary data sources

In this topic we will look at the way in which sociologists use data, and in particular, secondary data. Secondary sources are data already collected and published by other people, both sociologists and non-sociologists (such as the government and its agencies, pressure and interest groups, trade unions as well as ordinary people). Secondary data are usually in the form of statistics, published books or personal documents such as letters and diaries. We will consider the implications of using such data in terms of their validity, reliability and trustworthiness.

Summary of Research methods for qualitative data

In this topic you have explored in detail the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative methods of researching primary data. We have looked at the main methods of collecting qualitative data, namely unstructured interviews, observation, ethnographic studies, life histories and focus groups. Qualitative data tend to be generally higher in validity but lower in reliability than quantitative data. However, as you saw in Topic 2, modern sociologists often embrace a realist approach involving the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data. This triangulation approach may help provide a broader and deeper picture of social reality.

Summary of Secondary data sources

In this topic you have learned about the importance of secondary sources of data, and how they are often an invaluable supplement to the primary data collected by the researcher. Secondary data can be both quantitative and qualitative in nature so is attractive to both positivist and interpretive sociologists in supporting their primary research. Sometimes researchers are solely reliant upon secondary sources when primary research is simply not possible owing to practical or historical factors.

Summary of The relationship between theory and methods

In this topic you have seen that positivists believe that sociological research should use the methods of scientific investigation from the natural sciences, and make the most of quantitative data. However, the interpretive approach challenges this view, arguing that there are difficulties in studying people, which derive from the very nature of social phenomena. This has led the to focus more on collecting qualitative research data. A third approach of realism recognises strengths and weaknesses in both positivism and interpretivism and advocates triangulation of different types of data. Realist sociologists frequently collect both quantitative and qualitative research data in order to ensure maximum reliability and validity of results. As we will see in the next topic, other factors also affect the choice of methods adopted by researchers including the practicalities of the research process as well as key ethical considerations.

Interpretivism

Interpretivists disagree with the positivist approach, arguing that the social world is fundamentally different from the natural world. Unlike the subject matter of natural scientists, Sociology's subject matter (people) is unpredictable and has consciousness - they attach meaning to their behaviour. We saw in Section 1 for example how pupils may choose to resist the schooling process even though this may offer a route into a career and higher living standards. Interpretivists argue that: - Social facts are social constructions to be interpreted rather than things that can be counted and explained - society is created by people interacting with each other and bringing their own meanings or interpretations to those interactions. So, for example, divorce rates do not necessarily reflect the extent of unhappy marriages but the ease of obtaining them. - People choose how to behave rather than being shaped by social structures beyond their control. Social reality exists within people's consciousness rather than an external phenomenon. They accuse positivism of being deterministic, failing to see that people can resist social forces through their own behaviour and outcomes (agency). - Positivists put too much emphasis on the scientific approach. In fact, they would go as far as to argue that collecting hard data or facts may conceal the real meaning behind social behaviour. For example, unemployment statistics collected in a scientific manner may tell us more about the political agendas of those who collected them than they do about the reality of living with unemployment. This approach also challenges the positivist idea that it is possible for sociologists to be truly objective or value free - in practice all research activity is influenced by the personal values of those doing the research. All sociologists can do is be aware of these values and the impact they may have. As a result, interpretivist methodology tends to use qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews (where the interviewer and respondent have a conversation without specific questions) and participant observation (where the researcher joins a group of people and observes them from within the group) since these allow the researcher the opportunity to understand meanings behind people's actions. This research is sometimes called micro-sociology as it investigates everyday interaction such as that between students and teachers in schools.

Interpretivism (Continued) - Max Weber

Max Weber The roots of social action theory go back to the early work of Max Weber (1864-1920). Weber saw action as something purposively shaped by individuals within a context of personal meaning. His approach is sometimes referred to as 'symbolic interactionism' as symbols play an important role in how we interact with each other and make sense of the world. Meaning does not exist within objects themselves but in the symbolic value they have which is culturally shared. So, for example, the colour red is associated with danger only because it has been culturally constructed as the danger colour. The task of the researcher is to investigate how those being investigated interpret the world around them. In order to succeed in this task, the sociologist has to try to understand their thinking and see the world through their eyes. Max Weber called this process of empathising with those being studied as Verstehen. Weber's most influential works included Economy and Society where he discussed issues including power, authority and bureaucracy, and The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, where he challenged Marx's view that capitalism emerged from structural class struggle and instead argued that it was created by the work ethic shared by protestants. The emphasis in interpretivist research studies is therefore on validity - seeing the world as others see it. Ray Pawson notes that this 'centres around the belief that research has to imitate real life and become involved in those interactions which create the everyday meanings' of those being studied in order to understand their perceptions of the world (in Taylor, 1999). The interactionist studies of classroom behaviour we looked at in Sections 1 and 2 - for example, Paul Willis (1977) and Tony Sewell (1996) - were examples of such interpretative research. Supporters of this approach argue that it gets to the heart of our subject matter and brings it to life. Some of the best and most engaging research in Sociology has adopted this 'ethnocentric' approach of working and studying the meanings that lie behind people's actions. Critics argue that the approach may lack objectivity and risk bias, where researchers impose their own subjective interpretations on evidence gathered. There is also a danger of ignoring - or even denying - the existence of external structures such as social class, gender, ethnicity, poverty etc. So, while this approach might be rich in validity, critics argue that it may be low in reliability.

Media content analysis

Media content analysis: The mass media offers a potentially rich source of data that is both quantitative and qualitative. Newspapers, magazines, books (fiction and non-fiction), cinema, television and radio all offer vast amounts of research material, to the extent that a great deal of sifting and sorting is necessary in order to find material of appropriate content and quality. This involves breaking down the content of media messages into particular categories - what is known as content analysis. Early types of content analysis involved counting items in these categories to see how many times they occurred. This is obviously a form of quantitative research. Later versions of content analysis have focused on the symbolic meaning of media messages and their content. This type of analysis involves interpreting images and language in order to uncover cultural or ideological messages and is known as semiology. For example, the Glasgow Media Group (a neo-Marxist group of sociologists who look for bias in the media) has taken formal content analysis of television news to high levels of sophisticated analysis, including the portrayal of local strikes, the miner's strike in the 1980s and the Gulf Wars. Content analysis can take several forms: - Formal content analysis is a quantitative approach based on the sociologist's search for particular categories, which are then counted. For example, if you are interested in the degree of sexism in tabloid newspapers you might break 'sexism' down into several categories (this is operationalisation) - women as sex objects, women as wives and mothers and so on - and on this basis work out what percentage of the content of the newspaper could be interpreted as sexist. - Thematic analysis focuses on in-depth reporting of specific themes, such as reporting of strikes, war or sex crimes. It aims to uncover journalistic assumptions and practices that underpin news reporting to see whether these favour any particular ideological position. - Textual analysis focuses on the language of news reports and other media to see whether it reflects an ideological position. For example, feminist research focuses on how women are often primarily described in newspapers in terms of their physical attributes (for example 'sexy') or their domestic duties (for example 'mother of two'). They have found that women are far more likely to be subject to these linguistic descriptions than men. - Audience analysis involves the researcher using any of the above methods, or combining them, checking with the audience in order to confirm whether their sociological interpretation is shared by that audience. However, care must be taken when considering both the media content itself and the interpretation of the media by sociological researchers. For example, newspapers are intentionally partisan (they adopt a political viewpoint and often show very clear-cut support for a particular political party). For example, both the Daily Telegraph and Daily Mail support the Conservative Party, while the Daily Mirror supports the Labour Party. Therefore media sources are often biased. Even when the media cover serious issues with documentaries and investigative journalism, it rarely looks at issues in a truly sociological way. Nonetheless media sources can be a useful gateway into a topic to be researched and can offer insights and further questions to explore. The growth of new media and social networking provides new possible sources for content analysis - see, for example, David Beer's book Popular culture and new media (2013).

Outline two reasons why media resources should be used with caution. (4 marks)

Media sources can be biased; for example, newspapers often support one political party. When the media cover issues of interest to sociologists, they tend to do so in a superficial manner.

Using one example, briefly explain the difference between micro and macro sociology. (2 marks)

Micro sociology is interested in small-scale studies (for example, studies of classroom behaviour), while macro sociology is interested in the relationship between social structures and institutions (for example, the relationship between education and the economy).

Observation studies

Observation involves a researcher spending time with a group of people in order to observe their behaviour. It is a highly naturalistic form of research - people are observed in a natural setting as they go about their everyday routines. Observation can be divided into participant observation (where the researcher takes part in the activities of the people they study) and non-participant observation (where the researcher stays on the sidelines). Observation may be overt (where the subjects know who the researcher is) or covert (where the researcher pretends to be one of the group). There are therefore four types of observation: - overt non-participant observation - overt participant observation - covert non-participant observation - covert participant observation. Exam hint: If you have a question on observation in the exam it is important to be clear about the four different types. For example, Sudhir Ventakesh (2009), whose research into a Chicago gang we met in Topic 2, used overt participant observation. This meant the gang members knew he was a sociologist. By contrast James Patrick's (1973) research into a Glasgow gang used covert participant observation - the gang members he observed did not know he was a sociologist. With non-participant observation, the researcher does not interact with the people being studied The different approaches have their own strengths and weaknesses. Covert observation can raise ethical issues about spying on people. With overt observation, if people are aware they are being observed they are less likely to behave naturally. Observation can be very time-consuming. While it can provide extremely valid data, it may be a less reliable method as it is difficult to replicate such research.

Using one example, briefly outline what is meant by 'operationalising' concepts

Operationalising concepts is the process of turning an abstract concept such as class or cultural capital into a question that can be studied. For example, Alice Sullivan (2001) operationalised the concept of cultural capital by using measures like the books children read, the television programmes they watched and their vocabulary.

Oral history

Oral history involves interviewing ordinary people about their personal experiences. It enables us to hear the experiences and feelings of people who actually lived through events - people who are often overlooked in most history books - and learn about people's daily routines and ordinary life - things that are often not written down. It is an increasingly popular method for obtaining qualitative data on historical experiences of people still alive to remember them. Some researchers particularly like this approach as it empowers people by making them feel that their past experiences are important and worth hearing. However, there are areas of concern with using oral histories. People do not always remember well so there may be errors in recalling information, reinterpreting the past or getting events in the wrong chronological order. And there is no way of double-checking their accuracy. So, while this material is often very high in validity it can be low in terms of reliability.

Outline two ways in which positivist researchers may criticise unstructured interviews. (4 marks)

Positivist researchers will criticise the lack of reliability of unstructured interviews because it would be hard to replicate the unique relationship between interviewer and interviewee. Unstructured interviews are not standardised and do not produce quantifiable statistical data. The data derived can be viewed as lacking objectivity and there is a risk of interviewer bias.

Outline two ways in which positivist researchers may criticise observation.(4 marks)

Positivists argue that observation is unreliable because it is not replicable; it is unlikely that other researchers could repeat the study with the same findings. In addition there is a real risk of interviewer bias - observations may to some extent reflect the personal or political views of the observers. It is also difficult to generalise from observation studies since they focus on small and often unusual groups who may not be representative of mainstream society.

Outline two circumstances where a postal questionnaire (or equivalent electronic version) is likely to be particularly useful. (4 marks)

Postal questionnaires tend to be used when the sample is large as they are a relatively cost effective way of researching large numbers of people. They are also a valuable method where the sample is geographically dispersed.

List any potential problems you can identify with the longitudinal study.

Potential problems are: - It can be difficult to find samples and research teams committed to long-term research. - Members of the sample may drop out, die, move away or whatever. This increases the chance of it being unrepresentative. - If different researchers are used, it can be difficult to re-establish trust with a group. - The sample may become too 'survey-friendly', meaning they may consciously or unconsciously tell researchers what they think they want to hear.

Briefly outline the distinction between primary and secondary sources. (2 marks)

Primary sources of data are those obtained directly by the sociologist. Secondary sources of data are those which already exist such as official statistics, existing research published as books, journals or papers, newspaper articles, etc.

In your own words, define the term 'quantitative data'. (2 marks)

Quantitative data are numerical information. They are generally viewed as more objective than qualitative data and more replicable so they are viewed as higher in reliability but less valid.

Presenting quantitative data

Quantitative data can be collated and expressed in various ways such as: - bar charts - diagrams in a series of bars of varying heights reflecting the relative frequency of its category - graphs - diagrams representing different frequencies of categories. Graphs usually plot frequencies as points which are connected with lines - percentages - where numbers of responses are expressed as fractions of a hundred - pie charts - circular diagrams representing frequency of categories in proportion to size of segments - statistical tables - these are rows and columns of figures representing frequency of categories. You are likely to come across this type of data throughout your course and especially as part of an examination question. It is therefore essential that you know how to interpret this type of data with care. In particular, you need to look at how the data is organised in terms of scale. Is it organised into percentages, hundreds, thousands? Is it a snapshot picture of a particular year or is it focusing on trends across a number of years?

Using one example, briefly explain what is meant by quantitative data. (2 marks)

Quantitative data take the form of numbers, such as statistics, that describe measurable facts. An important example of quantitative data is official statistics about birth rates, marriage rates, divorce rates, death rates, etc.

Quantitative and qualitative data

Quantitative data: Quantitative data take the form of numbers, usually statistical in form. They are favoured by, for example, researchers who are studying trends or structural features. Typical sources of such data include social surveys, questionnaires and official statistics. Quantitative data are generally associated with positivism and perspectives (such as functionalism and Marxism) that adopt a macro approach to studying society as a system. Qualitative data: Qualitative data take the form of words that describe people's experiences, feelings and meanings. They are favoured by, for example, researchers who are studying the experiences and perceptions of people and groups. Typical sources of such data include observation and interviews. Quantitative data are generally associated with interpretivism and interactionist perspectives that adopt a micro approach to studying society. Many research projects use both quantitative and qualitative data.

Outline how questionnaires perform in terms of terms of validity and reliability. (4 marks)

Questionnaires are generally viewed as higher in reliability than most other methods through the collection of mainly quantitative data, and the fact that it would be easy for other researchers to repeat the survey. However they can be lower in validity because they generally do not collect qualitative data. For research to be valid it is essential that people's view of the world around them is their own interpretation and in their own words.

Briefly outline the issues of reliability, validity and representativeness in using questionnaires.

Questionnaires are most often used for collecting quantitative data via closed questions which could be easily replicated by other researchers. They are therefore seen as being quite high in reliability. However, unless there are extensive open questions, there will be less qualitative data and this can mean they are lower in validity. How representative they are will depend on the type of sample used and the response rate.

Outline three ways in which the reliability of findings is different from their validity. (6 marks)

Reliability means that the research is replicable with the same findings - in other words, if the research were repeated it would produce the same results. Validity means that the research is true to life - in other words it is an honest portrayal of the meanings, feelings and qualities of the people or issues being studied. - Qualitative data, by their nature, tend to be high in validity but lower in reliability since it is harder to replicate unstructured interviews or participant observation. Quantitative data by contrast are more likely to be reliable but may be less valid. - Research within the positivist paradigm is more likely to be reliable, because it will use methods that generate large numbers of quantitative data. Research within the interpretive paradigm is more likely to be valid, because methods like unstructured interviews or participant observation are more likely to give a true picture of what participants think or feel.

Define the term 'informed consent'.

Research should be based on the freely given, informed consent of those being studied - subjects should be aware that the researcher is undertaking research, and should be told about the nature and purpose of the research. They should always be able to refuse to co-operate and withdraw.

Social surveys

Social surveys are one of the most popular of all research methods and are used to gather data from large numbers of people. They tend to be used by researchers seeking data to confirm structural relationships and processes in society that can be measured statistically. The specific methods used in such social surveys are questionnaires or structured interviews. Although it is possible for social surveys to gather qualitative data through using open questions, they are generally used when researchers want to generate quantitative data. Surveys normally involve: - random selection of a sample that can be considered representative of the target population, as we saw in Topic 2 - collection of data - usually through the distribution of questionnaires, by post, website, email or in person; or sometimes through a structured face-to-face or telephone interview - analysis of data - a process known as multivariate analysis is used to derive generalisations about larger population groups. The largest social survey carried out is the Census, conducted by the government in the first year of every decade. Every household in the United Kingdom (well over 20 million) is legally obliged to complete this social survey. The Census collects quantitative data which is very useful to sociologists because it provides detailed information about living practices of the total population of Britain. Positivists approve of the social survey because: - they consider it scientific because possible variables are controlled via sampling and questionnaire design - it is seen as having high reliability because it is easily repeated (i.e. other sociologists can verify the data obtained by using the same standardised questionnaire and similar samples) - it is considered objective because the sample population is randomly, rather than deliberately, selected - it generates lots of quantifiable data. Longitudinal Surveys: The most common type of social survey is known as a cross-sectional survey and is a 'snap-shot' study of a group at a moment in time. An alternative and less common form of survey is the longitudinal study, which monitors a group over a period of years. These surveys enable the effect of the variables to be studied over a long-term period in order to measure how patterns of behaviour may change over time. In Section 2, Topic 1 we met the ONS longitudinal study which uses census data for about a million people to compare information about things like health, life expectancy and educational achievement. Longitudinal surveys have the following advantages: - They supply an in-depth picture of a group. - They allow us to study social trends over time. - Trust and rapport can be built up between a group and the researchers. This may generate more valid data and lessen the possibility of non response.

Designing a questionnaire

Some of the problems can be reduced by good questionnaire design and piloting. When designing a questionnaire, the sociologist needs to avoid certain types of question. - Ambiguous questions - it is crucial that each question is open to only one interpretation and that it has the same meaning for all people taking part in the survey. - Loaded questions-emotional or insensitive questions may provoke negative and invalid responses (such as 'mind your own business'). Leading questions - you must not direct the respondent in a particular way. - Presuming questions - you must not assume that the respondent thinks or does something. - Double questions - do not lump together two separate questions that may require separate answers. - Technical questions - stick to ordinary language and don't assume that the respondent understands technical jargon. - Vague questions - avoid non-specific terms like 'generally', 'sometimes', 'seldom' and so on because they mean different things to different people. For example, the question 'Are you a religious person?' is ambiguous because people have different interpretations of 'religious'. For some, it will mean attending church; for others it will mean quite simply belief in a particular god. The terms, 'upper-class, middle-class and lower-class' are essentially technical terms and consequently the sociologist and general public's understanding of these concepts may differ slightly. It is also a leading question in that few people would be willing to identify with the category 'lower-class' because of its negative connotations. Sociologists are likely to operationalise these concepts by breaking them down into a series of questions exploring the employment status, income, education, housing, lifestyle, wealth and so on of the respondents.

Suggest two strengths and two weaknesses of covert participant observation.

Strengths of covert observation include: - The observer effect - a problem with overt research - is avoided. - It is a naturalistic approach, observing people's natural behaviour in their natural setting, and is therefore high in validity. - It makes it possible to study groups that do not want to be researched. - It offers an opportunity for small-scale, detailed research. Weaknesses of covert observation include: - It is ethically suspect to spy on people, and if the researcher observes illegal or immoral activities then they have to decide whether these should be resisted or reported. - It can be dangerous for the researcher, especially if there is a risk of exposure. - To be accepted by a particular group the researcher must have the appropriate skills, knowledge and personality and so some individuals would not be able to do this particular research. - The practical recording of data - for example, making notes, in the 'field' can be difficult. - As with all observation, there are issues of reliability and representativeness and the method is time-consuming. - The researcher may get too close to the group and risk 'going native', thereby drawing biased conclusions.

The comparative method

The comparative method applies many of the principles of experiments to the world outside the laboratory. It involves the systematic comparison of apparently similar phenomena between societies or of groups within a society. In this way relationships or correlations may be observed. In the comparative method the social world effectively becomes the laboratory. Two classic examples of the comparative method are Durkheim's study on suicide (1897) and Weber's comparative work on the influence of the great religions, which led him to the conclusion that Protestantism was a factor in the development of industrial capitalism (1905). It could indeed be argued that most sociological research uses a form of comparative approach, since sociologists constantly make comparisons between groups, studies and, even within the same sample, with longitudinal studies. The method is most useful when research is looking at content that lends itself to contrasts. It is less appropriate for other studies. So, for example, studying truants might not lend itself to this method if their motives and backgrounds were similar.

Life histories can be used to look at a delinquent's life story in some depth and can be put into the context of sociological theories of crime. If it does not easily fit into the existing literature, elements of the person's biography and experience may inspire a fresh perspective and set of hypotheses about the causes of crime. More importantly, such life histories can be built up using a range of different types of secondary data such as social work reports and school reports and by asking the subject to keep a diary or fill in a self-report. This source can be cross-referenced by the use of unstructured interviews with the subject in which they can be encouraged to communicate their interpretation of their situation. The main problem with this approach is that it is time-consuming. Moreover, it could be said to lack representativeness; for example, how far can we generalise from a single example? Moreover, life histories have been said to lack validity because you can never be quite sure whether a person is telling the truth, whether they are exaggerating or whether they have simply forgotten what really went on. However, as Plummer notes, the interview experiences the same sorts of problems. The life history, at least, has the advantage of other sources of information which can act as a sort of check on reliability and validity. Plummer, K, Documents of Life: An Invitation to a Critical Humanism, Sage, 2001 According to the extract below, what are the strengths and the limitations of the life history?

The strengths of life histories are that: - in-depth biographies can be generated - they can be compared with sociological theories and may lead to the development of new theories and insights - sources can be cross-referenced to check reliability and validity - increasingly, it may be possible to draw on social networking data - the subject of the life history can give his or her interpretation of events. The limitations are that: - their study can be time-consuming - the subjects of such studies may not be representative of the population at large - they may lack validity if the subject lies, exaggerates or forgets.

Positivism

The structural theories of Sociology that we met at the start of Section 1 tend to be positivist. Positivists see Sociology as the 'science of society'. They believe that it is possible to study the social world in the same way as scientists study the natural world. Positivists argue that people's behaviour is shaped by observable social facts - social structures, values and norms that exist externally to the individual. Such facts can be identified and measured using the scientific process of hypothesis, collecting data, analysing data and formulating theories on the basis of results. As positivist thinkers believe that Sociology is a science, they consequently strongly believe that sociologists should adopt the logic and methods of the natural sciences. In practice this tends to mean stressing four factors: - Research should be carried out under controlled conditions, for example by rigorous sampling procedures and skilful design of questionnaires. - Research should be objective and value-free. Social scientists should approach research without imposing their own personal beliefs or prejudices on it and interpret all evidence with an open mind. - Research should be reliable - open to replication by other social scientists in order to verify all findings. - Research tends to be mainly quantitative (such as statistics about birth rates, marriage rates, divorce rates, death rates) so that it can be converted into tabular or graphical information. Positivists tend to use methods such as: - social surveys, using questionnaires and/or structured interviews experiments - though these are usually much less appropriate than in the natural sciences - the comparative method - offial statistics - content analysis of mass media reports. Generally speaking, these methods are used in macro sociological research that investigates large-scale social processes, structures and institutions such as the social-class or educational systems.

Weaknesses with ethnographic research

The weaknesses of ethnographic research include: - As with any covert observation there is a danger that the researcher may go native and become over-involved with the group being studied. The researcher may lose detachment and objectivity. - Observers are forced to be selective - they cannot record everything. This means that observations may to some extent reflect the personal or political views of the observers. They may see only what they want to see. - Positivists claim that observation is unreliable because it is not replicable. It would be unlikely that another researcher would establish the same quality of relationships with the same group and generate the same sort of data. - It is often unsystematic and is rarely quantified, although Laud Humphreys attempted both these things. - It is difficult to generalise from observation studies since they focus on small and often unusual groups who may not be representative of mainstream society.

Different ways of asking closed questions

There are several ways of asking closed questions: - The simplest form is the yes/no question - Another option is the multiple-choice question - A third option is scales, which are useful for measuring attitudes, beliefs and opinions. For example, on a scale of 1-5, 1 can mean 'very strongly agree', 2 'agree', 3 'neutral', 4 'disagree' and 5 'strongly disagree': Interpretivists argue that closed questions tend to reflect the sociologist's view of what is important. They assume that the sociologist knows all the right questions and answers and that any alternatives are unimportant. Respondents may feel forced into making responses that they do not really agree with or they may react by not responding at all.

Can Sociology be objective?

There is a debate about whether sociologists can be objective and value-free. We have seen that positivists argue that Sociology should use the objective approach of natural science as far as is possible. However, even they recognise the complexity of human relationships and few would claim that experiments and laboratory conditions have much place in sociological research. Rather, they prefer rigorously designed methods that collect reliable quantitative data. Most interpretivists would follow Max Weber in agreeing that Sociology should strive to be value-free and that it is important to interpret the results of research as objectively as possible, without letting our own views get in the way. However interpretivists claim that values will inevitably influence research design - the questions asked and the methods used. And as they are interested in the experiences of people, they prefer to gather more valid qualitative data. As you work through this section, bear this question in mind and form your own judgement about how objective it is possible and desirable to be when studying society.

Using one example, briefly explain why triangulation can be valuable in sociological research. (2 marks)

Triangulation is valuable because both quantitative and qualitative data have their strengths: quantitative methods can be used to measure the impact of structural influences, while qualitative methods can be used to see how people interpret the influence of these structural pressures. For example, a questionnaire survey can be used to add quantitative data to the qualitative data gained from unstructured interviews.

Questionnaires

Usually, questionnaires are self-completion questionnaires made up of a list of questions, given to subjects on paper or in electronic format. The subjects fill in their responses. Questionnaires can use two types of question: - Closed questions give people pre-defined choices such as 'Yes/No' or a list of choices. These are most useful for collecting quantitative data. - Open questions ask people to write their own response. These can be used to gather a certain amount of qualitative data. Questionnaires are usually distributed by post, or electronically, though in some cases they may be handed out by researchers, or through intermediaries. For example, a questionnaire about health could be distributed via GP surgeries. Respondents usually complete the questionnaire in the privacy of their own home. The advantages of questionnaires include: - They can be used with larger samples than any other method, and may also be the only practical method when the sample is geographically dispersed (for example, when spread across a region, country or even a continent). - Questionnaires are less time-consuming for the researchers than most other methods. This means they can be cheaper to use. - The questionnaires that are returned are usually returned quickly and so can be a quicker method than interviews - though it is important to build in time to design and pilot the questions to make sure people understand them. - The absence of interviewers means there is no risk of interviewer effect or interviewer bias. - By offering anonymity people might be prepared to answer more honestly to sensitive or personal questions than might be the case when faced with an interviewer. - As a method, well-designed questionnaires are generally seen to be high in reliability. The disadvantages of questionnaires include: - Compared to other methods the response rate can be low - often only 25% or less. Such low response rates can undermine the representativeness of the sample. People with an interest in the subject matter make a greater effort to respond, which can make the results even less representative. - If the questions are not well designed they will not elicit an appropriate response. Respondents may misunderstand some questions, or give misleading or inaccurate answers. People who choose the same response may not mean the same thing by it. - There is no opportunity to probe interesting answers or observe the social context in which questions were answered. In this sense, it is an inflexible method. - Questionnaires are artificial devices that are not part of everyday life. They may therefore attract distorted and exaggerated answers. - You cannot guarantee that the right person has completed the questionnaire. - Interpretivist sociologists argue that questionnaires are low in validity. There can also be problems in operationalising concepts - for example, if you were looking at job satisfaction how would you decide what is meant by job satisfaction and how could you measure this? The term may mean different things to different people.

Define the term 'value freedom'. (2 marks)

Value freedom means that sociologists' personal values and prejudices should not in any way influence the research process.

Primary and secondary data

We can also distinguish between primary and secondary data: Primary data: Primary data are data that researchers collect themselves as part of the research study. This could include questionnaire data from a survey, records of interviews or notes made by the researcher during an observation. The advantage to researchers of collecting primary data is that they can specifically tailor their questions to obtain primary data that addresses these requirements. However, collecting primary data takes time and money and as we saw in Topic 2 it can still raise issues of reliability, validity and representativeness. Secondary data: Secondary data are data that already exists and has been produced by other people. This could include official publications and statistics and previous sociological research, as well as personal documents like letters and diaries or material from social networks such as Facebook, Twitter or Instagram. The quality of secondary data can be variable, depending upon their source and the way they were collected. Data from government statistics are likely to be reliable whereas an Internet site which makes unsubstantiated claims is likely to be unreliable. When a piece of data has been produced by a dependable source, and is freely available, it saves the researcher both time and money since it avoids the necessity of collecting it first hand.

Reliability and validity

We have seen in earlier topics the importance of reliability and validity. However, different research methods are more likely to result in different levels of reliability and validity. Reliability: Reliable research is standardised and can be repeated accurately. As we saw in Section 2, reliability refers to where research findings could be replicated either by the researcher - or, indeed, anyone else. If the research was repeated would it produce the same results? If the answer is 'yes', then it is said to be reliable, if not then it is 'low in reliability'. Sometimes sociologists distinguish between: - Internal reliability: whether findings are consistent within the research study. For example, have subjects have been consistent in their responses? - External reliability: whether findings are consistent over time. For example, to test if tuition fees continue to influence Higher Education applications, this needs to be researched annually since university applications over time may be increasingly influenced by other factors. Research that is said to be reliable is most commonly associated with the positivist approach and generally collects quantitative data rather than qualitative data. Qualitative research, by its nature, tends to be lower in reliability since it is harder to replicate unstructured interviews or participant observation. Validity: Valid research is true to life and in-depth. Validity means that research findings are 'true to life'. Research can only claim to be valid when it is an honest portrayal of the meanings, feelings and qualities of the people or issues being studied. Getting people to be honest can be particularly problematic when the research topic is of a sensitive or personal nature. For example, people may find it hard to talk honestly and openly about embarrassing subjects. This clearly involves highly skilled research skills and it can take time to build up a rapport with respondents. - Validity is therefore important to any research that aims to gain in-depth insights into how people think, or why they behave in the ways they do. - This is particularly important for research based on the interpretive approach as this focuses on experiences and meanings. - The research methods of unstructured interviews or observation can generate qualitative data that is rich in the meanings that lie behind people's actions. As we saw in Topic 1, researchers need to be able to use verstehen - empathetic understanding - being able to put themselves inside the heads of the people they are studying so they see the world through their eyes. Because research using these methods is difficult to replicate, then it follows that research that is high in validity is often low in reliability (and vice versa).

Sociological research

We saw in Section 2 how sociological research needs to be rigorous (i.e. thorough and to a high standard) and systematic in its attempt to establish the truth about social phenomena. We have seen how sociological research should be: - ethical -practical -valid -reliable -representative. When deciding how to carry out a piece of research, sociologists will consider three key questions: - First, they need to think about how their theoretical frameworks or paradigms will guide their investigation. The different perspectives we met in Section 1, such as functionalism and interactionism, tend to approach research in radically different ways. We will look at how theoretical frameworks guide research in this topic. - Second, they need to decide which research methods to use to generate data relevant to their subject - for example, questionnaires, interviews or observation. Many research projects will use more than one method. We have already met examples of research methods in Section 2 and we will examine them in greater detail in Topic 4. - Thirdly, their research will generate different kinds of data. Data can be quantitative - in the form of numbers such as statistics that describe measurable facts. Or it can be qualitative - in the form of words that describe people's experiences, feelings and meanings. Many research projects will use both quantitative and qualitative data. The rest of this topic focuses on theoretical frameworks of: positivism interpretavism realism

Bias and the interviewer effect

When conducting interviews it is important to bear in mind both: - Interviewer bias - where the interviewer's own values affect the way they carry out the interview. They need to ask and record the questions in as objective way as possible. Their non-verbal signals (eye-contact, posture, tone of voice) should be neutral, so that respondents do not feel their answers are being judged in any way. As a result interviewing is a highly skilled role. - Interviewer effect - where the interviewer's class, gender, ethnicity, appearance, etc. may affect how people respond. People may answer questions about gender differently to a male or female interviewer. Similarly, the ethnic background of the interviewer can have a significant interviewer effect - people may make different comments about other ethnic groups depending on the ethnic background of the interviewer.

Observation covert observation

With covert observation the researcher joins a group without making clear that they are a sociologist. In most cases they will be participants though they may not take part in certain activities, especially deviant or criminal behaviour. It is often adopted as a method when a researcher lacks easy access to a group, for example if the group does not want to be observed. The approach is commonly used in the research of subcultures such as gangs. Clearly, to blend in with the group the researchers need to share similar characteristics. So in the case of covertly observing a gang the researcher would need to match the ethnicity and class of the members, as well as dressing and speaking like them. There are ethical concerns about spying on people and there is no easy answer to the question about what is a legitimate subject to study and what is a legitimate method. Laud Humphreys (1970) who researched 'tearooms' (public toilets used by gay men in the USA) defended his covert tactics even though he recognised that much of his research was not particularly 'nice work'. By studying people from the 'inside' the researchers hope to gain some understanding of the true meanings that lie behind their actions. In this sense it is highly naturalistic and can arguably be the method that gives the most valid data. However, even the presence of an extra person (the researcher) can sometimes influence the dynamics of the group and alter the results. In one example a researcher got a job as a bouncer in order to fully immerse himself into night club culture. He could then observe behaviour without people realising that he was a researcher in the field. Because he was seen as simply another bouncer this helped ensure that the club-goers' behaviour would be natural and normal without any observer effect.

Observation Overt Observation

With overt observation the subjects are fully aware that the researcher is a sociologist. If it is a participant study the researcher will also participate in their behaviour. Because the observation is overt there is a danger that those being studied will not behave normally or naturally - the 'observer effect'. However, many researchers are surprised at how often their presence appears to be 'forgotten' by those they are observing, who return to natural behaviour. Strengths of overt observation include: - It is a naturalistic approach high in validity, potentially offering detailed and in-depth information about the meanings that lie behind behaviour. This was undoubtedly the case with Venkatesh's Gang Leader for a Day research (2009). - By being honest and overt this approach avoids the risk of 'going native' (which refers to the situation when objectivity is lost and the researcher becomes a real member of the group). - It offers an opportunity for detailed research of people's behaviour with easy recording of data and the asking of questions. - It should offer access to all levels of the group enabling the researcher to construct a world view that reflects the group's norms, values and language. - Unlike covert observation, the researcher does not have to match the characteristics of those being researched (see below for further details on this). Weaknesses of overt observation: - As with all observation, there are issues of reliability and the method is time-consuming and costly. - There is a risk of an 'observer effect' - when Eileen Barker researched The Making of a Moonie (1984) she recognised the risk that her presence might influence the behaviour of the moonies she studied. In Venkatesh's research his presence as someone who was not a 'normal' gang member certainly had an impact on how other gang members regarded him. - The group may oppose being observed.

Topic 2 - Planning research

n Topic 1 we looked at the broad theoretical frameworks within which sociological researchers operate. In this topic we go on to look at some key questions in research design - the planning of a sociological research study: Choosing a topic and research question - we will look at how this may be influenced by a researcher's theoretical standpoint as well as practical issues such as the availability of funding. How researchers can take an abstract concept like social class and turn this into concrete measures that can be studied. How the research methods used may have an impact on the reliability and validity of data. How researchers go about narrowing down the whole population they wish to study by the use of sampling.

Realists and triangulation

n practice many research sociologists use a combination of the two approaches. This third approach - sometimes called realism - recognises strengths within each of the two other approaches, yet is also critical of key elements of both. Realists believe that a structured reality exists, but unlike the positivists, disagree that this reality is directly observable. Like the rings of an onion these structures are not necessarily observable, so the researcher has to probe beneath the surface of society in order to find out more about their existence. Meet the researcher Realists argue that collecting both quantitative data and qualitative data allows the strengths of one to compensate for the weaknesses of the other. They do this by using a range of methods, a practice known as triangulation. Arguments in favour of triangulation include the fact that by acquiring both quantitative and qualitative data a fuller picture of the subject matter can be obtained. The findings of one method can be cross-checked by using additional methods. Clearly, though, using more than one method will add to the time and costs of the research. Anthony Giddens: Anthony Giddens (1976) put forward a theory of structuration, which suggested that both social structure and social action influence social behaviour. Structuration theory acknowledges the influences of social constraints such as social class on people but points out that these influences depend on how those affected interpret them; for example, you can choose to be a passive victim of the constraints imposed on you by your social class or you can attempt to resist such pressures.This theory argues that people are free-thinking, choice-making individuals but that often action and choice take place within structural constraints. Giddens consequently advocates the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods in order to study the relationship between social structure and social action.