South Africa
What security measures did the South African government introduce after 1966 to stamp out resistance to apartheid?
Bureau of State Security established to link the security branch of the police to the intelligence division of the army State Security Council established to advise the PM on security matters Terrorism Act made terrorism a separate crime equal to treason - could carry death penalty (receiving of military training could also be considered under the Act) Internal Security Amendment Act allowed suspects to be detained without charge for a renewable 12 months; potential witnesses could be kept in solitary confinement for 6 months Increase in defence budget (20% of the national budget by 1978), every white man was conscripted into the army for two years, police and security forces were armed
Why was Steve Biko important in the struggle against apartheid?
"Wind of change" blowing through Africa; white SA finding it difficult to oppress demos and opposition - Biko was v dangerous in the eyes of white supremacists as he was eloquent and outspoken Black Consciousness was founded by him Black frustration boiled over into rioting and the events at Soweto - while Biko was not directly responsible, they were inspired by Biko's ideas
Describe the growing unrest and militancy amongst black South Africans between 1944 and 1948
ANC was campaigning for the abolition of the Pass Laws having been revived and reinstated in a position of leadership thanks to the Youth League Blacks demanded better living conditions - poor conditions led to a dramatic increase in strikes Protests took place because of a wave of migration to the towns that had created a housing shortage
Describe the Rivonia Trial of 1963-1964
10 leaders of the ANC (incl Mandela and Sisulu) were trialled for "acts of sabotage designed to overthrow the apartheid system" and "recruiting people for training in sabotage and guerrilla warfare for the purpose of violent revolution" Prosecution demanded that the accused be hanged but they were sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben Island instead (death penalty not given due to intl media coverage and demand world wide protests) Had the effect of breaking MK, the ANC, and Poqo in SA
Describe the events in Soweto in June 1976
15,000 students staged a demonstration protesting the decision to have half their lessons conducted in Afrikaans - Afrikaans was only spoken by Afrikaners and this seemed to be proof that black education was simply training for blacks to be servants or unskilled workers under white employment Police stopped the march with tear gas and bullets (leading to the death and injury of many children) and confiscated photographers' film in order to limit the spread of information regarding the riots News of the deaths at the march sparked riots throughout the country wherein violence was targeted towards govt buildings and blacks working for the govt Police retaliated with violence and w harsh oppression: Black Consciousness organisation was banned, more than 700 blacks were killed, 6000 were arrested and hundreds more were caned for demonstrating
Why was the government reaction to the Freedom Charter (1955) significant for apartheid?
156 people arrested and accused for treason, supporting communism, and belonging to a communist organisation Trial was badly organised and dragged on for years - during this time they were unable to carry out political activity >> opposition to apartheid severely weakened Govt unable to prove charges and all were acquitted - victory for the accused and a victory that gained enormous publicity for the Freedom Charter
Describe the activities of the ANC in the struggle against apartheid
1951: adopted "stay-at-home" days as part of a civil disobedience campaign 1952: called upon the PM to repeal 6 unjust laws; began the Defiance Campaign to make the apartheid policy unworkable (e.g. going without passes) Supported opposition to the 1953 Bantu Education Act 1960: called for one-day protest against the Pass Laws 16th December 1961: first act of sabotage carried out 1970s: set up bases in Angola and Mozambique within easy reach of Johannesburg and Pretoria 1980s: helped local resistance in townships
By 1940, what restrictions had been placed on the rights of black people by the Land Acts?
90% of black people were forced to live in rural areas Black people were allocated to 13% of the land in South Africa; this land was often the least productive land of the country and as a result African farming gradually collapsed Blacks were not allowed to buy or rent land outside their reservations Reservations were so crowded that water-holes dried up and there was a lot of soil erosion Reserves became a source of cheap, unskilled labour for white farmers and industrialists
Describe what happened at Sharpeville on 21 March 1960
ANC and PAC were protesting about Pass Laws, with the PAC calling for a forceful protest on 21st March 1960 Demonstrators were called to march on police stations without passes, to be arrested There was a clash between police and marchers leading to the police opening fire 69 people died and many were wounded - many protesters had been shot in the back
Describe the ANC Defiance Campaign introduced in 1952
Adopted "stay at home" days in 1951 as part of a civil disobedience campaign After a meeting in Bloemfontein, called upon the PM to repeal 6 unjust laws Defiance Campaign was planned to make apartheid unworkable - e.g. going without passes Campaign supported the opposition to the Bantu education act of 1953 Continued throughout the 1950s and into the early 1960s - in 1960 the campaign called for a one day protest against the pass laws
What was the impact of the government's Homelands policy?
Aimed to meet Verwoerd's vision of an all-white South Africa Created eight Bantustans based on the original African homelands - each Bantustan was allocated to a particular ethnic group Bantustans were intended to be the homelands for all black people and were eventually intended to become self-governing - provided a way for the govt to eject black people not needed for functioning of economy from white areas Only 13% of area of SA was allocated and most of the land was infertile - many blacks continued to live in squatter camps outside cities and in 1980 only half the intended population lived in the Bantustans
What was the Population Registration Act (1950)?
An apartheid law that identified to which race every person belonged - attempted to classify every South African as white, black or Coloured Problems w classification of children of mixed marriages When first introduced, racial group determined by considering the community into which the individual had been accepted Later stress was placed on the individual's appearance Sometimes children from the same family with the same parents were classified differently
What was apartheid?
Apartheid means separateness A political system operated in SA from 1948-early 1990s Separated different peoples living there - privileges given to those of European origin Different races lived apart and developed their lives separately Policy of the Nationalists and the policy under which the National government was elected in 1948
Why were Bantustans created?
Apartheid policy aimed to separate Blacks from the White population of SA and so it was proposed that 10 Bantustans be created in South Africa and 10 in South West Africa for the Blacks to live in Concept behind Bantustans: autonomous nation states for black ethnic groups wherein chiefs were encouraged to be politically active and look forward to independence Blacks would become involuntary citizens of Bantustans and thus lose their South African citizenship and voting rights
What was Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation)?
Armed wing of the ANC w mission to fight the policies and actions of SA govt Co-founded by Nelson Mandela in the aftermath of the Sharpeville massacre of 1960 as ANC decided it could no longer limit itself to non-violent protest Launched first attacks against govt installations in Dec 1961 - classified as a terrorist organisation by the SA govt and banned Focused on sabotage and guerrilla warfare - aimed to avoid loss of life; directed violence towards military or police infrastructure or govt buildings Set up bases in Angola, Tanzania, Mozambique
Describe the events leading to the British defeat at Majuba Hill in 1881
Battle arose because Britain annexed the Republic of Transvaal in 1877 Boers did not want direct rule by British - wanted independence (Kruger didn't want to be part of the British empire) December 1880: Boers rose in revolt and laid siege to isolated British garrisons - relief column of 1100 soldiers arrived to deal with the Boers Battle took place on Majuba Hill in February 1881 and British forces were soundly beaten
What did Botha mean by "Total onslaught"?
Believed SA was under siege from inside and outside Thought threats could only be countered with a "total strategy" Challenges from liberation organisations with Marxist leanings that had come into power in neighbouring states (FRELIMO, MPLA) Grievances of a subordinate black population that was poor and without rights Improving socio-economic conditions in townships essential to keep order
Why was the Black Consciousness movement important? Why did the Black Consciousness movement gain popularity in the late 1960s and 1970s?
Black Consciousness taught that blacks had to regain their confidence and stop thinking of themselves as second-class citizens in order to win freedom, and in order to regain their confidence had to be proud of their race and end dependency on whites "Wind of change" blowing through Africa made it increasingly hard for whites to prevent opposition and so they felt threatened by movements such as black consciousness - many supporters of the movement were young and well-educated (uni students) and so were determined to make their voice heard and defy the govt at any cost Led by Steve Biko, an outspoken and charismatic leader - Biko's murder highlighted the struggle of the black people and added fuel to the fire of opposition
Why were the actions of young people in the 1970s significant in the fight against apartheid?
Black Consciousness was well-organised by well-educated students who wanted black people to be proud of their colour - compounded by Biko who persuaded students to struggle to overcome apartheid w demos Actions of students led to deaths and also sparked waves of demonstrations and international outrage (e.g. Soweto uprising in June 1976) Police retaliation to student movements and Black Consciousness was excessively harsh and created a huge wave of anti-apartheid feeling within SA and internationally
In what ways did the Bantu Education Act of 1953 reinforce apartheid?
Black children were enrolled in separate schools from white children, and black schools had to provide different courses to white schools Black schools had to teach in their native language, not English Black pupils were to be prepared for life in the Bantustans rather than life in the white cities Many mission schools were closed down
Describe the Soweto Riots of 1976
Black high school students protested because all black schools were forced to use Afrikaans for half their subjects April 1976 children at Orlando West School went on strike, and their rebellion spread to many other schools 16th June thousands of black students marched to rally at Orlando Stadium - teachers supported the march too Police had barricaded the road along their intended route, so marchers took a different route Police set a dog on the protestors but the dog was killed, so the police fired directly at the children - officially 23 were killed but unofficial figures range from 176 to 700 Soweto was swamped with police and the South African Army was put on on standby
Why was the Natives Land Act of 1913 disliked by black Africans?
Black people were prevented from owning land except in native reserves - despite being over 80% of the population they were only allowed to live in the native reserves which accounted for 7% of the Union's land Not allowed to be share-croppers and could only live outside the reserves if employed by whites - effectively made them labourers of white farmers Black people were traditionally farmers - had been agrarian communities dependent on the land so the Act was like national destruction for Black people Many blacks considered the Act to be the first step on the road to full apartheid
How did the Land Act of 1913 affect black people?
Blacks were forbidden from owning land outside of native reserves Blacks couldn't practice share-cropping Forced blacks to seek work on white-owned farms, essentially turning blacks into labourers for white farm-owners Caused suffering as black share croppers were evicted
In what ways were the Uitlanders treated badly in the Transvaal?
Boers called immigrants "Uitlander" (meant "foreigner" in Afrikaans) and treated them as second class citizens with no vote and no rights - Uitlanders had no constitutional means of airing grievances Kruger's govt imposed very high taxes on the Uitlanders Kruger feared the Uitlanders as they were mainly British - thought they would spread British influence even more in the Transvaal and made a law stating that Uitlanders had to be resident for over 14 years and be over 40 years to vote
Why did many Afrikaners oppose De Klerk?
Botha had not believed in democracy Afrikaner nationalists still believed in their superiority and had a desire for an independent Boer-Afrikaner republic - could not accept that the law would treat white and black as equal Afrikaners thought that the ANC were communist or terrorists and couldn't believe De Klerk would negotiate with them
Why was the Freedom Charter of 1955 important?
Congress that declared the Freedom Charter represented other anti-apartheid groups alongside the ANC (worked together) Freedom Charter demanded an end to apartheid and the instatement of a democracy - a vision for the future of SA Trial of anti-apartheid leaders lasted several years and despite eventual acquittal, this severely weakened opposition as they were out of political activity
Why was Mandela released from prison?
De Klerk wanted to set NP and SA on a new path De Klerk wanted to pacify whites by working w Mandela who was willing to cooperate with the NP and pacify blacks, who wanted an African leader's viewpoint to be taken into account Wanted to legitimise his reforms by introducing a black leader to his plans (would bring him black support)
What were De Klerk's achievements which resulted in him being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993?
De Klerk was important because he set the NP on a new path and convinced most whites that change was essential De Klerk treated the results of the whites-only election in 1989 as a mandate for reform and played a large role in brokering the end of apartheid and taking South Africa into a non-racial democracy Lifted the ban on the ANC, PAC and SACP; released political prisoners Was able to work with Mandela (agreed that power would be shared by signing the Record of Understanding) - when Mandela became president, De Klerk was appointed deputy president
In what ways were black people restricted in movement and employment under apartheid?
Declared some areas for whites only and had the power to move blacks out whether or not they wanted to go Native Laws Amendment Act controlled the movements of blacks in and out of towns and cities Abolition of Passes Act (1952) forced all black men living in white areas to carry a pass or reference book - without a pass, living and working in a white area was illegal for blacks No black person could leave a rural area for an urban area without a permit from local authorities Bantu Building Workers Act allowed black people to be trained as artisans in the building trade but they had to work within an area designated for blacks It was a criminal offence for blacks to perform skilled work in urban areas except for in sections designated for black occupation
In what ways did Desmond Tutu show his opposition to apartheid?
Denounced apartheid as "evil and unchristian" Campaigned in favour of equal rights for all South Africans and a common education system Campaigned against pass laws and forced relocations to the Homelands Used position as Anglican priest/Bishop of Johannesburg/Archbishop of Cape Town/Secretary-General of South African Council of Churches to preach and speak against apartheid Had a world-wide audience when expressing his views in favour of economic sanctions Awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace and played a major role in persuading the white community they would not become the victims of revenge if apartheid ended
Why was there an upsurge of violence in South Africa by the mid-1980s?
Disappointment at Botha's constitutional reforms that were interpreted as artificial moves of a weakening government Despite Botha's reforms blacks still could not vote and so chose violence as an alternative Reaction to the suspension of civil rights under the State of Emergency and violence of the security forces; increased rents and electricity charges ANC called to make apartheid unworkable and the country ungovernable: attacks from Zimbabwe Tribal violence between Xhosa and Zulu tribes
Why was Malan's National Party successful in the 1948 general election?
Electoral system worked in its favour - rural areas had a larger weighting and the NP won most of the rural seats whereas the UP (United Party) had most of its votes wasted in urban areas Played on white fears of black surge into towns which won over Transvaal farmers and white workers in the industrial heart of SA - made special appeal to Afrikaner voters (use of cultural heritage "volk" united by "trek") Had media support (the press) and promoted its policies through organisations such as the Broederbond
What grievances did black mineworkers have in the early years of the 20th century? Describe how mine owners treated black workers under the migrant labour system
Employed under short term contracts and had to migrate back and forth between work and home Wages were low but housing and food provided Housed in squalid compound blocks where they were strictly supervised because diamonds were easily stolen Had to carry a passbook
Why did Botha think reforms were necessary in the 1970s and 1980s?
Employers wanted a definite and recognised body with which to negotiate, and were upset by the number of unofficial strikes - they wanted an end to the colour bar on employment as they were suffering from shortages of skilled labour Botha felt the country was under siege from abroad and within (total onslaught) Wanted to pacify the people and secure SA's position in Southern Africa by making reforms (total strategy)
Why was the Interim Constitution agreed in 1993-1994 important?
Ensured a smooth transition to democracy by allowing five years of shared power Didn't alienate any of the major groups, which helped to bring about relative peace amidst a backdrop of extreme violence and thus saved SA from civil war Ended apartheid and provided a pathway to a new South Africa
What changes during the Second World War were resented by some white people?
Factories employed more black labourers and some black people took over skilled and semi-skilled jobs, meaning that more blacks moved to the towns Black people often settled in squatter camps around the major urban centres Some laws and regulations were relaxed (e.g. Pass Laws) Black people pressed for further improvements in work conditions, leading to boycotts, passive resistance and strikes Many whites thought these changes suggested a weakening in the policy of segregation
In what ways did the Land Act of 1913 increase segregation in South Africa?
Forbade blacks to own land except in native reserves which only accounted for 7% of the country Blacks couldn't practice share-cropping In the short term, suffering increased as black share-croppers were evicted In the long-term, blacks were turned into labourers for white farmers
Who were the "Uitlanders" of Transvaal?
Foreign miners usually from Britain or US Went to South Africa to profit from the development of the gold mining industry on the Rand Accounted for around 3/4 of the white population of the Orange Free State Treated as second class citizens with no vote an no rights - no constitutional means of airing grievances
Why did government action in relation to land ownership and farming result in segregation increasing before 1948?
Government action kept blacks as cheap labourers Acts of 1913 and 1936 limited the control of land by black people - created segregation as black people worked for whites and then returned to overpopulated reserves (only 13% of the land) Black people were on the least productive land which led to African farming dying out Share-cropping banned
Why were there violent uprisings in Soweto in 1976?
Govt ruling that half the lessons be taught in Afrikaans (only spoken by Afrikaners; less useful than English) - proof that the edu was training for blacks to become servants or unskilled workers On top of the poor education quality, blacks had to pay for education while whites received it for free - black schools were also often overcrowded and poorly equipped Housing shortage due to building efforts in the Transkei Bantustan - feared being forcefully moved to the already overcrowded homeland Recent act had abolished local governments and replaced them with boards, placing the cost of running townships on black people (they couldn't afford it)
Describe ways in which apartheid made daily life difficult for black South Africans
Had to travel on separate buses, coaches and trains from Whites Had to use separate cafes, toilets, park benches, hospitals and beaches Had to send their children to "black only" schools Could only live in a town if they had a pass proving employment under a white-owned business - couldn't leave the farms where they worked without passes from employers Overcrowding in the Bantustans - 8 million people lived in 13% of the land area Black miners had to live in single-sex compounds with as many as 90 men sharing a dormitory
Why were the actions of Chief Buthelezi controversial?
He was a Zulu nationalist and hoped to make KwaZulu an independent state, which was at odds w Mandela's vision for a united South Africa - friction between Inkatha and ANC led to violence that threatened to destroy the relationship between Mandela and De Klerk (ANC angry that De Klerk wasn't protecting members) Criticised as being a collaborator of the National Government - ANC suspicions that the SADF was supporting Inkatha Some thought he was trying to protect his own personal political position - esp because he refused to take part in negotiations leading up to 1994 elections and Inkatha refused to take part in the elections
What was the purpose of Botha's "total strategy"
Improve relations with USA and Britain to stop the loss of foreign investment and stop the slide of the Rand Be less repressive - repeal some segregation laws and empower Coloureds and Asians in order to uphold apartheid but with some changes Needed more black workers for industry - allowed trade unions for black people and end to pass system Rigorously enforce the law Raid ANC bases and assassinate exiled activists
What challenges did De Klerk face when he became President in 1989?
Increasing raids from ANC and PAC Townships were ungovernable - officials were attacked and often murdered Economic sanctions were taking effect and there was disinvestment De Klerk believed apartheid was unsustainable and he needed to continue Botha's reforms - shared view w many whites as white opposition to apartheid was increasing No international sport, church groups were speaking out against apartheid
Describe the formation of the Union of South Africa in 1910
Independent Boer Republics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State and the British colonies of the Cape and Natal formed the Union of South Africa Union was under the British Crown as a self-governing dominion of the British Empire: monarch represented by a Governor General, but effective rule was in the hands of the PM Union was a unitary state and not a federation Each colony had a provincial council with the administrative capital in Pretoria Parliament was in Cape Town and was elected from the white minority
Why did the SA govt operate a segregation policy in the inter-war period?
It kept blacks in an inferior position and enabled employers to pay low wages - this reduced the black people's control over land, making it available to white farmers Employers and political leaders feared what would happen if all workers joined together to oppose them and so tried to control the workforce by creating divisions between whites and blacks Many believed the white race was superior to all others and these views were readily adopted by the new Union of South Africa Some thought the native African should be encouraged to live in natural conditions away from the corrupting effects of towns and industry - segregation would preserve tribal unity and purity and would protect African culture
What part did Rhodes play in the development of Southern Africa?
Keen imperialist and diamond/gold mine owner; strongly believed in making as much as possible of Africa British Became PM of Cape Colony in 1890 Stirred up trouble between Uitlanders and Kruger govt: indirectly responsible for Jameson Raid of 1896 Had plans for Brit expansion from the Cape to Cairo (incl railway) Company seized lands between Limpopo and the Zambezi between 1890 and 1896, called them Rhodesia
Why did the Second Anglo-Boer war (1899-1902) leave bitterness in South Africa?
Kitchener's scorched earth policy destroyed the farms of the Afrikaners, leaving nothing for the families to return to Kitchener also criss-crossed the countryside with barbed wire to stop guerrilla raids Concentration camps caused the deaths of 28,000 women, children, and black people The Boer capitals of Bloemfontein and Pretoria were captured by British forces The Boers had to surrender - the two republics containing gold fields became part of the British empire Boers believed they were victims of British injustice
Why were the Land Settlement Act (1912) and the Natives Land Act (1913) significant?
Land Settlement Act set up a Land Board which allocated Crown lands for settlement purposes Natives Land Act prevented black people from owning land (they could only own land in the native reserves) and from practicing share-cropping, leading black share-croppers to be evicted and have to seek work on white-owned farms
Describe how the Natives Trust and Land Act of 1936 increased segregation
Land set aside for reserves was extended from 7% to 13%, but this goal was never achieved Forbade any ownership and/or purchase of land by "natives" outside of reserves Designed to eliminate "black spots"
Describe the events leading to the death of Steve Biko
Led a black consciousness movement which taught black people to celebrate their race and stop thinking of themselves as second-class citizens Led demonstrations, wrote the column "I write what I like" - was considered a dangerous man in the eyes of white supremacists Black frustration and the black consciousness movement heavily contributed to the uprising at Soweto Biko was arrested a year after Soweto and beaten and tortured in police custody - he didn't recover
Why was Sharpeville an important event in the struggle against apartheid?
Led to worldwide condemnation of apartheid as it shocked intl opinion - beginning of a widespread protest campaign outside South Africa UN called for sanctions against SA, white businessmen wondered if the country had a peaceful future - economy was affected heavily as 248 million rand left SA and gold and foreign reserves plummeted by 209 million rand Govt settled on strategy of total repression: banned ANC and PAC ANC and PAC abandoned peaceful protest and founded militant resistant organisations (MK and Poqo); protests across SA including burning of pass books and stay-at-home protests
Why was the Bantu Education Act of 1953 introduced?
Legalised aspects of the apartheid system and enforced racially separated educational facilities All black schools would be brought under the control of a government department and would be taught inferior to whites - gave NP total control over edu Prepared blacks to be a permanent underclass Allowed govt to reduce costs of black education
Describe segregation in South Africa by 1945
Membership of Parliament was restricted to white men Voting rights for non-white men in Cape Province were removed in 1936 Black people were not allowed to buy or rent land outside their reservations Segregated housing in town and city areas - it was thought that towns should be white areas only Skilled jobs in mines were for white workers Every black male over 16 had to carry a pass Educational opportunities were limited
Why was the discovery of gold in the Transvaal important?
Money needed for extraction was provided by diamond profits and European investors, which brought a large number of white and black people into the region The discovery of the gold mines led Johannesburg to grow into South Africa's largest city Migrant labour system was introduced - black men did most of the hard work and were housed together away from white men
What was the "Black Consciousness" movement?
Movement that arose due to the political frustrations of black people Centred around idea that blacks should gain confidence in their ability to change things for themselves and end dependence on whites to win their own freedom Influenced by the writings of Frantz Fanon, black power movement in the US, and intl student revolts of late 1960s 1969: black students broke away from NUSAS to form SASO
Why did the Nationalist government of 1948 introduce a policy of apartheid?
NP won the 1948 election by standing for the policy of apartheid - this would separate the different peoples in South Africa so they could develop their lives separately Nationalists had won over the Transvaal farmers and white workers in the industrial heart of South Africa National government favoured and represented the white minority - apartheid gave privileges to those of European origin
What restrictions existed in relation to the civil rights of non-whites by 1940?
No black members of parliament Extra-marital intercourse between a white person and a black person = criminal offence Blacks not allowed to buy or rent land outside their reservations, segregated housing for black people and white people Limited movement of travel by the pass system wherein every black male over 16 years old had to carry a pass Black workers were not eligible for skilled jobs in mines and not allowed to join trade unions, Blacks only allowed in some towns if they were required for domestic service or factory work
What did separation of the races mean in practice after 1948?
No mixed marriages and no sexual relations between whites and non-whites Whites, blacks, and coloured people had to live in separate areas Black people could not remain in urban areas without a permit Separate schools, public amenities, toilets, parks, beaches, cemeteries, etc for black people and white people Bantustans created as homelands of black people
Describe the international reactions in the 1960s and 1970s to apartheid
Nov 1962: UN passed resolution against apartheid UN proposed economic sanctions but main trading nations such as Britain, France and US vetoed this - their investments were doing well in SA (too much to lose) 1963: UN passed arms embargo on SA - US and Britain joined in 1964 1964: SA banned from Olympic Games in Tokyo 1969: Organisation for African Unity (OAU) passed Lusaka manifesto which outlawed apartheid and made clear its readiness to help black South Africans 1970s: intl sanctions began to take effect and companies stopped investing in SA
Why did the Pan-African Congress (PAC) begin a campaign against the Pass Laws?
Pass Laws strictly controlled the movement of black people in South Africa and the PAC wanted this to change PAC believed it unfair that the Pass Laws had such rigid control over the employment of blacks - blacks could only live in towns if they had passes, had to have passes to leave the farms where they worked, and had to have a pass to get a new job >> led to many blacks being forced to remain in difficult working conditions ANC announced that they were planning an anti-pass campaign
Why did black resistance and violence against apartheid increase in the early 1960s?
Peaceful protest in the form of bus boycotts or petitions against the pass laws were not working. Additionally, the Freedom Charter had been considered an act of treason by the government - violence only alternative Aftermath of the Sharpeville massacre - police force used against innocent protestors Govt state of emergency: ANC and PAC banned - forced to go underground and form militant wings
Why were National Party policies appealing to Afrikaner voters in 1948?
Policies appealed to Afrikaners because apartheid strengthened segregation - coincided with the Afrikaners' viewpoint (supported by Dutch Reform Church) that Afrikaners were a chosen people destined to rule over blacks and non0whites Apartheid implied white control over the state which again coincided with the Afrikaner viewpoint - apartheid implied the greater importance of white interests over black interests: Afrikaners believed they were superior to all other races, and the state felt no obligation to provide equal facilities for whites and non-whites Implied white control over the state, which Afrikaners wanted as they thought they were superior to all
Why was the Bantu Education Act (1953) opposed by black South Africans?
Reinforced apartheid by creating separate schools for blacks and whites - wanted a single public school system for all South Africans Poor quality education for blacks that was also NOT FREE - 30% of schools had no electricity, 25% had no running water, few textbooks, only one third of the teachers were trained; white teachers were well trained and schools were well funded: state spent one tenth per capita on a black child compared to a white child Edu was designed to make black children into servants for whites or unskilled and low-paid labourers
Why did the SA govt pass the Bantu Homelands Constitution Act of 1971?
Reinforced the Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959 Wanted Bantustans to become independent thus ejecting blacks from white SA and stripping citizens of independent Bantustans of their SA citizenship - govt would save money because didn't have to provide schools, hospitals, or homes Some African chiefs wanted independence from SA and were willing to become political leaders of the new states - would allow govt to pose as a progressive regime answering the wishes of the black South Africans
Why did support for segregation increase within South Africa between 1910 and 1938?
Resentment by white workers of plans to employ black workers on skilled work - segregation would pacify white strikers Policy of Nationalist Party after 1924 (Purified National Party followed white supremacy policy) - African leaders wanted to unite Afrikaners by encouraging strong national feelings through apartheid policy Stop black political power - ANC had been revived and was in a position of power due to the Youth League
Why was the migrant labour system used?
Reservoir of cheap and unskilled labour for mines and farms - there was a guaranteed workforce Wages were kept low bc housing and food were provided but employers wouldn't have to provide for labourers after short-term contracts expired Blacks monitored through passes (contained employer info + only allowed to leave if they had finished their work) and under close surveillance in compounds - kept blacks under control Brought white population great wealth and created a huge material gap between white people and black people
Why did the ANC turn to violence in the 1960s?
Result of Sharpeville (69 killed by police) Peaceful civil disobedience campaign had had little success (e.g. numerous demos against pass laws yet the pass laws still existed) additionally the intl community had failed to influence SA due to continued trade and sporting links Other organisations such as the PAC were becoming more aggressive and militant (e.g. PAC's Poqo) and young blacks were joining other organisations as the ANC seemed ineffective
What did Botha's policy of "total strategy" involve?
Rigorously enforced the law w strengthened military and police forces Moderate reform to blunt the opposition (e.g. ending pass system, allowing trade unions for black workers and encouraging more skilled black workers, introducing new constitution that empowered Coloureds and Asians) Raided ANC bases, carried out political assassinations of exiled activists Exploited western concerns about the threat of communism
What were the main features of the Group Areas Act of 1950?
SA divided into racial areas with whites, blacks, and Coloureds having to live in separate areas Those living in the wrong area had to move (these people were often non-Whites as whites controlled most of the land) Designation of areas took legal effect after a year - if a person remained in teh wrong area after a year there was a penalty of up to two years imprisonment and a fine Act gave authority to the Minister of the Interior and the Group Area Board
Why did many whites feel threatened by the changes brought by the Second World War?
SA economy expanded and new industries were established as a result of being cut off from usual suppliers - black workers were in demand to take up jobs as white men were in the army As a result of industrialists realising there were disadvantages to employing migrant labour, industries began to take over the position of major employer of labour from mining; a wave of blacks migrated to cities, creating a shortage of accommodation People began to believe that it would be better to allow black workers to settle near their place of work - this meant that pass-laws had to be relaxed as blacks would need to be granted the right to live in cities Some wanted to improve the lives of black people: a Health Commission in 1944 recommended a non-racial health-care programme; a report looked into how to improve the economic, social, and health conditions of natives in urban areas; and liberals suggested segregation be dropped
What economic changes took place in South Africa during WWII?
SA was cut off from its usual suppliers of manufactured goods, forcing new industries to be established in SA; factories expanded to meet demand from armed forces: economy expanded and strengthened Black men were in demand to take up jobs as white men were in the army (wave of migration to the cities - created an accommodation shortage) Mining lost its position as major employer of labour Black workers were dissatisfied with low wages and poor housing leading to dramatic increase in strikes
Describe how racial groups were kept part in public areas
Separate services for Whites, Blacks, Coloureds and Indians Separate medical and educational services - the services provided for black people were usually inferior to the services provided for whites Park and bench areas, as well as other services such as bus stops, were often reserved for whites only
Why did the mining industry develop rapidly in Southern Africa in the late-nineteenth century?
Significant quantity of some of the richest seams in the world - though they were expensive to mine, this was offset by the quantity Available labour force: black migrant workers on short term contracts whose wages were kept low by the migrant system Increasing demand from places such as Britain which were determined to take advantage of the profits from the industry
Why was South Africa's government losing control of events by 1989?
South African economy struggled to keep up with changing ways of life: the Bantu education act failed to educate blacks to the standard required to operate factory machinery; modern farming methods left many blacks unemployed >> black poverty restricted the sale of manufacturers in South Africa Govt felt threatened by communism: Angola and Mozambique were now independent and run by communist governments (MPLA and FRELIMO respectively) - less friendly buffer states - and the ANC had also set up guerrilla bases in Angola and Mozambique (Botha thought the ANC and PAC were communist and felt v frightened) ADDITIONALLy the Cold War had ended meaning that SA's support against communism was no longer required - foreign companies began withdrawing their investments in protest at apartheid and the govt faced SA's economic position further deteriorating should apartheid remain
Why was the Jameson Raid unsuccessful?
Supposed to be a secret but was not well kept in Johannesburg and so Boers realised trouble was brewing, allowing police to prepare for action Uitlanders warned they were less than enthusiastic about rising up and would not support a rising, but this advice was ignored by Jameson Communications to Pretoria were not disrupted: although telegraph wires to Johannesburg were cut, Jameson failed to cut the wires to Pretoria Jameson's force was too small and not strong enough - it took casualties early on and never recovered Politicians began to take action by making concessions (agreeing to reduce some import duties, increasing subsidies for English-speaking schools, reconsidering voting rights)
Describe the measures in the State of Emergency declared by Botha in 1985
The country was put under the state of martial war Police could arrest people without warrants Police were free from all criminal proceedings Police made great use of vigilantes and informers Thousands were arrested Media censorship: newspapers, radio, TV banned from reporting demos and strikes making it difficult to know the state of unrest
Why did South Africa become more segregated in the 1920s and 1930s?
The government thought whites were superior: summed up in 1922 when it was stated that "blacks were in towns to minister to the needs of the white man" (some thought that native Africans should live in "natural conditions" and preserve tribal unity) - POV enabled blacks to be treated badly Blacks were kept in an inferior position and paid low wages by employers and had limited control of the land (land was freed for white farmers) Industrial unrest in the first 25 years of the 20th century - political leaders were fearful of what would happen if all workers joined together to oppose them and thus tried to control the workforce by creating divisions between blacks and whites
Why did Verwoerd want to restrict education for black people? Why did the Nationalist government want to restrict education for black people?
Thought that education would mean freedom and so education for blacks was restricted Education would provide greater social mobility; Verwoerd wanted to place black children in a permanently inferior position in society by limiting education - mission schools were highly valued by the community bc all lessons in English but govt reformed teaching so it would be in the pupil's own language Restricted ability to learn - black students given a different syllabus to white students which often limited students' perceptions of black life, culture, and a black's place in society
What were the main details of the constitution of the Union of South Africa?
Union was under the British Crown as a self-governing dominion of the British Empire: monarch was represented by a Governor General, but effective rule was in the hands of the PM Union was a unitary state and not a federation Each colony had a provincial council with the administrative capital in Pretoria Parliament was in Cape Town and was elected by from the white minority
Why was the pass system hated by black South Africans?
Used by authorities to control and monitor the movement of black Africans - white farmers used passes to ensure that African labourers completed their work contracts (illegal to leave farms without a pass) Passes contained personal information such as employers' name and photo identification and had to be presented to police on demand - failure to do so could lead to imprisonment Restricted as well as forced movement around the country - passes were used to ensure that blacks moved out of town as soon as their work was completed (not allowed to stay in white areas)
What did Rhodes hope to achieve for Britain in South Africa?
Wanted to expand Britain's influence throughout the continent and bring great wealth to Britain and himself as he was a keen imperialist and gold and diamond mine owner Wanted British expansion from the Cape to Cairo Founded the British South Africa Company to develop the region between the Limpopo and the Zambezi, later to be known as Rhodesia When he was PM of Cape Colony, he hoped to remove the influence of the Boers in Transvaal
What was the impact of the Group Areas Act of 1950?
Whites, blacks and coloureds were to live in separate racial areas: the whole of South Africa was to be divided into separate areas Non-whites were to be excluded from living in the most developed areas, forcing many to have to commute long distances in order to work Non-whites were forcibly removed for living in the "wrong" areas and given much smaller areas to live in White minority owned most of the country and non-whites had to carry pass books to enter "white" areas
What actions did women take in the 1950s to oppose apartheid?
Women joined men in anti-pass law demonstrations in 1955 A group of white women founded the Black Sash organisation to fight the planned end of Coloured voting rights FSAW led a march in Pretoria in 1956 Famous protestors included Albertina Sisulu and Winnie Mandela - they gained a lot of popularity among the youth of Soweto
Why did economic sanctions against South Africa have only limited effect?
World economy depended on SA for wide range of minerals such as gold, platinum, chromium, vanadium. SA was also a major producer of gold, diamond, and coal There was much Western and Japanese investment in South Africa and surrounding countries also depended on SA economy - couldn't take action because too heavily invested Cold War and communism meant the West needed SA's support against the USSR (geographical location meant it commanded naval route). Additionally, many western powers believed anti-apartheid groups were communist
