SOCY 344 - Final Exam Review

Sociological Imagination

the sociological imagination is the ability to see the relationship between an individual's experiences and the larger society in which they are contextualized. allows us to connect the private issues of individuals to the public issues of society With a clearer understanding of how we find ourselves in the situations we do, we may be able to develop more eff ective levels of prevention and intervention.

Glass Ceiling

the invisible institutional barrier constructed by male management that prevents women from reaching top positions in major corporations and other large-scale organizations.

Discrimination

Discrimination is the actions or practices of dominant group members that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups

Gender Ideology

The social basis for gender roles is known as the gender belief system or gender ideology—ideas of masculinity and femininity that are held to be valid in a given society at a specific historical time (Lorber 1994). Gender ideology is reflected in what sociologists refer to as the gendered division of labour—the process whereby productive tasks are separated on the basis of gender. This difference in how labour is divided, how workers are rewarded, and what cultural value is accorded to paid versus unpaid labour affects access to scarce resources such as wealth, power, and prestige. Given their domain, men have greater access to these resources, a situation that leads to gender inequality in other areas

Functionalist Perspective Brief Summary (Macrolevel Analysis)

the functionalist perspective, which views society as a basically stable and orderly entity;

The Meaning of Majority and Minority Groups

A majority (or dominant) group is one that is advantaged and has superior access to resources and rights in a society A minority (or subordinate) group is one whose members, because of supposed physical or cultural characteristics, are disadvantaged and subjected to negative discriminatory treatment by the majority group and regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination

What Is a Social Problem?

A social problem is a social condition (such as poverty) or a pattern of behaviour (such as violence against women) that people believe warrants public concern and collective action to bring about change.

Theory vs Perspective

A theory is a set of logically related statements that attempt to describe, explain, and occasionally predict social events. Theories are useful for explaining relationships between social concepts or phenomena, such as "ethnicity and unemployment" or "gender and poverty." Sociologists refer to this theoretical framework as a perspective—an overall approach or viewpoint toward some subject.

Functionalist Perspective on Aging and Social Inequality

According to functionalists, dramatic changes in such social institutions as the family and the economy have influenced how people look at the process of growing old. Disengagement Theory: encouraging older people to leave, suggests older people want to be released from societal expectations of productivity and competitiveness What if older people don't want to disengage from work because they are still productive and gaining satisfaction

The Functionalist Perspective on Gender Inequality

According to such early functionalists as Talcott Parsons (1955), gender inequality is inevitable because of the biological division of labour: men generally are physically stronger than women and have certain abilities and interests, whereas women, as the only sex able to bear and nurse children, have their own abilities and interests. Men more suited to instrumental goals (goal-oriented) women more expressive (emotionally oriented) the division of labor continues in the workplace where women do expressive work and men again do instrumental work causes women to cluster in organizations where women do expressive work and men do goal oriented work (nursing vs law) functionalists also argue that women diminish their human capital when they leave the labor force to engage in child bearing and childcare activities that are not valued when they leave, harder to come back and earn high wages because of their work experience

The Functionalist Perspective Summary Detailed

According to the functionalist perspective, society is a stable, orderly system composed of several interrelated parts, each of which performs a function that contributes to the overall stability of society (Parsons 1951). These interrelated parts are social institutions (such as families, the economy, education, and the government) that a society develops to organize its main concerns and activities so that it meets social needs. Each institution performs a unique function, contributing to the overall stability of society and the well-being of individuals (Merton 1968).

The Value Conflict Perspective

According to value conflict theorists, social problems are conditions that are incompatible with group values. Culture refers to the knowledge, language, values, customs, and material objects that are passed from person to person and from one generation to the next in a human group or society. Discrepancies between ideal and real culture are a source of social problems in all societies. Ideal culture refers to the values and beliefs that people claim they hold; real culture refers to the values and beliefs they actually follow.

What is discrimination?

Actions or practices of dominant group members (or their representatives) that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups.

Interactionist Perspective on Aging and Social Inequality

Activity Theory: older people who are active are happier and better adjusted Criticism: older people may not wish or be able to maintain active lifestyles

Problems Linked to Being Elderly

Ageism and Age-Based Stereotypes Ageism—prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age—is a social problem that particularly stigmatizes and marginalizes older people. (Butler) Ageism often tolerated in comparison to discrimination on gender or race Many agree seniors 75 and older are less important and often ignored

Internalized Dominance

All the ways that White people learn they are normal, feel included, and do not think of themselves as "other" or "different." White people carry this privilege around with them at all times, everywhere they go, and they are generally unaware of it.

Ethnic Group/Ethnicity

An ethnic group is a category of people who are distinguished, by others or by themselves, on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics (Feagin and Feagin 2011). These can include language, country of origin, and adherence to a culture. These can include language, country of origin, and adherence to a culture. Briefly stated, members of an ethnic group share five main characteristics: (1) unique cultural traits; (2) a sense of community; (3) a feeling that one's own group is distinct; (4) membership from birth; and (5) a tendency, at least initially, to occupy a distinct geographic area

How Can Poverty Be Reduced?

Analysts who focus on individualistic explanations of poverty typically suggest individual solutions: Low-income and poverty-level people should change their attitudes, beliefs, and work habits. People who use cultural explanations seek cultural solutions; they suggest that poverty can be reduced by the enhancement of people's cultural capital. (Urge more job training, education to enhance people's cultural capital) Although some analysts seeking structural solutions suggest that poverty can be eliminated only if capitalism is abolished and a new means of distributing valued goods and services is established, others state that poverty can be reduced by the creation of "a truly open society—a society where the life chances of those at the bottom are not radically different from those at the top and where wealth is distributed more equitably" (MacLeod 1995:260).

The Conflict Perspective on Poverty and Class Inequality

Another structural explanation for poverty is based on a conflict perspective that suggests poverty is a side eff ect of the capitalist system. The wage squeeze is the steady downward pressure on the real take-home pay of workers that has occurred over the past three decades. Corporate downsizing and new technologies that replace workers have further enhanced capitalists' profits and contributed to the impoverishment of middleand low-income workers by creating a reserve army of unemployed people whom the capitalists use for casual labour and as a means to keep other workers' wages low.

How Canada Deals With Poverty

As part of an overall retrenchment of government programs and services in Canada, structural poverty is dealt with as though it is an individual problem. Rather than examining ways of eliminating poverty or dealing with poverty at a societal level, we off er temporary assistance. Charity, soup kitchens, etc.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Associated with Interactionist Perspective Robert Merton (1968) suggested that when people perceive a situation in a certain way and act according to their perceptions, the end result may be a self-fulfilling prophecy—a false definition of a situation that evokes a new behaviour that makes the original false conception become true. Those who are "labelled juvenile delinquent" - may accept the label and adopt delinquent behaviour

Conflict Perspective on Ageism and Social Inequality

Assumes that inequality occurs because older workers do not choose to leave the workforce but are pushed out because of ageism People who were disadvantaged in their younger years (resource and economically) will be even more so in their older years Argues that the capitalist system devalues older people

Feminist Perspectives on Gender Inequality

Basing their work on a Marxist approach, socialist feminists state that under capitalism, men gain control over property and over women. Thus, capitalism exploits women in the workplace, and patriarchy exploits women at home. (Capitalists benefit from gendered division of labor by paying women less) Men benefit from the additional work women do at home that goes unvalued Radical feminists focus exclusively on patriarchy as the primary source of gender inequality. (men's oppression of women is deliberate through patriarchial social institutions) Liberal feminists: gender inequality is rooted in gender role socialization, which perpetuates women's lack of equal rights and educational opportunities (women are seen to be unequal because they are not given access to opportunities to make comparable wages)

Social Welfare in Canada

Canada, like many other advanced capitalist nations, is a welfare state—a nation in which the government intervenes in the welfare of its citizens through various social policies, programs, standards, and regulations. Health care, education, pension plans, workers compensation, minimum wage, etc. all subsumed under the mantle of the welfare state A newly internationalized capitalism put increased pressure on governments to enact new neo-liberal policies that would have the eff ect of reducing government interventions such as income assistance, EI, and so on, called "barriers to trade" by neo-liberals.

2 Terms that Distinguish People's Actual Age and their Performance

Chronological Age: age based on date of birth Functional Age: age based on individual attributes such as physical appearance, strength, coordination, mental capacity

Historical Roots of Racism

Colonialism was viewed as a "natural" and inevitable process, just like capitalism and imperialism. Colonialists saw themselves as assisting those whom they were exploiting in their evolutionary progression from savagery through barbarism to civilization.

The Canadian Lower Class

Comprised of the working poor and the chronically poor The working poor are those who work full-time in (often) unskilled positions, such as seasonal or migrant agricultural workers or the lowest-paid service sector workers, but still remain at the edge of poverty. Individuals who are chronically poor include people of working age who are unemployed or outside the labour force, and children who live in poor families caught in long-term deprivation. (Overrepresented are those unable to work such as disabled, lone parent mothers)

The Conflict Perspective on Racialized and Ethnic Inequality

Conflict theorists explain racialized and ethnic inequality in terms of economic stratification and access to power. Class perspectives on racialized and ethnic inequality highlight the role of the capitalist class in racialized exploitation. For example, according to sociologist Oliver C. Cox (1948), the primary cause of slavery was the capitalist desire for profit, not racialized prejudice. According to the split-labour market theory, the economy is divided into two employment sectors: a primary sector composed of higher-paid workers in more secure jobs and a secondary sector composed of lower-paid workers in jobs that often involve hazardous working conditions and little job security (Bonacich 1972, 1976). Dominant group members are usually employed in primary sector positions, while subordinate group members are concentrated in the secondary sector. A second critical-conflict perspective examines internal colonialism—a process that occurs when members of a racialized/ethnic group are conquered or colonized and forcibly placed under the economic and political control of the dominant group. The last critical-conflict perspective we will look at is the theory of racial formation, which states that the government substantially defines racialized and ethnic relations. From this perspective, racialized bias and discrimination tend to be rooted in government actions, ranging from the passage of "race"-related legislation to imprisonment of members of groups that are believed to be a threat to society.

Conflict Perspective on Homicide

Conflict theorists who focus on class-based inequalities believe that the potential for homicide is inherent in capitalist societies. These theorists say, when the poor engage in violence, the violence is typically committed by the individual and may be a reaction to the unjust social and economic conditions he or she experiences daily on the bottom rung of a capitalist society.

Cultural Racism

Cultural racism refers to cultural values that reinforce the interest of the dominant group while undermining the interests of subordinate groups.

Relative Poverty

Even those who do not live in absolute poverty often experience hardships based on relative poverty, a condition that exists when people can afford basic necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter but cannot maintain an average standard of living in comparison to that of other members of their society or group. I.e. not having AC in a hot region

Everyday Active vs Passive Racism

Everyday racism can be further distinguished into active and passive racism (Henry et al. 2000:55). Active racism, according to social psychologist Philomena Essed (1990), includes any act (including the use of language) that is motivated by the intention of excluding or making a person or group feel inferior because of his/ her/their minority group status. Passive racism includes being complicit in another's racism, for example laughing at a racist joke or "not hearing" racist comments

The Media and Gender Socialization

Females' acceptance or praise for being "good" and/ or "compliant" is consistently reinforced throughout all types of media. Kendall, Diana; Thompson, Edward G.; Nygaard, Vicki L.. Social Problems in a Diverse Society, Fourth Canadian Edition, (Page 71). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition. Julia T. Wood (2001) identifies three themes in contemporary media that reflect gender. The first theme is the underrepresentation of women and other minority groups. (white, able-bodied men more prevalent in media) The second theme is the stereotypical fashion in which males and females are presented. (incompetent, unintelligent, young, thin, sex objects) The third theme is the portrayal of male-female relations along traditional lines and in ways that perpetuate and normalize violence against women

Feminist Perspective on Homicide

Feminist perspectives of homicide highlight issues of dominance and power. Inequalities between groups can result in violence. People who enjoy power and privilege likely commit as many acts of violence as those who are disenfranchised. The main difference between groups is that those without power are disproportionately targeted. One feminist perspective holds that violence against women is a means of reinforcing patriarchy

Feminist Perspectives

Feminist theorists begin their analysis by pointing out that mainstream sociological thought and theory is both androcentric and Eurocentric (Alvi, DeKeseredy, and Ellis 2000:19). This means most sociological theory is based on the experiences, ideas, and issues of concern for males of European and Western extraction. European and male perspectives are valid, of course, but they are partial. feminist theories, anti-racist theories, post-colonial theories, Indigenous theories, and so on have been created and employed to account for more of social life, in addition to maintaining the mainstream theories previously discussed There are no "feminist issues" per se. Every issue is a feminist issue. They "gender" the issues they study This means that theorists look at the diff erential impacts of social phenomena for men and women, and more recently for transgendered or non-gendered people as well. A final defining feature of feminist theories is the idea of beginning one's analysis from a particular "standpoint." This is to say that social life is examined from the situated vantage points of the individuals and/or groups involved. Lengermann and Niebrugge-Brantley (1992:319) provide a classification system that categorizes various feminist theories as (a) theories of difference, (b) theories of inequality, or (c) theories of oppression. They think that women are disadvantaged relative to men Theories of oppression suggest that not only are women's situations diff erent from and unequal to men's, but that women are actively subordinated and kept disadvantaged Several feminist theorists today call for simultaneous analyses of interlocking oppressions (see Chapter 3). These feminist theorists view the social world as a matrix of domination where sexism, racism, heterosexism, classism, and other marginalized statuses meet in myriad ways over issues. final defining feature of feminist theory—a propensity to propel its adherents toward engaged social action.

Three Major Types of Research Methods Used by Sociologists

Field Research Survey Research Secondary Analysis of Existing Data

Field Research

Field research is the study of social life in its natural setting: observing and interviewing people where they live, work, and play. Field research is valuable because some kinds of behaviour and social problems can be studied best by being there and developing a more complete understanding through observations, face-to-face discussions, and participation in events. Must possess good interpersonal skills to do such research

Dysfunctions and Social Disorganization

From the functionalist perspective, social problems arise when social institutions do not fulfill their functions or when dysfunctions occur. Dysfunctions are the undesirable consequences of an activity or social process that inhibits a society's ability to adapt or adjust (Merton 1968). Social disorganization refers to the conditions in society that undermine the ability of traditional social institutions to govern human behaviour (causes a breakdown in the traditional values and norms that serve as social control mechanisms, which, under normal circumstances, keep people from engaging in non-conforming behavior.

Four Major Theoretical Perspectives Emerged in Sociology

Functionalist Perspective Conflict Perspective Interactionist Perspective Feminist Perspective

Feminist and Anti-Racist Perspectives on Ethnic and Racial Inequality

Gendered racism may be defined as the interactive effect of racism and sexism in exploiting Indigenous women and women "of colour." Anti-racist feminist theorizing differs from mainstream feminist theorizing: it challenges the notion of a common experience that all women share under capitalism; and it focuses on the specific ways that class, gender, and ethnicity play out as interconnections.

Gerontology and age

Geronotology examines the biological, social, and physical aspects of the aging process

Grassroots Groups That Work For Community Based Change (Mid-Range Attempt)

Grassroots groups are organizations started by ordinary people who work in concert to deal with a perceived problem in their neighbourhood, city, province or territory, or nation. Using this approach, people learn how to empower themselves against local, provincial, territorial, and national government officials, as well as corporate executives and media figures who determine what constitutes the news in their area. Grassroots groups important because they lead to more collectivity and action that leads to social movements with more collective action A social movement is an organized group that acts collectively to promote or resist change through collective action Example of Mid-Range Group (Pollution Probe, MAAD,)

Consequences of Power

Health and Nutrition Good nutrition, which is essential to good health, depends on the food consumed. When people are poor, they are more likely to purchase cheap but filling foods such as beans, rice, and potatoes that may not meet all daily nutritional requirements, or to go without food altogether. Kendall, Diana; Thompson, Edward G.; Nygaard, Vicki L.. Social Problems in a Diverse Society, Fourth Canadian Edition, (Page 32). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition. Housing High-density, overcrowded areas, inadequate heating, dangerous conditions, bad maintenance Education

High, Middle, Low Income Nations

High-income nations are countries with highly industrialized economies; technologically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations; and relatively high levels of national and per capita (per person) income. Middle-income nations are countries changing from agrarian to industrial economies. Recently, the World Bank subdivided middle-income nations into two categories: upper-middle-income economies and lower-middle-income economies. Low-income nations are primarily agrarian countries that have little industrialization and low levels of national and personal income

Racialized Group

In contrast to an attempted biological definition of "race," sociologists define a racialized group as a category of people who have been singled out, by others or themselves, as inferior or superior on the basis of subjectively selected physical characteristics such as skin colour, hair texture, and eye shape. Blacks, Whites, Asians, and Indigenous peoples are all examples of categories of people who have been racialized. Racialization is therefore a process in that a group becomes racialized

Institutional Discrimination

In contrast to individual discrimination, institutional discrimination consists of the day-to-day practices of organizations and institutions that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups. Institutional racism refers to various organizational practices, policies, and procedures that discriminate, either purposely or inadvertently. If there is the intent to deny privilege or to exclude, it is referred to as institutional. If not, it is referred to as systemic. For example, many mortgage companies are more likely to make loans to White people than to people "of colour" or to members of Indigenous groups (see Squires 1994). Institutional discrimination is carried out by the individuals who implement policies and procedures that result in negative and differential treatment of subordinate group members.

Microlevel Attempts to Solve Social Problems

In these situations, we typically begin to deal with the problem in an individualized way. Microlevel solutions to social problems focus on how individuals operate within small groups to try to remedy a problem that aff ects them, their family, or their friends. Usually, when individuals have personal problems, they turn to their primary groups—small, less-specialized groups in which members engage in face-to-face, emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time. Primary groups include one's family, close friends, and other peers with whom one routinely shares the more personal experiences in life. These help because primary groups usually support us when others do not Sometimes the solution seems temporary "Band-Aid Approach" - they do not eliminate causes, they reduce effects for a while

Secondary Analysis of Existing Data

In which investigators analyze data that originally were collected by others for some other purpose. This method is also known as unobtrusive research because data can be gathered without the researcher having to interview or observe research subjects.

Indigenous Peoples and Discrimination

Indigenous peoples are our most disadvantaged groups in many ways. When Europeans came later in great numbers, the Indigenous peoples were exploited, driven off their land, or killed Residential schools. In these schools, students were actively discouraged from speaking their language or learning about their culture, and many were physically and sexually abused. Prevent them from seeing their parents as role models

Individual Discrimination

Individual discrimination consists of one-on-one acts by members of the dominant group that harm members of the subordinate group or their property (Carmichael and Hamilton 1967). Individual discrimination results from the prejudices and discriminatory actions of bigoted people who target one or more subordinate group members. i.e. taxi driver who refuses to pick up passengers who are brown

Institutional Racism vs Systemic Racism

Institutional racism refers to various organizational practices, policies, and procedures that discriminate, either purposely or inadvertently. If there is the intent to deny privilege or to exclude, it is referred to as institutional. If not, it is referred to as systemic. Systemic racism is embedded in the design of the organization, is formalized, and is legally sanctioned by the state. Discriminatory practices reflect the values of the dominant culture and act to deliberately prevent certain groups from participating in the culture. (Ex. Disallowance of Japanese Canadians voting in Quebec, the height and weight requirements once used for police recruits which prevented women and indigenous people from participating)

Interactionist Perspective on Homicide

Interactionist explanations of homicide begin by noting that human behaviour is learned through social interaction. Violence, interactionists state, is a learned response, not an inherent characteristic in the individual. According to interactionists, reducing homicide requires changing those societal values that encourage excessive competition and violence. These changes must occur at the microlevel, which means agents of socialization must transmit different attitudes and values toward violence.

How Can Gender Inequality be Reduced?

Interactionists: redefine linguistic sexism (language modification so it doesn't convey masculine superiority) Functionalists: traditional gender roles redefined, women become aware of decisions they make when leaving labor market Conflict: abolish capitalism Liberal: changing gender role socialization and what children learn about behavior and attitudes. Radical: abolish patriarchy

Three Broad Categories of Racism

Interpersonal: redneck and polite racism (name calling, racial slurs based on notion that one's culture is superior) (Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and other legislation passed to reduce) Institutional: systematic and systemic racism ( Societal: everyday and cultural racism

Labelling Theory and the Social Construction of Reality

Labelling theory, as this perspective is called, suggests that behaviour that deviates from established norms is deviant because it has been labelled as such by others. According to this theory, deviants (nonconformists) are people who have been successfully labelled as such by others. According to some interaction theorists, many social problems can be linked to the social construction of reality— the process by which people's perception of reality is shaped largely by the subjective meaning that they give to an experience (Berger and Luckmann 1967).

Characteristics of Later Age and Maturity

Later maturity considered to begin in the 60s Peer groups shrink as friends and relatives die Old age - begins in late 60s or 70s 3 Categories (Young Old, Middle Old, Old-Old) Many people make generalizations about older people - most believe lonely and lost in retirement and are uniform in health etc. Not true, many provide a great deal of time and financial support for families and charities

Indigenous People are Disadvantaged in 4 Central Ways

Life expectancy (6 year gap) Education (Differences in diploma rate) Income (earned 2/3 of what non-indigenous people make) Incarceration (20% of adults in federal custody)

Distinguishing between long-term care facilities and residences for elderly

Long-term care is defined as many services for people needing help with activities of daily living (ADL), such as eating, dressing, and bathing. This Homecare is when they come to your home and take care of you (cheaper)

Measuring Poverty

Low-income measure (LIM) is half the median family income. Those below that level have a low-income. The LIM is adjusted for family size. Low-income cut-off (LICO) is the income level below which a family would devote 50+ percent of their income to food, clothing, and shelter. The LICO is also adjusted for family and community size and before or after taxes. In 2009, the threshold for a person living in Toronto was $18 421 (see Figure 11 .5). Market basket measure (MBM) is the income a family would need to be able to purchase a basket of goods that includes food, clothing, shelter, transportation, and other basic needs. Like the other measures, MBM varies by family size and composition, and community size

Macrolevel Attempts to Solve Social Problems

Macrolevel solutions to social problems focus on how large-scale social institutions such as the government and the media may be persuaded to become involved in remedying social problems. People seeking macrolevel solutions to social problems may become members of special interest groups - group—a political coalition composed of individuals or groups sharing a specific interest they wish to protect or advance with the help of the political system. Groups Categorized on Basis of 4 Factors: Issue focus, view of the present system of wealth and power, beliefs about elites, type of political action Civil disobedience—non-violent action that seeks to change a policy or law by refusing to comply with it. National social movements may be divided into five major categories: reform, revolutionary, religious, alternative, and resistance movements.

Manifest and Latent Functions

Manifest functions are intended and recognized consequences of an activity or social process. A manifest function of education, for example, is to provide students with knowledge, skills, and cultural values. Latent functions are the unintended consequences of an activity or social process that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants (Merton 1968). The latent functions of education include the babysitter function of keeping young people off the street and out of the full-time job market while their parents work, and the matchmaking function whereby schools provide opportunities for students to meet and socialize with potential marriage partners.

Feminist Perspectives on Poverty and Class Inequality

Many feminist perspectives on poverty or class inequality focus on the gendered character of stratification and poverty. Most of the people living in poverty are women and their children. This trend of women being disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty has been called the feminization of poverty. The Double Shift - not compensated properly Transfer of wealth to offspring opposed to widow after death

Housing Patterns and Long-Term Care Facilities Among Old People

Many people mistakenly assume that most older people live in long-term care facilities such as nursing homes. Even for those 85 years and over, only about a quarter of the men and a third of the women live in institutions. More than people of any other age category, old people are likely to reside in housing in which they have lived for a number of years free of debt (older women disadvantaged if they attempt to maintain their own home - made less money and utilities/bills are high)

Media Ageism: Preferring Younger and Stereotyping Older Age Groups

Many programs dropped to appeal to younger viewers Older people made to look younger in tv and film

Solutions to Problems of Aging

Micro-level: personal efforts to adapt (physcial activity) Mid-range: activism (Raging Grannies/CARP) Macro-level: government legislation and policy (pension plans, investment in home care and community care)

Microlevel vs Macro Level Analysis

Microlevel analysis focuses on small group relations and social interaction among individuals. Macrolevel analysis focuses on social processes occurring at the societal level, especially in large-scale organizations and major social institutions such as politics, government, and the economy.

Mid-Range Attempts to Solve Social Problems

Mid-range solutions to social problems focus on how secondary groups and formal organizations can help individuals to overcome issues such as drug addiction or domestic violence. Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous Typically, self-help groups bring together individuals who have experienced the same problem and have the same goals. Usually do not systematically address the structural factors (such as unemployment, work related stress, and aggressive advertising campaigns) that may contribute to the problems.

Family Problems and Social Isolation of Old People

Old people can become easily isolated from families Young people stop asking for advice, valuing opinions Most seniors living in private households alone However, "intimacy at a distance" - families still provide care and support for older families from a distance

Victimization of Aging People

Older people sometimes in family related violence More likely to be victimized by someone they knew then a stranger likely to be victimized by an adult child or a current/former spouse more vulnerable to physical violence (sometimes too afraid to report it) Pat's Place - safe havens for victimized old people (first one in Calgary)

The Functionalist Perspective on Racialized and Ethnic Inequality

One functionalist perspective focuses on assimilation, the process by which members of subordinate racialized and ethnic groups become absorbed into the dominant culture. Functionalists view assimilation as a stabilizing force that minimizes diff erences that otherwise might result in hostility and violence (Gordon 1964). Assimilation stabilizes society by minimizing the difference that might result from hostility and violence In its most complete form, assimilation becomes amalgamation, a process in which the cultural attributes of diverse racialized or ethnic groups are blended together to form a new society incorporating the unique contributions of each group. The Anglo-conformity model refers to a pattern of assimilation in which members of subordinate racialized/ethnic groups are expected to conform to the culture of the dominant (White) AngloSaxon population

What is a hospice?

Organizations that provide a homelike facility or home-based care for persons who are terminally ill

4 Types of Leisure Activity

Passive (watching tv, radio) Cognitive (books) Social (with friends) Physical (physical recreation)

Different Types of Euthanasia

Passive euthanasia means withholding or ceasing treatment of someone not likely to recover from a disease or injury. Active euthanasia means intervening to hasten someone's terminal illness, with, for example, a lethal dose of sedatives. Assisted suicide means helping someone end his or her life with, for example, drugs

Peers and Gender Socialization

Peer groups are powerful socializing agents that can reinforce existing gender stereotypes and pressure individuals to engage in gender-appropriate behaviour. Peer groups are social groups whose members are linked by common interests and, usually, by similar age. Male peer groups place more pressure on boys to do "masculine" things than female peer groups place on girls to do "feminine" things.

Types of Abuse Among Old People

Physical Emotional Financial (often through scams from con artists) Sexual Neglect

Power

Power is the ability of people to achieve their goals despite opposition from others.

Prejudice Concrete Defintion

Prejudice is a negative attitude about people based on such characteristics as racialization, gender, age, religion, or sexual orientation. Prejudice is rooted in ethnocentrism—the assumption that one's own group and way of life are superior to all others. Postive Ethnocentrism - singing national anthem Negative Ethnocentrism - can result if individuals come to believe, because of constant emphasis on the superiority or "normalcy" of their own group or nation, that other groups or nations are inferior and should be treated accordingly

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective on Racialized and Ethnic Inequality

Racialized socialization is a process of social interaction that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of one's racialized or ethnic status as it relates to (1) personal and group identity; (2) intergroup and inter-individual relationships; and (3) one's position in the social stratification system. Racialized socialization affects how people view themselves, other people, and the world. Comments made about race by parents, modelling behaviours etc.

Racism Concrete Definition

Racism is a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to justify the superior treatment of one racialized or ethnic group and the inferior treatment of another racialized or ethnic group.

Institutionalized Sexism

Refers to the power that men have to engage in sex discrimination at the organizational and institutional levels of society

Workplace Discrimination and Age

Remains despite provisions to Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms employers prefer younger to older workers because they believe in health problems, can pay younger workers less, and make more demands on time and energy often miss promotion/hiring because of age

Retirement: Income Security and Leisure Activities and Old People

Retirement Principle: idea that at a fixed age, regardless of mental or physical ability a person leaves work Less older people retiring early Many older people working past age of retirement (decrease chance of dimentia Sometimes, many older people don't have financial support to sustain their retirement * but most do Many older people provide financial support to children and grandchildren Most seniors in Canada are doing well

5 Aged Based Myths

Seniors tend to be incapacitated physically and mentally Seniors have little to contribute to society Seniors are dependent on public transfers and residential facilities Seniors quality of life is poor Seniors are costly to society

Defining Sex and Gender

Sex: refers to the biological, physiological, hormonal, and chromosomal attributes of females, males, and intersex people. Our sex is the first label we receive in life and is an ascribed status. Before birth or at the time of birth, we are typically identified as either male or female on the basis of our sex organs and genes. Gender: refers to the culturally and socially constructed sets of attitudes that dictate what behaviours, thoughts, and emotions are appropriate for each sex—these are culturally specific, change over time, and are associated with notions of femininity and masculinity. For many people, being masculine means being aggressive, independent, and unemotional, while being feminine means the opposite—being passive, dependent, and emotional.

Sexism

Sexism is the subordination of one sex, female, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex, male; patriarchy refers to a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men.

Social Change and Reducing Social Problems

Social change is the alteration, modification, or transformation of public policy, culture, or social institutions over time (Kendall 2000). Notice that this definition states that social change occurs "over time"; social change has a temporal dimension. Some eff orts to deal with social problems are short-term strategies, whereas others are middle-term remedies, and still others constitute long-term eff orts to alleviate the root causes of a social problem.

Social Stratification

Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of large social groups on the basis of their control over basic resources (Feagin and Feagin 1999). Today, the gap between the rich and the poor in Canada is wider than it has been for decades According to Marx, inequality and poverty are inevitable by-products of the exploitation of workers by capitalists. Weber was interested in people's life chances—the extent to which individuals have access to important societal resources such as food, clothing, shelter, education, and health care. He developed a multidimensional class model that focused on the interplay of wealth, power, and prestige as determinants of people's class position.

Societal Racism and Everyday Racism

Societal racism refers to the generalized, and typically unconscious, patterns of interaction between people that perpetuate a racialized social order. It is part of the general functioning of society and is said to precede other forms of racism Everyday racism refers to general, and seemingly benign, ideas about the relative superiority and inferiority of certain groups.

Functionalist Perspective on Homicide

Some functionalists believe that homicide arises from a condition of anomie, in which many individuals have a feeling of helplessness, normlessness, or alienation. These feelings can lead to seeking attachments in organized deviant behaviour, especially among the young.

Stereotypes

Stereotypes are fixed and distorted generalizations about the appearance, behaviour, or other characteristics of all members of a particular group.

Survey Research

Survey research allows sociologists to study a large population without having to interview everyone in that population. Surveys yield numerical data that may be compared between groups and over periods of time. This type of research does have certain limitations. The use of standardized questions limits the types of information researchers can obtain from respondents

How Can Racialized and Ethnic Inequalities Be Reduced?

Symbolic Interactionists: According to symbolic interactionists, prejudice and discrimination are learned, and what is learned can be unlearned. Only individuals and groups at the grassroots level, not government and political leaders or academic elites, can bring about greater ethnic equality. Functionalists: Because they believe a stable society requires smoothly functioning social institutions and people who have common cultural values and attitudes, functionalists suggest restructuring social institutions to reduce discrimination and diffuse racialized/ethnic conflict Conflict: racialized and ethnic inequality can be reduced only through struggle and political action. Conflict theorists believe that inequality is based on the exploitation of subordinate groups by the dominant group, and that political intervention is necessary to bring about economic and social change. Feminist and Anti-Racist Feminists: advocate critical analysis that begins from the myriad standpoints and situated experiences of people.

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective on Poverty and Class Inequality

Symbolic interactionists examine poverty from the perspective of meanings, definitions, and labels. How is poverty defined? How are people who are poor viewed by non-poor society members? How do people who are poor define themselves and their situations? Individual explanations of poverty amount to blaming the victim—a practice suggesting that the cause of a social problem emanates from within the individual or group who exhibits the problem, by virtue of some inherent lack or flaw on the part of the individual or group. According to Lewis, poor people have different values and beliefs than people from the middle and upper classes, and so develop a separate and self-perpetuating system of attitudes and behaviours that keeps them trapped in poverty. People trapped in the "culture of poverty" socialize their children into this cycle of poverty, and hence the culture supposedly perpetuates. More recent cultural explanations of poverty have focused on the lack of cultural capital—social assets, such as values, beliefs, attitudes, and competencies in language and culture that are learned at home and required for success and social advancement (Bourdieu and Passeron 1990). From this perspective, low-income people do not have adequate cultural capital to function in a competitive global economy.

The Interactionist Perspective of Gender Inequality

Symbolic interactionists focus on the differential socialization processes that create masculinity and femininity in people. When a child is assigned a gender at birth, typically corresponding to sex, culturally appropriate gender socialization begins wholeheartedly. Children learn which attitudes, skills, behaviours, likes and dislikes, and so on are appropriate for each gender. linguistic sexism—that is, for words and patterns of communication that ignore, devalue, or sexually objectify women. Linguistic sexism, some analysts believe, perpetuates traditional gender-role stereotypes and reinforces male dominance. Language can also be used to devalue women by referring to them in terms that reinforce the notion that they are sex objects.

Most Effective Poverty Reduction Plans Include:

Targets and Timelines Accountability Comprehensiveness Focus on Marginalized Groups Community Involvement

Solutions to Age-Based Inequality?

Technology may bring better freedom and equality for older people home based services such as banking and shopping etc. technology can bring recreation and education into the home

1993 Violence Against Women Survey

The 1993 VAW Survey, which asked a sample of 12 300 women to report their lifetime experiences of assault, sexual assault, and sexual harassment, found that most assaults go unreported to police. Only 14 percent of all assaults had been reported; wife assaults were reported at a rate of 26 percent. Fifty-one percent of Canadian women had experienced at least one incident of physical or sexual assault since the age of 16. Forty-five percent of these women were assaulted by men known to them, and an additional 23 percent were assaulted by a stranger

The White Ribbon Campaign

The White Ribbon Campaign, begun in 1991 and carried out by Canadian men to raise awareness and educate men and boys about violence against women, continues to gain support each year. In fact, this campaign is the largest worldwide effort by men to end violence against women and is currently operating in over 80 countries.

What is Sociology?

The academic and scholarly discipline that engages in systematic study of human society and social interactions.

Age, Family Structure, Sex, Immigration and Indigenous Status on Being Poor

The chances of being in poverty vary dramatically by major demographic variables. Children have a much greater likelihood of being poor than seniors People in families less likely to be low income Recent immigrants and indigenous have a greater likelihood of having a low income

The Chilly Climate

The chilly climate is a concept used to draw attention to the fact that equality of access does not necessarily guarantee equality of treatment within any given institution. The chilly climate can be manifested as an inhospitable workplace for a person of "the wrong sex" through exclusionary, isolating, dismissive, or generally "cool" behaviours, based on cultural notions of gender-appropriate labour

The Conflict Perspective

The conflict perspective is based on the assumption that groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources. Society is characterized by conflict and discrimination Certain groups are privileged while others are disadvantaged

Dominant Group

The group whose members are disproportionately at the top of the hierarchy, "with maximal access to the society's power resources, particularly political authority and control of the means of economic production"

The Interactionist Perspective

The interactionist perspective views society as the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups. Most interactionists study social problems by analyzing how certain behaviour comes to be defined as a social problem and how individuals and groups come to engage in activities that a significant number of people view as a major social concern.

Breaking the Cycle of Poverty

This phrase implies that children are taught to be poor by poor adults who pass their preference for poverty onto their children.

Bring Social Programs to the 21st Century

This phrase typically means to "cut and slash social programs so that people will have to work at low-wage jobs [if they can find them] so they can compete with people in Mexico making $5 a day"

Agents of Socialization

Those people, groups, or institutions that teach us what we need to know to participate in society. Among the most significant agents of socialization are parents, peers, the education system, and the media.

Subordinate Group

Those whose members, in relation to the dominant group (or groups), do not occupy such positions of power. (Minority Group)

Should there be an Inquiry into the Murders and Disappearance of Indigenous Women?

Tina Fontaine (found dead in Red River of Manitoba) More than 1100 missing or killed After the discovery of her body, the Indigenous community demanded a national inquiry about the problem. Since so many women had disappeared, many believed that an examination of some common factors, like particular kinds of discrimination, violence, and lack of opportunities, could provide suggestions to help end the disappearances. Harper said no - not high enough on the governments radar and an issue for the police (also inquiries are costly)

Generalizations

To contrast from stereotypes; Generalizations are ideas held about a group of people that are open to revision or change and that can be rejected entirely at any time. Everyone generalizes—it is an efficient way to organize our experiences and a useful method of applying information from situation to situation without having to relearn it every time. Stereotyping often leads to discrimination, while generalizing usually does not.

Absolute Poverty

Today, more than 800 million people live in absolute poverty, a condition that exists when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life (food, clothing, and shelter). Absolute poverty is life threatening. People living in absolute poverty may suffer from chronic malnutrition or die from hunger-related diseases.

Wage Gap

the disparity between women's and men's earnings

The Structural Functionalist Perspective on Poverty and Class Inequality

Unlike individual and cultural explanations of poverty, which operate at the microlevel, structural explanations of poverty focus on the macrolevel, the level of social organization that is beyond an individual's ability to change. Social inequality serves an important function in society because it motivates people to work hard to acquire scarce resources. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore published a paper explaining that social stratification exists in every society in some form and must, therefore, be functional. Davis and Moore asserted that some occupations require more training and investment than others, or are difficult or unpleasant to do, and so should be compensated more, through prestige and pay. Functionalists also assert that it is functional to maintain a pool of more desperate workers in order to fill the occupations that no one wants to do. This Lastly, poverty may be seen as functional for those who work in the "poverty industry" (for example, financial assistance workers) and for those who need a market for second-rate or inferior-quality items.

Critical-Conflict Perspective

Unlike the value conflict approach, critical-conflict theorists suggest that social problems arise out of the major contradictions inherent in the way societies are organized. Some critical-conflict perspectives focus on class inequalities in the capitalist economic system; others focus on inequalities based on "race"/ethnicity or gender.

Values vs. Norms

Values are collective ideas about what is right or wrong, good or bad, and desirable or undesirable in a specific society Norms are established rules of behaviour or standards of conduct

Wealth vs Income

Wealth is the value of all economic assets, including income and savings, personal property, and income-producing property, minus one's liabilities or debts. While some people have great wealth and are able to live off their investments, others must work for wages. Wealth should be differentiated from income. Income refers to the economic gain derived from wages, salaries, and income transfers (governmental aid such as income assistance [welfare] or ownership of property).

When are certain patterns of behaviour defined as social problems?

When they systematically disadvantage or harm a significant number of people (or a number of "significant" people?), or when they are seen as harmful by many of the people who wield power, wealth, and influence in a group or society.

White Privilege

White privilege—privilege that accrues to the people who have "white" skin, trace their ancestry to Northern and Western Europe, and think of themselves as European Canadians or WASPs (White Anglo-Saxon Protestants). Normalization of privilege is manifested when all members of a society are judged against the characteristics or attributes of those who are privileged, and typically this is seen as a neutral process—the standard is typically invisible to those who do the judging.

White Racism

White racism refers to socially organized attitudes, ideas, and practices that deny Indigenous people and people "of colour" the dignity, opportunities, freedoms, and rewards that are typically available to White Canadians

Feminist Perspective On Age-Based Inequality

Women are more likely than men to suffer the hardships associated with ageing Women are more vulnerable to loss of income from the cumulative effects of underpaid and unpaid work Women often do caregiving work; provide care in ageing while men receive it

Sexual Harassment

a form of intentional, institutionalized gender discrimination that includes all unwelcome sexual attention affecting an employee's job conditions or creating a hostile work environment

Meritocracy

a nation where the best person can rise to the top in any situation, despite his or her antecedents.

Rape Culture

a rape culture—the pervasive system of cultural values, attitudes, and practices that support and perpetuate sexualized violence against women. Often discussed when talking about music videos

Hate Crime Definition

an act of violence motivated by prejudice against people on the basis of racialized identity, ethnicity, religion, gender, or sexual orientation.

Anti-Semitism

anti-Semitism—prejudice and discriminatory behaviour directed at Jews. Today, discrimination against Jews is often carried out through the destruction and defacing of property and the distribution of hate propaganda, increasingly over the Internet.

Conflict Perspectives on Gender Inequality

based on the assumption that social life is a continuous struggle in which members of powerful groups (males) seek to maintain control of scarce resources such as political, social, and economic superiority men dominate women and social institutions to maintain positions of power as women took positions in the home their skills for the workforce were less valued which contributed to the gendered division of labor

Patriarchy

defined earlier as a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men.

Health, Illness and Healthcare Among Older People

many more older people remaining active better health among older people attributed to education (nutrition) account for one third of all dollars spend on health care

Individual Sexism

refers to individuals' beliefs and actions that are rooted in anti-female prejudice and stereotypical beliefs.

Gender Segregated Work

refers to the extent to which men and women are concentrated in different occupations and places of work

Conflict Perspective Brief Summary (Macrolevel Analysis)

the conflict perspective, which views society as an arena of competition and conflict;

Race

sociologists view "race" as a social construct—the classification of people based on social and political values—rather than as a biological given However, because physical features such as skin colour, hair texture, or eye shape are often used to determine "race," many people believe that "race" stems from real and immutable genetic differences, as opposed to subjective and arbitrary perceptions of differences—an important distinction. In humans, genetic differences by population do not exist—we share a generalized gene pool. The only "race" that exists with regard to humans is the "human race," or human species.

Interactionist Perspective Brief Summary (Micro Level Analysis)

the interactionist perspective, which focuses on the everyday, routine interactions among individuals;

Elderly Dependency Ratio

the number of workers necessary to support those over the age of 64 (increasingly concerned about it with the retiring of baby boomers)

Gender Roles

the rights, responsibilities, expectations, and relationships of women and men in a society. Gender roles have both a biological and a social basis.

4 Frameworks in Which Old People Cope With the Process of Dying

the stage-based approach (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance) the trajectories of grief (resilience, recovery, chronic dysfunction, delayed grief) the dying trajectory (focuses on perceived course of dying and expected time of death, three phases acute, chronic, terminal)) the task-based approach. (enjoying physical, pychological, social, and spiritual tasks to maximize life before dying) .

Glass Escalator

the upward movement of men in "women's professions" the glass escalator effect.

Intersectionality

this inequity is further compounded by racialization, older age, and (dis)ability, a situation known as multiple jeopardy or intersectionality.

Feminist Perspective Brief Summary (Microlevel Analysis)

which focuses on the gendered (and racialized and classed) inequalities between groups and on strategies for positive social change.

Genderlects

women are socialized to speak and hear a language of intimacy and connection, while men are socialized to speak and hear a language of status and independence.