Spanish in US FINAL

What was the relationship like between French, Spanish, Haitians, and Dominicans on the island of Hispaniola during the 19th century? How was the Dominican Republic influenced by the U.S. in the 20th century?

French, Spanish, Haitians and Dominicans fought over control of the east side of Hispaniola in the 19th century. Since then, Haiti and Dominican Republic have shared a history of invasions and mutual hostilities (so not a good relationship, lots of fighting) In the 20th century, US got control for a period of time because of a poor political and financial situation. The US gained control, and then had a true military occupation until 1924. Later, the US intervened in Civil War and caused supervised election, with Balaguer elected with US support.

What are the main theoretical approaches to Spanglish?

main theoretical approaches (in order past to present) - Salvador Tio coined the term, very negative - still a negative connotation in the 1960's (considered an epidemic) - in 1970, Nash said spanglish is not a "language" containing grammatical errors due to interference or by intentionally mixing languages - in the 1990's and more current, it became more positive, saying it was a creative style of bilingual communication, and more tied to IDENTITY

How has the political status of Puerto Rico changed over time? What has been the historical influence of the U.S. on the island (politically and linguistically)? What have been the demographic profiles of Puerto Ricans who have moved to the mainland?

Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the US as part of the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Spanish-American War. The Foraker Act of 1900 gave the US greater control (set tariffs and establish trade policies). In 1917, Puerto Ricans received US citizenship. It became an associated free state in 1951, but the political status of Puerto Rico has been ambiguous (no elected representatives in congress, exempt from certain federal taxes, eligible for military service, lower minimum wage) US army tried to impose English on Puerto Rican residents- the main language of schools was shifted to English. Politically, the US set tariffs and trade policies in Foraker Act of 1900...see above. early 20th century: workers in sugar, garment and cigar industries. Industrialization of island caused farmers to come to US. There was also some farmworker recruitment. So a lot of Puerto Ricans in the 50's and 60's were from *rural areas*. Today, there are lots of economic troubles (massive economic debt) and lots of young professionals are coming to the US

What do we know Spanglish is NOT? What are the main linguistic phenomena actually associated with it?

Spanglish is NOT: - a language - a dialect - a variation or Spanish OR a variation of English it's a combination of 3 main linguistic phenomena typical from situations of language in contact: - code switching (using words/phrases from both languages) - lexical borrowing (word adopted from one language and used in another. Include anglicisms and literal borrowings) - loan translation and calques (literal translations that might not make sense)

Why is the concept "Spanglish" so controversial and difficult to define?

Spanglish is difficult to define because there are so many different ideas of what it is exactly (and different versions of it). Generally, it's a popular label used to refer to the situation of language contact of English and Spanish in the United States but can have both positive and negative connotations. (some people think that spanglish is improper, causes them to lose their native language and therefore culture, etc)...also, *doesn't really have a common linguistic core, no native speakers, hard to define*. Can happen anywhere English and Spanish are in contact.

What is the most important linguistic feature of Central American Spanish? Does it carry any stigma in the different countries? Is it present in the U.S.? What is "schizoglossia"?

The most important linguistic feature of Central American Spanish is the use of voseo. Voseo is more common in formal settings, while tuteo is more common in informal settings. Voseo does carry a stigma in different countries and can be considered vulgar and anti-literary, but some countries have a high view of it as well. For example, it's adopted as a symbol of individualism in Nicaragua. Voseo is used in the US by Spanish speakers but tuteo is the unofficial standard. Voseo is a strong indicator of being Central American and sometimes can be considered inferior to tuteo. schizoglossia is the insecurity of using the mother language. In this case, it's the insecurity of using voseo when tuteo may be "preferred".

What has been the evolution of the views towards bilingual education throughout American history?

- considered natural during the birth of the nation (ex: German-English schooling on the island of Manhattan) - 19th century: Jefferson administration tried to impose monolingual policies, although during this time, some states (ex: Ohio and NM) implemented bilingual education policies - end of 19th century: negative perception, related to war and fear of unknown - Bilingual Education Act of 1968 recognized the need and value for bilingual education, although it still wasn't very common. - 70's: immigration waves led to opposition again - back in forth the past 30 years, but bilingual education is increasing

What are the main differences as far as their perspectives on Cuba between the newer and the older generations of Cubans Americans?

- newer Cuban Americans say they share a lot in common with people living in Cuba, while older ones thought they had little to nothing in common political: - newer are more Democrat, older are more Republican - newer are less likely to vote

What are the myths about Spanish in the U.S.? Why don't they correspond to reality?

1. Spanish exists in the US because of migration in the 20th and 21st centuries - BUT Spanish has been spoken in the US at least as long as English. Juan Ponce de Leon arrived already in 1513, and New Mexico was established in 1605. But english wasn't present until Mayflower arrival in 1620 2. Spanish is a monolithic entity - BUT Spanish is really diverse and has lots of variation. Early on, there was a founder effect when ppl from different regions of Spain settled in different regions in the US. Later, there was a Spanish diaspora where different varieties coming in from Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico, etc. and ALSO differences in age, gender, socioeconomic status, etc. 3. Spanish presents a threat to English in the US - BUT many migration waves in the past haven't threatened the status of English. Immigrants actually tend to assimilate to the US and English culture

What are the main Spanish-speaking communities in Louisiana? In what sense is this traditional variety of Spanish is unique compared to other areas of the U.S.?

2 main communities: St. Bernard Parish and Sabine River unique because: - possibly, there were just many influences, more than other areas. presence of many countries (Spain, France, Germany, Britain) fighting over land >> language contact, unique... but the most prominent reason why it's so unique is because of the isolation- St. Bernard had a lot of geographical and cultural isolation, Sabine is also somewhat isolated. In fact, some individuals in St. Bernard Parish still believed they were living in New Spain until the 1940's.

What were the main factors that shaped the development of the traditional variety of Spanish language in New Mexico? What was the consequence of these factors? (GLB, NM)

3 main factors shaped the development of traditional New Mexican Spanish: 1. Geographical isolation - hard conditions (work, climate, indian raids) - prohibition of free travel = less language contact (they did, however, have contact with Sonora, a state in Mexico, through trade routes) 2. Lack of prestige dialect- illiteracy and no public schools sets them apart from other Spanish that are more literate 3. Breakdown in social class - no elite developed - no immigration from Spain after initial settlements consequence: ISOLATION

Why is there a controversy with respect to bilingual education in the U.S.?

4 issues: linguistic, cultural, academic program, legal and policy...disagreements on them 1. linguistic - bilingualism will be divisive for country // BUT it's natural in a multicultural society 2. cultural - bilingual education separates students based on ethnicity // BUT most have a mix of L1 and L2 learners 3. academic program - English immersion is more effective in teaching English // BUT reading/writing skills in 2 languages benefit each other 4. legal and policy - education in English should be a right for children '// BUT children should have the right to have the most beneficial education possible

Is the presence of the Afro-descendant population in the Spanish-speaking world significant? What kind of challenges do Afro-Latinos in the U.S. face?

Afro-descendant populations are relatively significant in the Spanish-speaking world. There is a high presence in Latin America, the Caribbean, and South America. Afro-Latinos have been practically invisible for centuries. The recognition of their existence, experience and contribution to society is lacking, especially in Latin America. In the US, they have a multidimensional identity in regards to geographical origin and racial background. They may face discrimination. discrimination in Latin America, misunderstood in US actors who went up for latino roles were only given black ones, considered inauthentic latinos. Often misunderstood that they can be both latino AND black

What differences can we identify in the Cubans who migrated to the U.S. after the Cuban Revolution and the ones known as Marielitos (characteristics, language, race, wok ethics, education, etc.)?

Cubans after Cuban Revolution: mainly middle and upper class Cubans- more educated and higher work ethic, language more formal and more literate. Marielitos: Cubans could use port to pick up relatives, and also released lots of criminals and mentally ill...so lower education, work ethic, etc. big community in Miami

What is dual-language education? What are the main features of a two-way dual-language bilingual program? Where in the U.S. is it more likely to find dual language education programs?

Dual language education is a bilingual program that educates English learners and native English speakers together main features: - 6+ years bilingual instruction - focus on the core academic curriculum (all the different subjects) - Integration of both languages into thematic units - Separation of the 2 languages for instruction (no spanglish) - Language distribution between 50/50 and 90/10% Promotion of positive interdependence among peers and between teachers and students - High quality language proficient teachers - Active parent-school partnerships (parents tend to play a strong role and can keep programs alive) most likely to find: CA, then TX and IL (most popular in elementary)

How are the English Only and English Plus movements important to define the role of Spanish in the U.S.?

English only: English should be the only official language of the US, used in government operations, education, publications, etc. English Plus: all US residents should have the opportunity to become proficient in English PLUS 1+ other languages This is important to define the role of Spanish in the US because these movements affect attitudes toward whether or not Spanish should be spoken and therefore how much it is used (ex: will there be education in Spanish? Should government forms include a translation?) More allowance = more Spanish spoken likely

Why is it so confusing and torturous to study Spanish speakers in the U.S.?

It's confusing to study Spanish speakers because: 1. the population is always changing 2. underrepresentation in census (only speakers 5+ are considered, and race vs ethnicity on census is confusing) 3. undocumented immigrants elude attempts to count or study them

Why is it a good idea to have both native English and Spanish children to enroll in a dual language program? What are the main challenges that certain dual language programs face?

It's important to have both native English and Spanish children to enroll in a dual language program so that they can help each other learn and are exposed to each other's culture. They both have different strengths and weaknesses, so they can help each other learn. Also, don't want to separate them based on race/ethnicity, and helps with proficiency challenges: students in dual language programs may have lower scores on some language tests, like reading. (whereas higher in science, math, etc.) ALSO at West Liberty, struggled with dropping out at first and sometimes spanish feel more outcast so creating a good balanced culture, and good teachers.

What was the main event in El Salvador's history to cause the Salvadoran diaspora (which is still ongoing)? What social strata participated in the diaspora in El Salvador?

Main event: Salvadoran Civil War- very long and violent, with Guerrilla armies and death squads. Immigration to the US because of: inequality of social classes, repressive military rule, and extreme poverty. ALL social strata participated in this diaspora- low, middle and high classes. First: peasants and working class. 2nd: middle class and business owners. 3rd: intellectuals, more educated severe: 1/3 of the population was living outside the country at one point not a lot of return migration here

What is the demographic situation of Spanish speakers in New Mexico compared to other areas of the U.S.? Why have New Mexicans traditionally rejected Mexican culture? Why did they refer to Mexicans as "mojaos" (wetbacks)?

New Mexican Spanish is severely isolated because of geographical isolation, lack of prestige dialect and breakdown in social class. In other areas of the US, the Spanish is *less isolated*- exposed to different varieties of Spanish, English, etc. New Mexicans have traditionally rejected Mexican culture because they are so isolated that their variety of Spanish is very distinct, and sounds like an outdated form of Spanish from the Iberian peninsula. They want to differentiated themselves from the Mexican immigrants, and do so by maintaining linguistic differences and connections to the original Spanish settlers. Mojaos has been a derogatory term used to make the same type of differentiation.

What were the contributions of New Spain to the Spanish Empire? (MAFT) What was the importance of the Mexican-American War for the role of Spanish in the U.S.? What was the importance of the Bracero program for the arrival of Spanish speakers in the U.S.?

New Spain (Mexico) provided mineral wealth, abundant indigenous workers, fertile lands, and territory for new settlements Mexican-American War: "they didn't cross the border, the border crossed them"...US took over territory that was once Mexico's so now all these Mexicans lived in the US without moving. So Spanish was very common in those areas. Bracero program: recruitment of temporary Mexican workers (especially from poor areas) in US for farming, railroad, etc. (some happened during world wars 1 and 2 when US farmers left to fight in the war) This brought lots of Mexicans into the US. Some were able to make better lives for themselves and establish communities.

Why are the concepts of "race" and "ethnicity" important in defining the Hispanic identity in the U.S.?

Race is socially constructed, while ethnicity is associated with descent. Both of these concepts are important in defining the Hispanic identity in the US because of implications in the census. The census considers being hispanic/latino to be ethnicity, but many people consider it race and get confused on the census. Thus, it's hard to know how many Hispanics/Latinos are actually in the US.

What was the role of African slaves in the Atlantic slave trade? What were the main points of origin and destination of this trade? In which linguistic aspect is the African contribution to Spanish more evident? Why is the African contribution to Spanish more contested in other linguistic aspects?

The Atlantic slave trade had a triangle movement: Sub-Saharan Africa to Europe to the Americas. Slaves did manual labor, like working on farms, and were brought over partially because the indigenous people weren't a viable option. The African contribution to Spanish lexicon is clear (like vocab relating to food and drink, music, etc.), but the morphology, syntax and phonetics is less clear. because... - a lot of the characteristics of African Spanish are common in other varieties of Spanish as well and can't be attributed to African spanish only. For example, the final consonant reduction is not unique to African Spanish- it's also common in other areas such as Chile and Paraguay - many characteristics were documented to have existed in Spain prior to their presence in colonial Spanish America - colonists from spain (Andalusia) were settling in the same areas when the slaves were arriving so can't attribute it to the slaves, could be Andalusian or other influences as well

What has the involvement of the U.S. in the politics of the different countries in Central America been? What were some of the reasons for that involvement? What has been the impact of that involvement in shaping the presence of Central Americans in the U.S. today?

The US has been significantly involved in Central America, especially in the 20th century. - Guatemala: important role against communism in Guatemalan Civil War. Caused violent conflict and death squads. - Nicaragua: interest in building canal. Fight against US military occupation during Somoza dynasty. - Honduras: banana industry (economy, importation) the US was trying to fight against communism in a lot of these countries, and as a result caused a lot of violence, civil wars and revolts. Thus, this caused the people in these countries to want to leave and get away from the violence and poor quality of life, so they came to the United States. The US provided a place for Central Americans to go, especially Salvadorans. In the Salvadoran diaspora, inequality of social classes, repressive military rule,and severe poverty led to more than 500,000 Salvadorans arrived to the US

What are the two main Spanish-speaking groups in Louisiana? Elaborate on the main similarities and differences between these communities (SA)

The two main Spanish-speaking groups in Louisiana are St. Bernard Parish and Sabine River. Similarities: - both isolated, unique Diff: - Sabine is western Louisiana, St. Bernard is on the bottom near the "toe". (diff regions) - St. Bernard was mostly immigration from Spain, Sabine had more in common with Mexico and were comfortable with "Mexicano dialect". - Sabine was buffer zone against French.

Is there a "correct" version of English or Spanish? Why? Why is there so much variation in the Spanish language?

There's no "correct" version of English or Spanish because languages evolve over time. This happens because the needs of the speakers change, and language is highly individual to specific groups. There is a lot of variation in the Spanish language because it's spoken in so many different regions across the world and has been impacted by many different influences. Spanish originally came from Spain and early on, Spain had many different rulers, bringing in lots of different influences. Spanish is also spoken in a lot of places, and because languages evolve, the separation over time led to differences developed between regions and people.

What are the main varieties of Spanish that have a relevant demographic presence in the U.S.? What are the main differences between the mainstream Mexican Spanish and other Caribbean and Central American varieties? What tend to be the main differences between the "standard" varieties of Spanish and the subvarieties specifically used in the U.S.?

Top varieties in US: Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican...also African and Central American Mexican/Car/CA differences: - Mexican is more conservative than Caribbean and other varieties - phonetic: Mexican has strong s but in Caribbean and other varieties it's often dropped - morphological: may differ in use of tú, vos, etc. - syntactic: Mexico uses inverted questions, Caribbean usually non-inverted Generally, subvarieties in the US are altered because of language contact with English. - anglicisms (borrowed English words) - code switching - change noun-adjective order, or verb tenses

How has the definition of "bilingual" evolved from the early definitions to the most accepted current definition? What are the benefits of being bilingual?

early definition: a person having native-speaker like control of two languages current definition: a person who uses 2 languages with some degree of proficiency benefits: personal, sociocultural and professional. personal: develops linguistic, cognitive and academic skills sociocultural: expand world, access to other countries and cultures professional: access to better jobs and paid more

What factors are important to establish the different types of bilinguals? What is the classification of bilinguals according to these factors?

factors: age of acquisition, proficiency, functional ability, effect of L2 - age of acquisition: early or late bilingual - proficiency: balanced vs dominant - functional ability: incipient (early proficiency in both languages), receptive/passive (only listening/reading, not writing/speaking), productive (ALL skills) - effect of L2: additive or subtractive bilingual (lose L1 when gain L2) additional theoretical method: organization of linguistic codes: compound (1 meaning unit), coordinate (2 meaning units) and subordinate (access through L1) bilingualism

What is the difference(s) between the terms "Hispanic" and "Latino"?

hispanic originally denoted a relationship to ancient Iberia and refers to language, while latino refers to people of Latin American origin and refers to geography.

What are the key concepts to consider when we talk about Spanish as a heritage language in the U.S.? Describe them.

proficiency, register, agency, and generation 1. proficiency - monolingual bias- is the heritage language their first or second language 2. register - the way someone chooses to speak in different environments. Heritage speakers often lack formal, academic variety 3. agency - classroom exposure gives a less socially marked version of Spanish and create a sense of community 4. generation - there is a correlation between age and language acquisition, critical period.