SPMT 336 Exam 3
stigma
"an attribute that produces a social identity that is devalued or derogated by persons within a particular culture at a particular point in time"
Spirituality is:
(1) the basic belief that there is a supreme being that governs the universe; (2) the notion that the higher power affects all things; (3) the ultimate source of meaning in one's life. Christians, Jews, and Muslims would, for the most part, make similar statements about God and their religious beliefs.
People are more likely to reveal their sexual orientation or gender identity to others when...
(1) the work environment is characterized by diversity and inclusion (2) the norms within the specific industry are supportive of those decisions; (3) there are legal protections for doing so.
With respect to the latter, Sutin and Terracciano's (2013) work is particularly enlightening. They collected data on more than 6,000 participants age 50 and older. Among those who were overweight, but not obese, participants who experienced weight discrimination were 2.5 times as likely to be obese four years later, compared to those who did not experience such mistreatment. The effects were even more damaging for persons who were already obese, as they were over 3 times as likely to remain obese as their obese peers who did not experience weight discrimination. what are these patterns attributable to?
1) the psychological distress associated with discrimination—which might result in more eating, (2) decreased confidence in physical activity, (3) avoidance of physical activity.
sexual prejudice is preferred over Homophobia for several reasons
1) unlike homophobia, sexual prejudice conveys no a priori assumptions about the genesis of the negative attitudes; (2) the construct allows researchers to incorporate the study of anti-gay attitudes into a rich social psychological tradition that studies prejudice; (3) using the term does not suggest that anti-gay attitudes are irrational or evil, as the term homophobia does.
Conceptually, it is reasonable to assume that people's religious beliefs can influence their decisions across life contexts A number of factors are likely to influence whether this occurs -- what are they?
1. Religious identity is one such factor, as the influence of religious beliefs on decision making is likely to be stronger when religious beliefs are central to the person's identity. 2. Organizational context is another influential factor, as it is possible for a leader to have strong religious beliefs but, because of the organizational culture in place, not be at liberty to express those beliefs at work or turn to them in the decision-making process. 3. Similarly, stakeholder expectations can influence the role of religious beliefs in strategic decision making.
Gender and sexual stigma is also promoted through three manifestations of stigma toward individuals
1. enacted stigma -- refers to behavioral expressions of stigma. These include the use of derogatory comments, bullying, ostracizing LGBT individuals, and other forms of discrimination. 2. felt stigma -- which reflects LGBT individuals' knowledge that stigma exists and includes the steps they take to avoid it. In some cases, this occurs through the modification of behaviors, such as when female athletes or coaches try to accentuate their femininity (e.g., extra makeup, bows in hair, high heels) as a way of offsetting the assumption that they might be lesbian or bisexual. 3. internalized stigma -- refers to the acceptance of gender and sexual stigma as part of a person's own value system. For heterosexuals and cisgender individuals, this takes the form of gender and sexual prejudice. Among LGBT individuals, internalized stigma negatively affects self-esteem, positive affect, and physical health, while it increases the occurrence of depressive symptoms and state anxiety
She suggested that ethical leaders have four central orientations:
1. human 2. justice 3. responsibility and sustainability 4. moderation Leaders who express these orientations are likely to engender trust among followers and customers, which should, ultimately, result in improved organizational success.
People who are LGBT use three different methods to reveal
1. signaling 2. normalizing 3. differentiating
what percent of people live in a region where their religious group makes up the majority of the population
73 percent
what percent of the world follows some religion?
84 percent % Most people who identify as religious are Christian, followed by Muslims, Hindus, and Buddhists.
____ percent of all Hindus live in the three countries where Hindus are the majority: India, Nepal, and Mauritius
97 percent
If a person's religious identity remains salient across most social contexts, including work, then that individual's attitudes, preferences, and behaviors are likely to be shaped by her or his religious beliefs. On the other hand, if the religious identity of a person is primed on Sundays, but the work identity is primed at work, then it is less likely that the attitudes and behaviors of that individual at work will be guided by religious beliefs
According to Weaver and Agle (2002), "The more salient religion is for a person—that is, the larger role it plays in one's self-identity—the more difficult it will be for other factors to push aside or thwart the influence of religious expectations"
These findings are consistent with meta-analysis findings showing that weight bias has more impact in sales positions than in managerial positions
Although the effects appear to be lesser for executives than for managers, it is important to remember that even persons in executive positions face discrimination based on their weight
Religion on the institutional level
At the institutional level, religion provides a form of social control by prescribing certain behaviors that are consistent with the values, norms, and beliefs of that faith and of society.
attractive people are advantaged in the work environment.
Attractiveness is positively associated with a number of work outcomes, including perceived fit with the organization, selection, performance appraisals, perceived leadership effectiveness, promotions, and terminations
religion and spirituality is contrasted
Authors who distinguish between the two concepts often view religion as being structured and organized, as providing external controls, and as being divisive. On the other hand, spirituality is viewed as being broad and inclusive, providing inner peace, and being the ultimate end in itself For example, one CEO in Mitroff and Denton's study explained, "Not only do you not have to be religious in order to be spiritual, but it probably helps if you are not religious, especially if you want your spirituality to grow and be a basic part of your life"
what does the CDC use to determine who is overweight or obese what is formula
BMI weight / (height in inches)2 x 703
Employees' weight affects how much they are paid
Ceteris paribus, women who are 25 pounds heavier than average-weight women will earn $389,300 less over a 25-year career. There is a different pattern for men, as they are penalized for being underweight. This is because society generally favors larger, muscular men. All else equal, men who weigh 25 pounds less than the average man will earn $210,925 less over a 25-year career.
what countries have low obesity rates?
China and Japan 5 percent
Cognitive Distancing
Cognitive distancing primarily takes the form of stereotyping and considerable research supports Bullock's (1995) contention that "the poor are perceived as failing to seize opportunities because they lack diligence and initiative. . . . Poor people and welfare recipients are typically characterized as dishonest, dependent, lazy, uninterested in education, and promiscuous" The use of stereotypes that cast the poor in a negative light (e.g., laziness, dishonesty, lack of initiative The negative stereotypes associated with cognitive distancing are also directed toward elements associated with individuals in poverty or the working class, such as speech accents, dress, and manners
People have used their religious beliefs to justify everything from engaging in violence to pursuing equal rights to engaging in efforts to disassemble social stratification These factors suggest that:
Collectively, these factors suggest that (1) people in leadership positions are likely to subscribe to a particular religious belief system and (2) religion has the potential to influence a person's life meaningfully; thus, these leaders' attitudes and behaviors are probably shaped, at least in part, by religious tenets.
Classism
Drawing from the social categorization framework outlined in Chapter 2, we can conceptualize classism as the differential evaluations that persons in one class have of members of another classism can be expressed toward persons above, below, and even within one's own social class. "oppression of the poor through a network of everyday practices, attitudes, assumptions, behaviors, and institutional rules" This oppression can be expressed at the macro level, through the maintenance and re- production of social class through social institutions, or at the individual level, where people express prejudice toward, have negative stereotypes of, and engage in discriminatory behavior toward the poor and oppressed
religion and social integration
Finally, religion provides a form of social integration, uniting people of a common belief system Religion brings together people of diverse backgrounds, reaffirms the basic customs and values of a society, and unites people in ways that transcend the individual self.
shortcomings of materialistic approach
First, conceptualizations of income, education, and occupation often vary. Even within the U.S. government, the U.S. Census Bureau uses one formula for classifying poverty while the Department of Health and Human Services uses another There are similar ambiguities with the conceptualizations of education and occupation. A second shortcoming is that there are considerable differences among occupations within classifications. One can certainly envisage differences in opportunities and access to resources between a television producer and a junior high track and field coach, both of whom are included in the same major occupational category (arts, design, entertainment, sports, and media occupations). Third, and most important, discussions of SES fail to recognize the very important issues of power, privilege, control, and subjugation.
Elements of Meritocracy
First, in this view, merit is thought to be a well-understood and measurable basis for selecting persons either for positions or for promotion. Second, individuals are thought to have equal opportunities to develop and display their talents, thereby allowing them to advance. Finally, the positions attained by people are thought to vary according to different levels of status, reward, and income.
mechanisms of structural stigma
First, systems, structures, and practices promote heterosexuality and cisgender status as the assumption or the standard, and as a result LGBT individuals and their experiences become invisible. Second, and related to the first point, when LGBT individuals do become visible, they take on the status of "other" and may be seen as problematic.
Results from large-scale studies in the United States show that sexual minority youth are less likely to engage in physical activity and some formal sports than are heterosexuals Several factors influence this trend
First, there are few differences in formal sport participation early in youths' athletic career, but as they move to the high school years, participation by sexual minorities drops. Second, these differences in physical activity patterns from early to later grades are more likely to be observed among boys than they are among girls. The gender effects are consistent across races. Finally, LGBT individuals who have gender nonconforming expressions and low athletic self-esteem are less likely to engage in physical activity and sport than are members of other gender and sexual minorities.
it might be expected that people with strong religious beliefs, irrespective of their particular religion, will behave differently from those who do not have strong religious beliefs, particularly with regard to ethics. --- not always true
However, when it comes to business ethics, the picture is mixed, with some studies showing no relationship and others showing a strong relationship between religiosity and ethical behavior or other desired behaviors at work
organizational commitment
If an employee is highly committed to the organization, this commitment will tend to counteract the salience of the person's religious identity while at work. One cannot serve two masters; employees will either be committed and highly identified with their work or committed and highly identified with their religion, but not both. A strong commitment to the workplace may negate (or at least reduce) the effects of an individual's religious beliefs on ethical behavior
Between 25 and 66 percent of employees who are LGBT experience sexual orientation discrimination at work
In fact, Ragins, Singh, and Cornwell (2007) found that only 26.7 percent of the participants in their study reported full dis- closure of their sexual orientation to everyone at work. In another analysis, half of the gay men working in professional sports reported having experienced work negatively because of their sexual orientation
who coined the term Homophobia what does it mean?
In the 1960s by psychologist George Weinberg to describe the dread that heterosexuals felt toward sexual minorities and the self-loathing that individuals who were LGBT felt toward themselves This term focuses on the individual and the irrational fears (hence, the use of "phobia" in the word) she or he has of sexual minorities and their lifestyles
Evidence also suggests that male leaders' facial characteristics are associated with organizational performance
Men whose faces have a high width-to-height ratio are perceived to be more aggressive, willing to take risks, and able to develop a stronger sense of power than their peers
Meritocracy
Meritocracy refers to the worldview that a person's social standing and the re- wards each person receives are based on individual effort and merit. This ideal is highly valued and engrained within the United States and other Western cultures, such that it serves as a dominant ideology Key elements in American culture, including children's books (e.g., The Little Engine That Could), numerous biographies and autobiographies, and many movies (e.g., Hoosiers), promote the notion that with hard work, persistence, and determination anyone can rise from humble beginnings to overcome hurdles placed in front of them and achieve greatness. This belief system is often used, perhaps implicitly, to justify the positions of those in power (e.g., they worked hard to get there) and those in disadvantaged circumstances (e.g., they made poor choices and now must face the consequences
normalizing
Normalizing occurs when people reveal their sexual orientation to others and then attempt to make their difference from the others seem commonplace or ordinary People who adopt the normalizing method seek to assimilate into the dominant culture and downplay the significance of the difference. For example, a coach who is lesbian might share the everyday difficulties she and her partner have, such as who mows the grass or pays the bills, to underscore how much they have in common with heterosexual couples.
Some sport organizations adopt what Buzuvis considers inclusive policies.
One example comes from the Washington Interscholastic Athletic Association, which allows high school students to take part in sports in a manner that is consistent with the athletes' gender identity. This policy does not require medical treatment or any legal documents. When questions arise about the legitimacy of the gender identity claim, an eligibility committee can hear the case to make a determination. The focus of this policy, and others like it (e.g., the policy in Massachusetts), is on the athletes' gender identity, which is a reasonable approach considering that the athletes themselves are the best judges of their own gender identity.
Finally, some sport organizations adopt what Buzuvis considers inclusive policies. One example comes from the Washington Interscholastic Athletic Association, which allows high school students to take part in sports in a manner that is consistent with the athletes' gender identity. This policy does not require medical treatment or any legal documents. When questions arise about the legitimacy of the gender identity claim, an eligibility committee can hear the case to make a determination. The focus of this policy, and others like it (e.g., the policy in Massachusetts), is on the athletes' gender identity, which is a reasonable approach considering that the athletes themselves are the best judges of their own gender identity
One example comes from the Washington Interscholastic Athletic Association, which allows high school students to take part in sports in a manner that is consistent with the athletes' gender identity. This policy does not require medical treatment or any legal documents. When questions arise about the legitimacy of the gender identity claim, an eligibility committee can hear the case to make a determination. The focus of this policy, and others like it (e.g., the policy in Massachusetts), is on the athletes' gender identity, which is a reasonable approach considering that the athletes themselves are the best judges of their own gender identity
signaling
People who choose the signaling method disclose their identity by sending messages, providing subtle hints, or giving certain clues. Sometimes, people use signals that are meaningful to insiders but are innocuous to others, thereby making their identity known only to those they choose. For example, an athlete who is bisexual might put a rainbow sticker on her car's back window.
classes of the social class approach
Poverty: This class includes working-class persons who, because of various circumstances, including unemployment, low wages, or lack of healthcare coverage, do not have the income needed to support their basic needs. The working class: Persons in this class lack power and authority in the work- place, have little discretion in how they complete their work, and are marginalized when it comes to providing feedback concerning their health care, education, and housing. Relative to people in more powerful classes, working- class persons have lower income levels, lower net worth, and less education. Middle class: Persons in this class are college educated and salaried, and they typically work as professionals, managers, or small business owners. Relative to the working class, middle-class persons have greater job autonomy and economic security; however, they do rely on their earnings to support themselves. Owning class: Persons in this class have accumulated enough wealth that they do not need to work to support themselves; further, they generally own businesses and resources from which others make their living. Given their power and access to resources, owning-class persons also maintain substantial social, cultural, and political clout, particularly relative to other classes.
religion and nature
Religion is also interpersonal in nature, creating social bonds and shared values among people who have similar beliefs.
Another leadership style with religious overtones is that of servant leadership
Servant leaders recognize their moral responsibility not only to their organization but also to their followers, customers, and others with a stake in the organization. The moral compass that servant leaders use is what separates them from other leaders. Servant leaders focus on empowering others, are humble, demonstrate authenticity, create an environment where people feel safe, clearly demonstrate to followers what is expected of them, and act as both role models and caretakers
Two approaches to class
Socioeconomic Status (Materialistic) Approach Social Class Approach
In defining the poverty line, the U.S. Census Bureau sets thresholds that take into account family income and characteristics of the family. In 2013, the poverty threshold for a single-person household was $11,888, while the threshold for a single parent with two children under age 18 was $18,769.
Some observers have argued that wealth, or one's private assets minus debts, is a better indicator of economic status because it reflects intergenerational transfers of resources that can serve as a buffer against potential fluctuations in annual income
education
Specifically, because most schools are funded through property taxes, class inequalities and social injustices are continually reinforced
Recognizing the value of such characteristics, Burton and Welty Peachey (2013) argued that more servant leaders are needed in sport organizations, as they would have the potential to transform the sport setting.
Specifically, servant leaders would develop organizational cultures of trust and helping behaviors; their followers would work collaboratively with one another; and, as a result, the sport organization would thrive
Structural Stigma
Structural stigma operates at the institutional level. The term refers to the systems, structures, and organizational practices in place that reinforce the stigmatized status of LGBT individuals. Structural stigma works through several mechanisms Structural stigma is largely created and reinforced through the rules, laws, and customs present in a given society
NCAA policy for transgender
The NCAA offers a more inclusive policy than the IOC's. This entity allows a transgender athlete who identifies as a woman to participate on women's teams if she has undergone at least one year of hormone treatments designed to nullify any effects of added testosterone in the body. Notably absent from the NCAA's policy is the requirement for sex reassignment surgery or legal documents outlining the transition. The NCAA policy also allows for a transgender athlete who identifies as a man to continue participating on women's teams. He can do so until he starts hormone treatments. Although it is more inclusive than the IOC's, the NCAA's policy is restrictive in that it prohibits participation on women's teams by those transgender women who have yet to begin hormone treatments. The presumption is that forbidding such participation levels the playing field.
Housing
The ability to provide shelter for one's family—one of the most basic needs people have (Maslow, 1943)—is continuously listed as the most pressing concern for persons in the poverty class
the presence of others in the workplace who share the same religion
The presence in the workplace of others who share a person's religious beliefs is likely to increase the power of those beliefs to guide actions in the workplace. For example, if a Christian has many coworkers who also identify themselves as Christians, the identity of being a Christian is likely to be reinforced at work. Furthermore, there is likely to be greater accountability for one's actions among the Christian coworkers. Because the religious salience is likely to be high in that work environment, the link between religious beliefs and ethical behavior is likely to be positive.
As these examples illustrate, policies and guidelines regulating transgender athletes' participation serve to reinforce stigmas
The restrictive nature of some policies reinforces stereotypes and promotes ideas that are unsubstantiated by empirical evidence. Restrictive policies are usually found in contexts promoting high levels of elite competition or in politically conservative regions, and the policies ultimately serve to limit participation. On the other hand, more inclusive policies put participation at the fore, promote the idea that transgender athletes should be fully engaged in the sport enterprise, and are found in more progressive regions and among athletic associations that seek to encourage full participation.
Egyptian women's participation in sport and physical activity was largely shaped by their Islamic beliefs
The women in their study believed that Islam called for people to be physically active for various reasons, including to care for their overall health and to be ready in case of war. Because Islam says that women may participate in sport as long as the sport movements are not "exciting" for men who might watch them, the extent to which the women participated in sport and physical activity depended on whether they adopted a more modern or more traditional view of Islam
Individual differences among people are also likely to influence passing or revealing decisions.
These factors include the willingness to take risks, self-monitoring tendencies, stage of adult development, and the presence of other stigmatizing characteristics
Second, an individual's family class background is often a better predictor of life success than is individual merit
This is meaningful because if two people differ in class but are otherwise identically meritorious from birth, they are likely to have different experiences and chances in life.
why are CEOs 3 inches taller then average?
This is not because people explicitly think taller people are better; rather, people subconsciously associate height and stature with power and leadership—a relationship observed throughout nature
In both sports, the authors argued that goal-keepers/goalies and strikers/ forwards are likely to be the most athletic members of the team because of the skills needed to compete effectively in those positions. Defenders, on the other hand, require considerable endurance but comparatively less athleticism
Thus, if attractiveness is associated with athleticism, then the former group (i.e., goal- keepers/goalies and strikers/forwards) should be rated as more attractive than the latter (i.e., defenders).
what dynamic causes people to seek greater meaning in their lives?
Time spent away from home in other activities, such as attending social gatherings, has decreased, while the hours spent at work have increased. a quest that often leads to greater integration of religious and work identities. As they seek greater meaning, employees are likely to merge their religious beliefs, values, and identities into their work -- Thus, for many employees, the two identities are no longer separate, and religion is no longer viewed as something to be kept out of the workplace.
Depending on how sexual orientation is measured, LGB individuals comprise between 1 and 21 percent of the population with most estimates near 10 percent.
To put this in perspective, consider that the U.S. population in 2015 was roughly 320 million people; thus, there were about 3.2 million lesbian, gay, or bisexual individuals living in the country at the time. This is more than the proportion of Asians, but less than the proportion of Hispanics. Thus, sexual minorities constitute a sizeable segment of the U.S. population.
Williams and colleagues (2010) examined the linkage between facial attractiveness and performance among professional football quarterbacks.
Using the NFL's quarterback rating system as the measure of performance, the authors found a positive association between attractiveness and quarterback performance
In our first study, we observed that former and current athletes' level of sexual prejudice was highly predictive of their unwillingness to play on teams coached by gay men or lesbians
We also found that parents' willingness to let their children play on teams coached by gay men or lesbians was largely a function of the parents' sexual prejudice -- For about half of the parents, though, the positive attitudes were expressed in what we called conditional support -- Thus, we argued that although the parents openly expressed support, they actually expressed prejudice in subtle, nuanced ways—something that ultimately negatively affects LGBT coaches' access to positions.
are attractive and unattractive people judged differently?
Yes Relative to their unattractive counterparts, attractive children are perceived to be more positively adjusted and to display greater interpersonal competence, while attractive adults are thought to have more social appeal, be better adjusted, and be more interpersonally competent. Attractive people are treated better including positive interactions, allocation of rewards, attention, and provisions of help and cooperation Behavioral differences are also present. Attractive children have been shown to be better adjusted emotionally, to display greater intelligence, and to be more popular than their unattractive counterparts. Differences in adults were observed for occupational success, physical health, social skills, mental health, and intelligence.
is there uniformity for what is considered attractive?
Yes; Contrary to the notion that various cultures have distinct ideas about what is attractive, there is some agreement both within and between cultures about who is attractive and who is not "that beauty is not simply in the eye of the beholder"
Sexual orientation
an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions
what makes faces beautiful
averageness -- the more average the more beautiful it is perceived symmetry sexual dimorphism -- refers to the characteristics generally observed among men and women that differentiate the sexes
what are common stereotypes of obese
belief that they lack self control and self discipline lazy lack conscientiousness incompetent sloppy poor hygiene
religion
beliefs, practices, and rituals related to the transcendent, where the transcendent is God, Allah, HaShem, or a Higher Power in Western religious traditions, or to Brahman, manifestations of Brahman, Buddha, Dao, or ultimate truth/reality in Eastern traditions
what can somebodies appearance influence?
carrer aspirations, work experiences, and interactions with others
what are the benefits of participating in high school athletics?
character developmet learning how to work with others engaging in cross-cultural experiences
classism results from three interrelated distancing responses:
cognitive distancing interpersonal distancing institutional distancing
athletic departments that coupled an LGBT-diverse workforce with an inclusive work environment had more creative work environments and higher performance on objective measures of success than did their more homogeneous peers Why do these patterns exist?
creative capital theory -- This theory suggests that talented, creative people are attracted to certain geographic areas—those marked by high levels of educated people, technological innovation, and diversity. As a result, geographic regions that have these characteristics attract the best and the brightest individuals and then thrive economically
Social Class Approach
defines social class as "the dimension of the self that is rooted in objective material resources (income, education, and occupational prestige) and corresponding subjective perceptions of rank vis-á-vis others Unlike SES, social class is more overtly political in nature, draws attention to differences in power, and focuses on the socially constructed nature of social standing, including the treatment of persons from various classes From this perspective, inequality is a function not only of differential access to valued resources but also of the social (re)creation of privilege, power, and domination, particularly within capitalist societies
what influences the relationship between weight status and work outcomes?
demographic factors the type of job applicants qualifications
transgender
describes an individual whose gender identity (one's psychological identification as a boy/man or girl/woman) does not match the person's sex at birth Gates (2011) estimates there are about 700,000 transgender persons in the United States.
factors to obesity "WHO"
diet activity level genetics
Heterosexism is different from Homophobia
different from homophobia in that it focuses more on macro elements of prejudice Specifically, heterosexism refers to the cultural system of arrangements that privileges heterosexuality and casts a negative light on individuals who are LGBT and their behaviors, relationships, and communities.
differentiating
differentiating occurs when people disclose their sexual orientation and highlight how it makes them different from others who do not share such identities. Clair and colleagues (2005) note that people who differentiate "seek to present an identity as equally valid (rather than stigmatized) and many engage in an effort to change the perceptions and behavior of the groups, organizations, and institutions that may stigmatize them"
conditional support
expressed positive attitudes toward coaches of gender or sexual minorities as long as the coaches did not engage in certain behaviors, such as promoting their sexual orientation
Socioeconomic Status (Materialistic) Approach
focus on the material and economic resources that people possess. Persons adopting this approach favor the term socioeconomic status (SES), and they take into account three primary factors: income, education, and occupation The use of the materialistic approach is widespread, and research has linked income, educational attainment, and occupational status to a number of important outcomes, including psychological and physical health, academic performance, and life expectancy, among other
Some observers have suggested that sports reporters' appearance affects their notoriety, particularly among women
hey found that credibility ratings depended on the sex of the reporter and the athlete covered. Participants considered attractive men to be more credible than their less attractive counter- parts; however, attractive women were not believed to be credible when they were reporting on male athletes. These findings suggest that ideas of attractiveness are gender-based and promote many of the gendered ideologies
what types of bias results in favor of tall people?
implicit
pay to play
in which students pay a fee to participate in a sport. This is a common practice, as 60 percent of parents indicate they have had to pay for their children to participate in high school athletics. In southwest Ohio, 82 percent of the school districts report having a pay-to-play program. While pay-to-play allows the sports to be offered, the policy negatively affects low- income families. Only 6 percent have received a waiver based on their income level, but close to 20 percent of families earning less than $60,000 annually have had to decrease sport participation because of the fees. Thus, programs ultimately privilege the wealthy while cutting out along with the potential cost-saving benefits, pay-to-play the poor from participation in sport
Religious beliefs can influence a variety of work-related outcomes
including strategic decisions, ethical behavior, leadership, and stress. In addition, religion serves as a basis for categorization and, as a result, can influence how well people integrate into a group
Religion serves multiple functions
individual nature institutional social integration
what has led to a more positive relationship between sport and religion
industrialization, urbanization, and an awareness of the health benefits of sport and physical activity
religion at the individual level
it brings people closer to the divine, provides emotional support, and serves as a source of meaning
what jobs are obese people more likely to get?
jobs that lack face to face interaction telephone sales
how is institutional distancing manifested
meritocracy education housing health care organizational structure sport systems
Intrapersonal Distancing in the workplace
n the workplace, this discrimination is seen in the hiring process and the placement of people into particular jobs. For example, employers are sometimes reluctant to hire people whom they perceive to be from a poor background, because the applicants are thought to possess a poor work ethic When they are hired, people from poor backgrounds are likely to be placed in "class appropriate" jobs such as janitorial or parking lot attendant positions Similarly, the elite and poor rarely interact with one another in the workplace: in elite hotels, janitorial staff ride different elevators than do wealthy customers, just as in the workplace janitorial staff clean executives' offices during non-business hours
what is an example of structural stigma
ne excellent example of this within the sport setting is the rules in place governing participation by transgender athletes (Buzuvis, 2012; Carroll, 2014; Krane, Barak, & Mann, 2012; Love, 2014; Travers & Deri, 2011). The policies are designed to regulate who can and cannot participate in different sport settings. At the most restrictive end is the policy adopted by the International Olympic Committee, whereby transgender athletes can participate only if: (1) they have transitioned via sex reassignment surgery, (2) they have undergone hormone treatment for at least two years, (3) they have legal papers documenting their transitioned sex. The policy is restrictive on a number of grounds.
are transgender people the same as people with intersex conditions
no People with intersex conditions have "atypical combinations of chromosomes, hormones, genitalia, and other physical features" (Buzuvis, 2011, p. 11). Most people with intersex conditions identify as either male or female and do not experience ambiguity about their gender identity. In fact, most people who have an intersex condition are not aware of it unless they learn about it during a medical procedure
discretion
occurs when people avoid questions related to their sexual orientation or gender identity People who choose discretion do not hide information about their sexual orientation (as they do with concealment)—they simply sidestep the issue altogether. People who use discretion avoid conversations where their sexual orientation might become a topic or simply change the topic.
Factors that could influence expected positive relationship between religious behavior and ethical behavior
organizational commitment the presence of others in the workplace who share the same religion
what race of overweight people are more penalized? why?
overweight white women are penalized more This is likely attributable to differences across cultures in the acceptability of larger body types.
what is the largest group in religion
people with no religious affiliation In interpreting the data, it is important to note that roughly one in six persons express no religious affiliation, which makes them the third largest group, more populous than Catholics.
Relative to their less active peers, students who participate in sports...
perform better academically, have greater confidence, develop more interpersonal connections, exhibit more pro-social behaviors, develop more desired personality characteristics.
Cisgender
persons whose gender assigned at birth has always coincided with their identity/expression Thus, a person who is assigned a female sex at birth, who identifies as a woman, and whose gender expression is also that of a woman would be considered cisgender.
Interpersonal Distancing
refers to the discriminatory behaviors that persons from more powerful classes express toward the poor
Institutional Distancing
refers to the manner in which societal institutions and prevailing norms and values allocate positive social value to dominant, power-holding groups while disproportionately assigning negative social value to subordinates. This form of classism punishes members of low-status groups by erecting barriers to their access to resources and full participation in society
sexual prejudice
refers to the negative attitudes held toward an individual because of that person's sexual orientation Like other prejudices, sexual prejudice is an attitude, directed toward people who belong (or are perceived to belong) to a social group, and it is negative, such that it encompasses hostility or dislike.
what are the two factors that likely influence their decision to reveal their gender and sexual identity to others.
self assured high levels of self esteem
People's religious beliefs can shape how they see themselves and others
social categorization framework that people categorize themselves and others into social groups. This process is based on characteristics that are important to the individual or that are salient in a particular context. Thus, if a person's religious beliefs are particularly important, she will refer to religion to identify who is similar and who is different from herself. For a person to whom religion is not particularly important, religion might become salient when he is surrounded by like-minded others, such as while attending a Fellowship of Christian Athletes meeting
selective femininity
the athletes were cognizant of and tried to reinforce their femininity in select contexts, such as gymnastic competitions, but not in other contexts, such as classrooms or practice. Thus, the athletes practiced femininity only on occasions that they chose
spirituality
the basic feeling of being connected with one's complete self, others, and the entire universe Each person is spiritual on account of being human Terms associated with spirituality include self-actualization, wholeness, meaning, purpose, life force, virtue, and interconnectedness, among others
revealing
the choice to disclose an identity that would otherwise be invisible or unrecognizable to others Revealing is a general term that is used with a myriad of identities, such as religious affiliation, social class, and so forth. "Coming out" is the term most often used when referring to revealing one's sexual orientation and gender identity.
we observed that inclusive organizations were appealing to job searchers, particularly those people who valued justice and equality
the second study, we found that people believed LGBT-inclusive fitness clubs were also diverse along other diversity dimensions, and these characteristics were appealing to the potential club members.
Considering that athleticism and facial attractiveness (as a result of high testosterone) are linked to heritable fitness, researchers have begun to explore the possibility of an association between facial attractiveness and athleticism.
there is evidence to support it
effects of height on earning
they found that taller people earn appreciably more than their shorter counterparts. For instance, a person who stands 72 inches tall is expected to earn $5,525 more per year than a person who is 65 inches tall. Over a 30-year career, this amounts to $165,750 in earnings—without even accounting for interest. thus, women and men who are taller than their counterparts earn more, and they continue to do so over time.
what is a effective approach to fitness clubs?
to focus on how membership in a club can result in being healthy, irrespective of one's weight.
These findings suggest that the dominant marketing theme among most fitness clubs—that is, "if you exercise then you will lose weight"—might be misguided.
use of fit athletic models are also misguided -- don't reach their target market the obese
Interpersonal distancing in the school setting
where teachers have differential expectations for students from a poor social class Secondary school teachers, for instance, rate students who are living in poverty as 53 percent less likely to earn a college diploma than their peers. These expectations are important because, even after controlling for other factors that could affect the results, students whose teachers set high expectations are three times more likely to graduate from college than those whose teachers set low expectations.
what gender is penalized more for being overweight?
women