SS CSET - US History Crash Course

The Progressive Era

(Turn of 19th-20th Century) Response to Gilded Age issues. Business needed to keep wages low, profits high. Late 19th, people started to feel trusts were exerting too much power over people's lives. Most change was not found in Federal Gov, but instead through things like Muckrakers w/mass circulation magazines. Sinclair's 'The Jungle' led to the Pure Food and Drug Act + Meat Inspection Act of 1906. Lewis Hine photographed some of the 2M children laborers, helping bring about laws limiting child labor. Workers organized into unions to reduce hours, raise pay. Some employers (Ford) saw benefit of keeping pay high: well-paid consumers will be able to afford the goods they produced. Ford was also anti-semitic, hired spies, anti-union. 1905 Industrial Workers of The World fought for immigrant workers' rights (wobblies) -- radical socialists seeking capital/state disappear. New understanding of the idea of freedom: access to goods made available by capitalism. Industrialism created scientific workplace management (Frederick W. Taylor) advocated rigid rules/supervision to raise productivity. Taylorism also found its way into classrooms. Use of scientific experts a hallmark of Progressiveism. NEW notion that an activist gov could enhance, rather than threaten people's freedom. Legislation was more effective at state level. Biggest federal victory was in prohibition. Local collectivist investment was socialist. City Managers based on expertise introduce (antithetical to Tammany Hall-type arrangements). Argued scientists could be better trusted to solve America's problems. TENSION between increased gov participation, and having gov run by experts (contradiction). 17th Amendment allowed direct election of senators; states adopted primaries (taking power away from political parties); western states like CA adopted Initiative + Referendum (allowing voting on laws directly). Many progressive wanted policy made by experts. Racism still prevalent in progressives. Limited immigrant participation through literacy tests + voter registration laws; voting declined (80% in 1890s, 50% present day). Jim Crow Laws - passed in southern states, enacting LEGAL segregation, poll taxes (disenfranchising African-American/poor). 1896 Supreme Court rules in Plessy v. Ferguson that segregation didn't violate the 14th amendment's equal protection claus, as long as equal duplicates existed (Separate but Equal). Booker T. Washington headed Tuskegee Institute in Alabama for vocational education; urged blacks to learn skills giving them success in white workplace as interdependent (accommodationist). W.E.B. Dubois advocated full civil/political rights + helped found NAACP fighting for 'persistent, manly agitation'. Like today, it was difficult to mobilize varied interests in a pluralistic nation.

19th Century Reforms

'Utopian communities' were created to separate from new industrial economy. Notably the Shakers; celibate, embraced equality of sexes. Latter-day Saints (Mormons) also emerged; they were persecuted and chased from NY to Utah- LDS had Book of Mormon saying resurrected Jesus visited the Americas. 2nd Great Awakening (1820s/1830s) in a way made America a religious nation-- initially centered in West New York. Stressed a personal relationship w/Jesus. Created a market for preachers. Overwhelmingly Protestant, believing in Perfectionism (individuals/society were capable of unlimited improvement). Saw freedom as an internal phenomenon ('free' from the temptation to ____). This lead to Temperance movement (banning alcohol) from Perfectionists. Protestant idea was contrary to immigrant irish/german catholic views on alcohol consumption. Protestant ideal of freedom came from being 'free from sin' -- seen in construction of asylums. Mid 19th Century saw growth of compulsory state-funded education-- "common schools" championed by Horace Mann in aim to give lower-class children chance to compete w/upper class. North took up public education; less popular in South for fear of education getting to slaves. Abolitionism (biggest reform movement in first 1/2 of 19th Century). Colonizationists sought to send slaves back to Africa, establishing Liberia as independent homeland for former slaves. William Lloyd Garrison was an abolitionist who published The Liberator in 1831-- became famous by pamphlets and speeches (also used in 2nd Great Awakening). Radical Abolitionists ('slavery is a sin') sought to end slavery and achieve equality. 1836 Congress adopts the Gag Rule, prohibiting the discussion of emancipation. Frederick Douglas wrote the narrative of a former life of a slave. Harriet Beecher Stowe's 'Uncle Tom's Cabin' based on slave autobiography. Many women abolitionists inspired how women thought of themselves.

The New Deal

'New Deal' came from FDR's 1932 campaign arguing it was gov responsibility to guarantee every man the right to make a comfortable living + ran on ending prohibition. Set of gov programs intended to fix the depression + prevent future depressions w/3R Programs: Relief (helping $ to poor), Recovery (fix the economy in the short-run + put people back to work), Reform (regulate to prevent future depressions). FDIC (preventing bank runs), Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC, paid young to build national parks), Agricultural Adjustment Act (gave government the power to raise farm values by setting production quotas + paying farmers to plant less food; 1936 Supreme Court struck it down), Glass-Steagall Act (barred commercial banks from buying/selling stocks), National Industrial Recovery Act (established the National Recovery Administration: gov planners + industry leaders working together to coordinate industry standards for production/prices/working conditions), Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), Public Works Administration ($33B for building projects). Gov intervention reached its highest point in Tennessee Valley Authority (1933); built dams to control floods, prevent deforestation, provide cheap power to rural counties. TVA was controversial because it put gov in direct competition w/private companies. Roosevelt preferred creating jobs rather than handouts. Second Wave of New Deal shifted away from recovery + towards economic security. National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) guaranteed workers the right to unionize + created National Labor Relations board to hear disputes over unfair labor practices. Most important 1930's union was the Congress of Industrial Organizations which sought to unionize entire industries (steelworkers, autoworkers). Sit-down strikes occurred (Flint, MI auto plant as GM negotiated w/UAW). Unions integral to second-wave programs; argued that depression was caused by underconsumption, best way to improve consumption was through higher wages (more spending power); widespread calls for public housing + universal health insurance. The Social Security Act of 1935. SSA included unemployment insurance, aid to disabled, aid to poor w/children, retirement benefits. Funded through payroll tax, rather than general tax revenue. Represented a transformation between the relationship between Federal Government & American Citizens. Works Progress Administration employed 3M Americans/year until it ended in 1943. Brought many (MANY) into the democratic party. Southern Democrats that helped elect Roosevelt demanded that the programs be controlled locally, which meant opportunities excluded many black families. Some argue WWII ended the depression. Question was no longer IF gov should intervene, but HOW.

The Roaring 20's

'The chief business of the American people, is business'. Assisted w/Laissez-Faire Capitalism. All 1920s presidents staunch republicans who focused on: lower income taxes, weakening the power of unions. Harding, Coolidge, Hoover all put pro-business people in Federal Reserve + FTC; shifting from the progressive era. Created short-term economic gains. Most corrupt administration was Harding's: attorney general Doherty (accepted bribes to not prosecute criminals) + interior secretary Albert Fall (took $500k in exchange for government leases in reserves at Teapot Dome). Older industries grew by implementing assembly line, newer industries flourished providing new products/jobs. 1929 1/2 of all American families owned a car. Growth also as companies sold goods overseas. 40% of world's manufactured goods. More leisure time (radio, boxing, baseball, vacation, dance crazes). Film industry moved to LA (shoot anytime w/sun, close to snow, desert, sea, mountains). Credit + layaway buying plans became widespread as people sought to maintain the 'American standard of living'. Charles Lindbergh first major celebrity; flew across the Atlantic. Harlem became the capital of Black America w/increased northern migration throughout the 20's. Harlem Renaissance sought to reject fear + celebrate African American Experience. Women experienced new autonomy- flappers smoked, danced, used birth control. Most women still expected to stay at home. Prosperity was concentrated in corporate profits. Income inequality as 40% of Americans lived in poverty. 1920s saw the number of manufacturer workers decline for the first time as big business chipped away at small business. For the first time the number of farms declined, as war farm subsidies were no longer in place. Supreme Court started to slowly turn around on suppressing free speech (protected newspapers). Resurgence of Klan, spurred by hyper-patriotism of WWI, they denounced immigrants/jews/catholics; reached 3M members by mid-20's. 1921 first immigration restriction bill is passed, limiting european migration to 357k; 1924 new law dropped it to 150k + established quotas based on national origin. Asians were forbidden. No restrictions for immigrants from Western Hemisphere as CA farms were dependent on Mexican labor. Coolidge declared, 1924 signing the anti-immigration law that, 'America must be kept American'. Increased tension between science education/religious beliefs; Scopes-Monkey trial, in which Scopes was tried for breaking the law against teaching evolution (encouraged by ACLU as a test case for freedom of speech); ultimately led to evolution being taught in more American schools. Symbolic of the contradiction of the era.

Age of Jackson

(1820 - 1850) Rise of democratization as many state lawmakers removed landowning requirement to vote (a Jeffersonian idea, in contrast). American economic nationalism provided infrastructure, tariffs supporting industry, established a national bank (2nd nat'l bank). Last 'era of good feelings' president was John Quincy Adams who wrote the Monroe Doctrine (nationalist, staying out of Euro affairs). Maine was carved out of Massachusetts as a 'new state', so Missouri could enter statehood TO keep 'balance' between slave/non-slave states. The (above) Missouri Compromise (1820) also stated that no new state above the 36/30 line shall be a slave state. President Martin Van Buren essentially invented the democratic party as he saw power of parties. 1828 Jackson runs a negative campaign against Quincy Adams- and won. Jackson's supporters lower-middle class men suspicious of widening rich/poor gap (from market revolution). American Whig party formed against Jackson by those believing he took too much executive power ('king andrew')-- made-up of bankers/businessmen. Nullification an issue between states/federal gov-- contentious tariff that made wool/iron more expensive for southerners; SC responded by nullifying it; (1833) Jackson responds w/the Force Act, authorizing use of army/navy to collect taxes. Indian Removal Act of 1830 supported southerners move to displace Indians. 1838-1839 Trail of Tears saw relocated Indians move from Georgia to Oklahoma in winter as 1/4 of the Indians died on the forced march west. Jackson opposed renewal of 2nd Bank and vetoed funding bill-- strengthening executive veto power. Inflation came from banks (more in power after end of 2nd National Bank) issuing more bank notes; came to a head in The Panic of 1837 (economic collapse), lasting until 1843. Most disastrous fiscal policy in US history. Jackson elected under a more democratic process, but when in office concentrated executive power (undemocratically).

Battles of the Civil War

1861 - 1865. Battle of Gettysburg was a major union victory; led to Gettysburg Address. 1865 Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox Courthouse. 700,000 dead.

WWII, Part I

1939 - 1945. Pre-WWII saw isolationist US gov (less involved in world trade because depression/tariff policies; Neutrality Acts), but not, as it was also involved in treaties (limiting battleships) and foreign policy (supporting dictators in Nicaragua/Cuba). 1940 Congress allows cash/carry arm sales to Great Britain; responding to Nazi threat. Sep 1940 first peacetime draft is enacted. 1941 FDR clearly sides w/Allies as US becomes the 'arsenal of democracy' as the Lend-Lease Act authorized military aid (to UK/USSR). US froze Japanese assets, ended all US-Japan trade. December 7, 1941 Japanese pilots attack Pearl Harbor (2k servicemen killed). US declares war on Japan, Germany declares war on US. 1942, Bataan Death March saw 78k US + Filipino surrender as thousand died on the march to POW camps + at them. Pacific theater saw US turn tides w/Battle of Coral Sea + Battle of Midway victories. Invasion of Normandy (D-Day) June 1944 (beginning of end for Nazis). Russians did most of the fighting in Europe (losing 20M people), in the end captured Berlin. War in Pacific ended in August 1945 w/a-bombs dropped on Hiroshima (killing 70k instantly + 75k more later from radiation)/Nagasaki (killing 70k). 1945 it was an acceptable strategy civilians as part of 'total war'. 40% of the 50M killed in WWII were civilians.

World War I

1914 - 1918, 'The Great War' ; 10M lives lost. Progressives worried involvement in war would interfere w/social movement at home (courted by Wilson in 1916 'kept us out of war'). Factors for US entering: sinking Lusitania, Zimmerman Telegraph, Russian Revolution ('safe for democracy'), $2B war debt owed from UK (!). Primary contribution to victory of Allies was through economic support (arms/loans). Hemingway drove an ambulance in WWI, member of the 'Lost Generation' of writers living in Paris. Empowered the national government. 1917 Selective Service Act is passed, increased army from 120k to 5M. Gov created new industries to prep country for war, regulating industry/transportation/labor/agriculture. War Industries Board controlled all war time production; setting quotas, prices, specs for war materials. Railroad Admin controlled transportation, Fuel Agency rationed coal. Some of theses pushed Progressive goals (War Labor Board pushed for minimum wage, 8hr workday). First time government used its power to shape public opinion! 1917 Committee on Public Information; pamphlets, posters, advertising in motion pictures. Most well known CPI agents were '4-minute men' speaking ('democracy! freedom!') in public venues (like theaters between reels). Espionage Act of 1917 prohibited spying, interfering w/draft, 'false statements' that might impede military success. 1918 Sedition Act: criminalized speech critical of the government/war. Eugene Debs was convicted under this, served 3 yrs of a 10yr sentence, ran while in prison + got 900k votes. American Protective League (200k people) harassed people in 'slacker raids'. WWI was used to justify racism against immigrants in using biased IQ tests as proof of inferiority. Suppression of Free Speech continued post-war w/Palmer Raids (headed by Hoover). New opportunities for African-Americans in industrial north (producing war goods), spurring the 'Great Migration' + growth of black population in northern cities. Wilson's League of Nations (at Treaty of Versailles) was realized, but congress didn't approve because it didn't want to give up its sovereign power to declare war.

Civil Rights

1950s 'Consensus Culture'; conformity by fear of being branded a communist, affluence. Era of suburbanization, as home construction doubled (providing many jobs); Levittown, NY was classic example of suburban layout; w/people living further from the city, more needed cars; cars were produced w/expectation that Americans would replace every 2 years. Cookie Cutter version of 'good life' was displacing other conceptions of citizenship. Birth of teenage movement + rock. Rigid segregation in housing, jobs, employment. South segregation was done by law, North segregation done be custom (or de facto). Suburban Levittowns were almost entirely white. Education limited by substandard segregated schools. 50% African Americans living in poverty. Civil Rights started during WWII w/A Philip Randolph + soldiers taking part in VV Crusade (against racism abroad/at-home); fair treatment in defense jobs. Even before they had been fighting, but in the 1950s they started to win. Desegregating schools was a key goal of Civil Rights movement, starting in California in 1946 (Mendez v Westminster) when Governor Warren desegregated CA schools (he would later preside over Brown v Board of Education in 1954). NAACP (counseled by Thurgood Marshall) challenged Texas law schools unequal accommodations (no library). Brown was a combination of 5 cases from 4 states, all public schools. Brown case was in Topeka, Kansas. In decision, Warren cited sociological research arguing that the act of segregation creates feelings of inferiority. Brown was major, but didn't lead to immediate massive desegregation; it faced massive resistance in the South, some schools closed, rather than integrate-- except some didn't actually closed, but re-opened as 'private academies', which states appropriated funds to pay for white students to attend. Some states resisted by flying confederate battle flag over their capitols (+ confederate statues). December 1, 1955 Rosa Parks refuses to move to the back of the bus, initiating the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Bus Boycott also thrust young pastor MLK Jr. into prominence. He helped organize from his Baptist church; as black churches played a pivotal role in CR Movement. After Montgomery, he organized the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. 1957 Little Rock High School; Eisenhower is forced to support civil rights when Arkansas Gov Faubus used the National Guard to prevent integration of Central High School by 9 black students. Ike sends 101st Airborne Div to walk kids to school for a year. After the year Faubus closed the school; it was made clear integration was law of the land. 1950s saw (mostly white) affluence, fear of being labeled a communist, systemic racism being challenged.

The War of 1812

America's first declared war. Caused by British impressing (seizing ships/making crews indentured servants) of American sailors; as Britain sought more soldiers for war against France. Warhawks argues this was an affront to US free trade (w/countries other than UK). US seeking Canadian territory (agrarian utopia, westward expansion to Indian territory) also factor in war. Tecumseh and brother Tenskwatawa (the Prophet) encourage Indians to abandon the ways of the whites. (future short-term president) Harrison destroyed native settlement in Prophetstown in Battle of Tippecanoe (1811). Making way for 1812 war to be a war against natives (as well as Britain). Many ambivalent about war (middling support between north/south states). Much of war was US attempts to take Canada. (1814) British found success seizing DC + burning the white house. Battles of New Orleans catapulted Andrew Jackson to prominence as his troops soundly defeated British (two weeks after peace treaty had been signed, in Treaty of Ghent). Neither US/UK won as treaty declared 'status quo ante bellum'-- though Indians lost, having given up lives/territory. War was most consequential for ensuring that Britain would never again invade US; launched Jackson's career, solidified expansion East of Mississippi; reinforced Canadian nationalism.

Natives and the English

Both Natives and Europeans traded goods they had in surplus (furs/food for guns/iron tools); Euro ideas about land use led to conflict (fences, animals destroying crops). Natives seeking fur for Europeans led to inter-tribal warfare (now w/guns). Powhatan (Pocahontas' father) was an early Indian leader who met/traded w/John Smith's colony. Once Smith returned to England, the English resumed stealing crops/killing natives. After failed Indian uprising of 1644 Indians were forced to sign a treaty keeping them in the West (of Virginia). John Winthrop believed it better to buy land from Indians (rather than take). Puritans viewed natives as savages needing salvation, but also recognized egalitarian ways (esp. wrt women), and feared desertion. 1637 Pequot War in New England between colonists/Indians, caused by Pequot killing an English fur trade; over 500 Indians massacred; opening up the Connecticut river for further settlement. 1675 NE Natives (led by Wampanoag chief Metacom) attacked in King Philips' [Metacom's] War; conflict nearly ended english settlements. Indians' gutted cattle, as they were symbolic of English encroachment (grazing). A war to preserve a way of life for both Indians/English. [Natives were] People who acted in history, not just people who were acted upon by it.

The Great Depression

Credit widespread in 1920's. Farms had expanded during WWI to feed soldiers, the expansion led them to mechanize their operation; going in to debt to finance the change; overproduction + low price often meant farms were foreclosed upon. 1927 speculation in stock market. Commercial bankers were loaning more for the stock market + real estate investments, rather than for commercial ventures. Stock Market Crash & Depression were not the same thing. Rich lost money, but massive unemployment didn't begin until 1930/1931. 1930 wave of bank failures (local banks) spread across mid-west; a frozen credit system lead to deflation. Federal Reserve failed to save local banks/infuse money into the economy. Depression was a global phenomenon through web of war debt loans/payments/loans collapsing multiple economies. US responded w/Hawley-Smoot Tariff, which raised them to their highest level. Hoover's first elected office held was president. Refusal to leave the gold standard (so governments could pump money into economy) made it difficult to get out of depression. Hoover relied on private business/state-local gov to stimulate the economy; insufficiently. In a dire situation, Hoover w/Congress created the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, a federal bailout program that borrowed money to provide loans to banks/building/loan societies. 1932 10M out of work (20% of labor force), worse in big cities, for people of color.

The Industrial Economy

Civil War forced introduction of national currency, spurred industrialization by giving massive contracts to arms/clothing manufacturers. Geography, Demography, Law shaped America's economic growth. 1 - Geo: huge country w/natural resources; 2 - Demo: growing population (aided by immigration- many going to cities as US shifted from Agrarian to Industrial); 3 - Law: commerce clause of constitution made US single area of commerce (supreme court protected business-friendly laws, US protected IP w/patents, gov assisted w/tariffs, land grants, moving NAs). US was seen by Europe as a 'developing economy' worth of investment. 1880 first time majority worked in non-farming jobs; 1890 2/3rds worked for wages; 1913 US produced 1/3 of worlds TOTAL industrial output! Railroads key to industrial success; integrated the US market; first modern corporations; created first captains of industry (Carnegie, Vanderbilt, Stanford); emblematic of industry/national government relationship (transcontinental RR wouldn't have existed w/o land grants, bond issues). Robber Barons: Vanderbilt who built fortune through ferry/shipping/railroad; Rockefeller: by 1880s controlled 90% of US oil industry, bought rivals (horizontal integration- big firms buying up small ones). Many Robber Barons formed pools/trusts to limit competition. Vertical Integration another tactic as firms bought-up all aspects of the production process (raw materials/production/transport/distro). Benefits of economic growth went to the top, as workers weathered booms/busts. Unions developed in response to 60 hrs work week/unsafe conditions. Knights of Unions (1870, Terrance V. Powderly) was first labor union-- admitted unskilled workers, black workers, women; though damages by riot. (1886) Haymarket Riot in which a rally (in response to a policeman killing a striker) was bombed, killing 7 police officers, then police killed 7 people in the crowd. After, Knights of Labor were associated w/anarchy + violence. (1886) American Federation of Labor (Sam Gompers) is founded-- focused on pay/hours/safety. Social Darwinism argued 'survival of the fittest' should apply to people/corporations; pseudoscience argued gov shouldn't regulate business/pass laws to help (weak) poor. 1892 Homestead Steel Strike + 1894 Pullman Rail Strike both saw violence.

The Quakers and The Dutch

Dutch traders (1624) founded New Amsterdam (South Manhattan) as a commercial venture allowing Jews/Quakers for business. 1664 the English take the colony from the Dutch (becoming New York). Charles II gave William Penn (1681) Pennsylvania who established it as a haven for Quakers (religious/native tolerant). After Penn left, in 1737 the "Walking Purchase" soured relations with Indians. South Carolina established by colonists from Barbados adept at slavery (imported African slaves after failing to enslave natives). Bacon's Rebellion (over control over Virginia) resulted in a shift away from indentured servants ( Nathaniel Bacon's people) to slaves AND a general desire by English Crown to have more control of colonies. 1676 King James II consolidated several colonies to the 'Dominion of New England' with near-dictatorial leadership not consulting any of the assemblies. Colonies re-asserted independence w/English Toleration Act of 1690, declaring all Protestants could worship freely. 1691 Salem Witch Trials in Massachusetts. Most colonists were farmers. Poor had better lives in colonies than in Europe

The Civil War II

Emancipation Proclamation issued Jan 1863, freeing slaves in rebelling states. BUT, slaves under Union jurisdiction (border states, some confederacy areas under union control) were not freed. Historians argue many slaves freed themselves by running to union lines, becoming 'contraband'. Some argue Lincoln was compelled by the number of escaped slaves in union, he had to issue the proclamation. Lincoln gets credit for pushing 13th amendment, continuing war to its conclusion, demanding end of slavery + return of southern states to union as terms of peace. Matthew Brady a photographer (w/staff) that created 10k images of Civil War, changing peoples' perception. The Civil War aligns w/global idea of nation-building. Would unify states as a nation (people stopped pluralizing US-- the/these). Congress passed the first progressive income tax in response to CW debts. First national currency w/greenbacks. It created the nation that US has become.

Ford, Carter, Economic Malaise

Economics. 25 years of broad expansion + prosperity came to a halt in 70s. Inflation + extremely slow growth. Result of long-term processes + unintended shocks. Long-term: gradual decline in manufacturing, increased competition abroad; gov's of Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, Germany, all grew under American subsidy. 1971 was first time America experienced and export trade deficit (importing more goods than it exported); dollar was linked to gold, making goods expensive overseas; though Nixon taking US off gold standard didn't help. US was also competing against cheaper labor cost, cheaper materials; in many cases putting American firms that couldn't compete, out of business (especially true in manufacturing). Unions hit particularly hard as companies sought to eliminate high-paying manufacturing jobs + increased automation OR shift to lower-wage regions of US/overseas. Northern Industrial cities perished. 1973, in response to western support of Israel, middle-eastern Arab states suspended exports of oil, leading to price of oil quadrupling. This lead to higher gas prices + Americans being swayed to purchase smaller, fuel-efficient (Japanese) cars. Prices of everything else went up w/oil involved in production/transportation of everything. 1979 Iran Revolution brought oil prices higher. Stagflation. Inflation soared to 10%/year, economic growth dripped to 2.4%. Rising unemployment births the 'Misery Index' (combination of unemployment/inflation). Beginning in '73, real wages didn't rise for 20 years. Ford pardoned Nixon, made him unpopular, didn't win in '76. Carter considered as a failure as president. Fought inflation by cutting gov spending, deregulated the trucking industry (anti-new deal ways). Bigger plan to solve energy crisis was investing in nuclear power. Disaster at 3-mile island led to mass protests against nuclear energy. Signed treaty giving canal back to Panama. Brokered Camp David Accords. Continued to support dictator regimes, most notably the Shah of Iran. Iran had oil, was a major buyer of American arms. Our support of him (+ cancer treatments in US) fueled anti-American sentiment, boiling over in Iran Hostage Crisis, lasting 444+ days. Carter Doctrine said US would use force to protect its interests in the Persian Gulf Region, in direct response to the USSR invading Afghanistan, US put a stop to grain exports, boycotted Moscow olympics.

The Cold War in Asia

End of WWII left Korea split between communist North & sort've democratic South. 1950 Kim Il-Song invades the South; US responds by going to UN, but didn't go to Congress + never called the Korean War a war; instead insisting the US was leading a UN police action. US forces (+UN) attempted to unify Korea by marching up to the Yalu river (northern border w/China); to which China responded by counterattacking on Nov 1, 1950; pushing them back to the 38th Parallel, where the war had started. US practiced scorched earth policy, dropping more bombs on Korea than entire pacific in WWII. 3 years of fighting saw 33k Americans killed, 102k wound and 4 million Korean/Chinese killed/wounded/missing. Majority of Korean casualties were civilians. This strengthened executive power as Truman went to war w/o Congressional approval + Congress accepted it reluctantly w/o protest. Korean War strengthened the Cold War mentality + set the stage for the Vietnam War. Ho Chi Minh was fighting for liberation from colonial power as well as trying to establish a communist dictatorship. Involvement in Vietnam starts in US support of French trying to maintain their colonial empire. Eisenhower refused to send troops/atomic weapons. Geneva Accords were supposed to set-up elections to reunite North and South, which had been divided since WWII, but US didn't allow because it would've supported a non-US leader. Instead US supported the repressive/elitist regime of Ngo Dinh Diem. First 'advisors' were killed in 1961. Major escalation of troops started under Johnson in 1965; which Johnson justified by citing the completely fabricated Gulf of Tonkin Incident; Congress granted Johnson full support to use 'all necessary measures'. Operation 'Rolling Thunder' began Spring '65. 1968 saw 500k US soldiers in Vietnam as government said victory was coming soon. North Vietnamese gave a major push-back w/the Tet Offensive. Capturing territory wasn't meaningful, so commanders kept track of body count. Bombs, agent orange, napalm used broadly. TV brought the war to American living rooms (1969), which horrified them. My Lai Massacre took place in 1968, but was only reported in 1969. Draftees were young + disproportionately from lower classes as the burden for fighting didn't fall evenly across socioeconomic class. Most supported the war up to '68/'69. Nixon ran w/his 'secret plan' to end the war, appealed to those not on-board w/the anti-war movement. 1st part of the plan was Vietnamization (gradually leaving the fighting to Vietnamese), 2nd part involved more bombing + escalated the war by sending US troops to Cambodia in an effort to cutoff the 'Ho Chi Minh trail'; this didn't work + destabilized Cambodia and helped Khmer Rouge come to power (forcing all of Cambodia into communes + massacring 1/3 of the country's population). 1970 saw Vietnam protests grow; esp among Vietnam Veterans. 1971 NYTimes publishes the Pentagon Papers documenting the government-sponsored misinformation campaign about the war. Congress responds w/1973 War Powers Act which was supposed to limit executive power to send troops to war w/o Congressional approval. 1973 the Paris Peace Agreement made it possible for US to withdraw troops as N/S Vietnam war continued until 1975 when the North defeated the South, creating a single, communist Vietnam. First war that we definitively lost.

The Cold War

Era from 1945 - 1990. USSR encouraged creation of pro communist governments in Bulgaria/Romania/Poland (easy since they were occupied by USSR). Goal was to create a communist buffer between USSR/Germany. US feared communism would expand across Europe, which would close those international markets. US introduced policy of Containment: communism would be allowed to stay where it was, but not allowed to spread. Truman championed containment + it was first tested in 1947 in Greece + Turkey who we sent $400M in aid. Truman introduced the Truman Doctrine pledging to support 'freedom loving peoples against communist threat'. Led to the creation of a new security apparatus: National Security Council, Central Intelligence Agency, Atomic Energy Commission: all immune from government oversight + not democratically elected. Containment + Truman Doctrine laid groundwork for military build-up + ARMS RACE. Marshall Plan was a response to economic chaos in Europe brought about by a harsh winter in 1947; this strengthened support for communism in France + Italy. It sought to use US aid to combat instability that allowed communism to grow (New Deal for Europe). Japan was also rebuilt under General Douglas MacArthur (essentially a dictator there); forcing a new constitution, giving women the vote, in exchange for US becoming Japan's defense force. Without a military budget, Japan could spend on industry. 1949 the contours of Cold War had been shaped w/NATO, Chinese Communist Revolution, Split of Berlin Wall. US cast the war as a decision between freedom/tyranny, which lead to consensus as US presidents/Congress supported most Cold War policy (esp. military build-up). Lippmann warned of ideological black/white esp. during decolonization as countries developed; in fear that US would support corrupt governments. Interventions were viewed as necessary to stop spread of communism which was genuinely terrifying to people. Fear stoked by gov funding number of programs (red scare films), general paranoia. 1954 US adds 'under God' to pledge, as antithetical to athiest USSR. Shaped domestic policy in preventing the extension of the social policies of the New Deal. Truman's 'Fair Deal' policies weren't enacted as Congress was not supporting 'socialized anything'. In the name of national security, US funded education, research in science/technology, transportation infrastructure (funded to create speedy evacuation routes in event of nuclear war). Russians were able to quickly develop nuclear weapons thanks to espionage; physicist/spy Klaus Fuchs who worked on the Manhattan Project; he leaked info to Soviets + later would help Chinese build their first bomb. Julius Rosenberg also gave secrets to soviets; was executed along with his wife Ethel. 1947 saw Truman's Loyalty Review System, requiring gov employees to prove their patriotism. Culminated w/Red Scare + rise of Wisconsin Senator Joe McCarthy who rose to fame after announcing in 1950 he had a 205-list of communists in the state department. New idea: the government exists to keep us free from nuclear destruction.

The Market Revolution

First half of 19th century, era of good feeling. A process, rather than a single event. Era of good feelings (before civil war). It saw a move AWAY from the Jeffersonian ideal (agrarian utopia) of independent farming, and TOWARDS producing goods for others (often overseas)-- closer to Hamilton's ideal. Beginning of modern commercial industrial economy. Transportation made easier by roads/canals and steamboat. New York instrumental in building Erie Canal, making it the port center of US. Railroad developed as well. Communication improved with telegraph. Factory was an organizational innovation. 1840 steam power introduced. This required new banking institutions, investors to take risks on infrastructure. Government also instrumental in protecting/promoting business growth. More Americans went to work, rather than worked from home- changing concept of work time/down time. Introduction of WAGE (hourly) rather than price (used by artisans). Jefferson worried about liberty being impinged-- this pushed many young men westward, as new states were created. Age of Manifest Destiny. Emerson/Fuller/Thoreau/Whitman - Transcendentalists that attempted to redefine freedom in a changing world (workers interchangeable/regimented life) - they argued freedom resided in an individual's power to re-make oneself (westward expansion?). Early unions seen in 'workingman's parties' seeking fairer treatment; in response to up/down business cycles. Market Revolution left people w/much less freedom (and *meaning* in their work) than they might've enjoyed 50-100 years earlier (as a farmer/artisan).

The Clinton Years

Focused on domestic policy. Foreign policy included partial success in Oslo Accords when Israel recognized Palestine. More successful in Yugoslavia to fight widespread ethnic cleansing. During Rwandan Genocide Clinton admin did nothing to prevent (800k died in less than a month) international community's major failure in 2nd half of 20th century. Domestic terrorism. Centrism made him electable. Tried to end ban on gay, but compromised w/don't ask don't tell. Health care initiative was also a failure. 1994 democrats swept out of house/senate as republicans took control. Speaker Gingrich issued the 'contract w/america' to cut taxes, regulation, overhaul welfare, end affirmative action. This led to government shutdown in 1995 over inability to reach a budget agreement. Economy improved under Clinton. Microchips made it possible to develop new products. Computers transformed American workplaces. Growth of tech encouraged companies to create in countries with lower environmental regulations in global drive to cut costs (more markets, more competition). Deregulation of finance made financial crisis more likely/widespread. Majority of Americans by 2000 were investing. Gains were unequal as wages were stagnant for non-supervisory positions. Growing trend towards income inequality. Trend towards low-wage service industry. Culture Wars response to enormous immigration growth after 1965 Immigration Reform (24 million by 2000). 2007 Latinos replace African Americans as second-largest ethnic group; suffered disproportionate poverty. African-American opportunities still limited. Single-parent families more accepted. Teens + adults co-habitating more (or instead of) marriage. Gay/Trans becoming visible. 80s Aids epidemic saw 400k die of aids by 2000. Rise in imprisonment as politicians competed on who could be tougher on crime. War on Drugs saw many state legislatures pass '3 strikes laws', meaning 3x felony criminals would be sent to jail for life (+ mandatory-minimums). 2008 saw 2.3 million in prison, 1/4 of total prisoners on earth. Multiculturalism + change made tension culturally. Clinton dodged accusations during election campaign. President carried on a sexual relationship w/Monica Lewinsky. Clinton's lie about it led to congressional impeachment attempt. As we became more globally connected, tribal thought rose (echo chamber).

George HW Bush + End of Cold War

HW Bush (war hero, Yale, oil tycoon, CIA, VP) elected 1988. Chose Quayle as his VP. His opponent was Dukakis whose lead contender was Jesse Jackson. Ushered in the era of 'going negative' in campaigns. Willie Horton ad painted Dukakis as a liberal weak on crime. Bush first to use 'liberal' as insult. End of Cold War was result of failure of USSR. 1991 saw negotiation of reduction of nuclear arms. KEY: without the Cold War to orient us (communist! not a communist!), foreign policy issues because more confusing/messy. Sadaam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait in 1990; Bush went to UN + set a date for him to leave; when he didn't leave US established a coalition to make him leave. Huge military success. Objectives achieved clearly/quickly. Gulf War lifted approval to 89%. Congress enacted ADA. Rodney King; April 1992 all-white jury in Simi Valley found 3 of 4 policemen not guilty of beating Rodney King, even though it had been recorded on video tape. Following riots killed 52 + $1B in property damage as race remained a volatile issue in the US. 1990 Recession saw 4.5M lose their jobs. What likely destroyed his re-election he authorized a tax increase ('no new taxes').

Obama

Lowest presidential approval in history for Bush. 2008 economic crisis. Short-term economic thinking, speculation, irresponsible spending. Many bought homes w/idea that profits would rise continually. NINJA loan (no income, no loan, no job, no assets)- sub-prime loans. Created a housing bubble doomed to burst. When mortgages turned bad, banks froze credit as housing bubble turned into global financial crisis. Wiping out 7T in global wealth. 2.5M jobs lost. Mid-2009 more women than men held paying jobs for first-time in history. World trade cratered. Failure of investment bank Lehman Brothers, triggered bail outs to stop complete failure of financial system. Obama took major southern states, breaking republican hold. Promised to change the culture of Washington. Deployed far more drones + extra legal assassinations. Expanded security state w/NSA PRISM program. ACA most significant piece of social legislation since medicare. Major backlash against Obama w/tea party. Vast majorities are taxed lower now than any other point in US history. 80 new congresspeople in 2010.

War & Expansion

John O. Sullivan coined 'Manifest Destiny'. Oregon jointly controlled by US/Britain; Northern Mexico included much of SW (CA-TX). 1821 First Independent Mexican Empire in sparsely populated SW- after selling off portions of land, it then annulled land grants and stopped further emigration. Austin demanded greater autonomy + right to use slave labor (which Mexico had banned). 1836 Mexico defeats Americans at Alamo, killing 188 Americans (including Davy Crocket). Texas rebels would 'Remember the Alamo' in returning to defeat Mexico in Battle of San Jacinto, as Mexico was forced to recognize Texas' independence. Texas became the Lone Star Republic, though later joined the United States. 1837 Texas attempts to join Union, but was not admitted because it would throw slave/non-slave state balance. Polk was elected, but days before he took office, congress annexed Texas + added part of Oregon to avoid imbalance. Polk sought to purchase California, but since Mexico declined, he sent troops (led by future prez Zachary Taylor) into disputed southern tip of Texas. (1846 - 1848) Mexican-American war was first American war fought primarily on foreign soil. Transcendentalist Henry David Thoreau ('On Civil Disobedience') jailed for refusing to pay taxes in protest of war. Lincoln also criticized Polk's incursion. 1847, Santa Ana's army is defeated, but Mexico would not cede, until US general Winfield Scot captured Mexico City, at which point they agreed to The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo- ceding control of Texas and California as well as other SW territory. The US pays Mexico $15M. Many Mexicans + Native Americans now under US jurisdiction. Bad esp. for Catholic Mexicans as Nativism (anti-catholic/immigrant sentiment) was rising. Not enough english-speakers in CA to apply for statehood, until 1848 when gold was discovered in SF. Some Chinese migrated to CA, contracted by mining companies. CA constitution of 1850 limited civil participation to whites. CA uncertain re: slave state status. The Compromise of 1850 (Henry Clay): Admitted CA as a free state, Outlawed slave trade in DC, Enacted Fugitive Slave Law, Established Popular Sovereignty for remaining states (to decide free/slave).

1960s America

Key Civil Rights Movement moments: Greensboro, NC sit-ins, where black students sat at Woolworth's (which served only whites, entirely), waiting to be served (or more likely arrested); lasted 5 months until WW agreed to serve black customers. 1961 Freedom Rides sought to integrate interstate buses; faced violence + a bombing; also successful. By end of 60s 70k people had participated in protests (sit-ins, teach-ins, marches...). 1963 MLK in Birmingham, AL; which had seen 50+ racially motivated bombings since WWII. TV brought horrors the protestors were facing to public, as Kennedy eventually endorsed the movement's goals. In response to protests, Birmingham jailed MLK, where he wrote his famous letter. 1963 saw March on Washington (largest public demonstration in US history up to that time) where King gave his 'I Have a Dream' speech; calling for a civil rights bill + help for poor (higher min wage, end employment discrimination). Civil Rights Act prevented discrimination in schools, hospitals, restaurants, hotels, theaters. 1965 King launches March for Voting Rights in Selma, AL. Television sways support for demonstrators. 1965 Voting Rights Act is passed allowing federal gov to oversee voting in places where discrimination was practiced. Hart-Celler Act also passed which removed national origin quotas + allowed Asians to immigrate to the US; but also introduced quotas on immigrants from the Western Hemisphere. LBJ's Domestic initiatives known as the 'Great Society', which expanded many New Deal promises (medicare for elderly, medicaid for poor, war on poverty- treated it as a social, rather than economic problem). Continued discrimination shifted conversation away from integration and towards black power. 1964 saw beginnings of riots; esp in Watts Riots, leaving 30 dead + Newark/Detroit. Malcolm X active in early 60's, killed in '65 (before King + shifts towards black power). Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) abandoned integration as a goal after 1965 + called for black power. Oakland Black Power leaders carried guns for self-defense; many white shied away from movement and shifted towards anti-Vietnam War movement. Anti-war + Civil Rights inspired Latino movements (Cesar Chaves + UFW, tying movement to labor). American Indian Movement took over Alcatraz to symbolize the land that was taken from Native Americans. 1969 modern gay rights movement started at Stone Wall Inn. Environmental Movement saw huge bipartisan support during Nixon admin w/Clean Air + Water Acts, Endangered Species Act. American Feminist Movement; 1966 National Organization of Women is founded. 1963 <10% of doctoral degrees went to women. Systemic! Congress responded w/equal pay act in 1963. Warren Supreme Court saw many expansions of rights (free speech, assembly, interracial marriage, Gideon, Miranda, contraception, abortion, privacy). 1968 sums up decade; Tet Offensive, racial violence after King assassination, 1968 democratic convention police riot, student demonstrations across globe (Mexico, Czechoslovakia, Paris); unrest scared people who voted for Nixon + promise return to law/order.

Gilded Age Politics

Late-19th Century; Tammany Hall dominates democratic politics; corrupt. William 'Boss' Tweed ran NYC in late-1860s; Tammany received $2 for every $1 received by the contractor; also provided services to immigrant families in exchange for votes to stay in power (controlling city jobs/contracts); bearded men voting 3x. Credit Mobilier (in cahoots w/Congress) built much of the Union-Pacific Railroad, overcharged public for construction costs, bribed congressmen. Whiskey Ring (in cahoots w/POTUS) in St. Louis were helped by an official (in the Grant Administration) to avoid taxes (undercounting kegs). 1883 Civil Service Act created a merit system based-on competition, rather than political favoritism. Unintended Effect: politicians now depended on donations from big business, rather than from thankful political appointees. 1890 Sherman Anti-trust Act, forbade practices restricting trade-- though it was impossible to use against mega-corps, instead was more often used against unions. State Govs stepped-in, expanding their responsibility for public health/welfare; as states invested in public transportation/gas/later electricity. This was less productive in South, as many were rolling back reconstruction, enforcing Jim Crow. 1870s Farmers formed the Grange Movement to pressure state government to set fair shipping rates (against railroad owners)- eventually became the Farmers Alliance Movement. 1890 Sub-Treasury Plan in which farmers used grain as collateral (bypassing banks). 1892 Populist (People's) Party convenes in Omaha, NE, which put forward a number of progressive causes (sub-treasury, gov ownership of rails, graduated tax, gov control currency, recognition of unions, coinage of silver). Some Western Populist states granted women suffrage in 1890s (adding to electoral power); Weaver competitively ran as populist presidential candidate; best known populist prez candidate was Democratic candidate William J. Bryan (1896 election) wanted coinage of silver (also anti-evolution in Scopes-Monkey trial); BUT lost to McKinley in the first modern political campaign as the Business Class gave McKinley $10M; effectively ending the populist party as corruption continued. Though, populist ideas (direct election of senators, graduated income tax) became mainstream.

American Imperialism

Late-19th/Early-20th saw era of imperial expansion by European powers. Argument that US has always been an empire (westward expansion). 1893 Economic Panic saw depression w/17% unemployment. Imperialism was seen as a remedy for economic woes (more markets to sell goods). Thayer pushed idea that US needed to dominate international commerce at sea. Panama Canal 'required' colonies (coal depots, two-sea Navy). Nationalism was a worldwide phenomenon. Grant Administration sought to annex Cuba/Dominican Republic, but did get Alaska (gold?). Coal Stations in Pacific important because it open trade to Japan to American trade. Hawaii also annexed (1898) w/trade agreements + naval base at Pearl Harbor. High tide of American Imperialism seen in Spanish-American War. Cuba fought as Spain tried to retain its last Latin American imperial holding, US responded (McKinley) urging Spain to leave or face war. USS Maine explosion was seen as Spanish sabotage. 1898 Spanish-American War. Short ('splendid little') War, that consequently furthered Roosevelt's career; led to VP, the POTUS. Also involved Manilla Bay where US took the Philippines-- occurred before US intervened in Cuba. Result of war gave US new territories (Puerto Rica, Philippine, Guam); annexed Hawaii, permanent lease on GitMo. Cuba + PR were gateways to Latin American markets. Hawaii, Guam, Philippines opened access to China; assisted by US providing 3K troops to the multinational force that put down the 1900 Boxer Rebellion. Philippines turned against US, since they were not interested in native independence; in the war (1899-1903) Americans ran concentration camps, executed, raped, tortured w/100k Filipinos dead. News of these atrocities helped spur anti-imperialist sentiment at home (Twain). Some investment in Philippines, but interests of locals were subverted to goals of wealthy. 1900 Foraker Act, declaring PR would be an insular territory as its inhabitants were citizens of PR (not US), with no path to statehood. Now its a commonwealth, with no say in congress, or control of defense/environmental policy. Hawaii was treated differently because of its sizeable white population as it was annexed with a path to statehood. Commerce underlined imperialism, seeking consumers ('China is our natural customer').

The Reagan Revolution

Reagan appealed to 'white backlash'; anti-union; military warhawk, family values, anti-government, anti-soviet; winning in 1980. The Great Communicator (actor). Used the word 'freedom' more than any other president. Economic freedom in his 'Economic Bill of Rights': curtailed union power, reduced federal regulation of industry/environment, lowered taxes. Main accomplishment was lowering taxes. 1986 Tax Reform Act lowered the top income tax rate to 28%. Championed Supply-Side Economics ('Trickle Down Economics), high interest rates to combat inflation + cutting taxes on wealthy as they can invest more in private enterprise, creating new jobs. Immediate effects were recession, but in '82 economy began expanding; as the stock market boomed, wages didn't rise with them (and haven't risen since). Union-busting, as Reagan fired 11k air traffic controllers who refused to return to work from strike. In 1980s it was easier to profit from mergers, than to run them profitably. Rising economic inequality. Income of middle class stagnated; income of poorest 20% declined. Overlooked aspect of deregulation was rapid closure of hospitals for mentally ill, pushing many out in the street without programs in place to replace them. 2nd term he worked effectively w/democratic congress. Appointed first woman to supreme court. Reputation that he ended the cold war. Argument is that he spent so much on defense (largest military build-up in US history), the Russians could not keep up and fell into debt; BUT the people who made the change, made it. Highlight of defense program was Star Wars (satellites, space shuttles, lasers, shooting soviet missiles out of the sky), technologically impossible to build. War Games in Western Europe (through NATO) convinced Russia they were real, almost leading to nuclear (actual) war. Boosted Nuclear Freeze Movement. Turned him into the most successful nuclear abolitionist. Agreed to reduce the number of warheads. 2nd term spending, rhetoric was toned down. Negotiated first reduction of nuclear weapons. Sent Marines to Lebanon. Iran Contra Scandal; contras were rebels seeking to overthrow socialist 'Sandinista' government of Nicaragua. Because it was Cold War, Reagan wanted to support them (anti-communist), but Congress passed a law saying we couldn't. His officials planned to sell arms to Iran, then funnel the profits to Contras. Congressional hearings followed that revealed his 'penchant for delegation' to his rogue employees.

American Revolution

Strategy of the British in the revolutionary war was to capture cities + force colonists to surrender. 1775 Dunmore proclaims freedom for slaves joining British. Battle of Trenton (1776); Washington crossed Delaware on Christmas morning with a surprising victory against the (hired-Germans) Hessians. Battle of Saratoga (1777) was a defeat for British (bad generaling - a turning point). Overall trend of Country (lose) and City (seize) for British. 1781 Battle of Yorktown; British surrender, surrounded by French ships on a peninsula. Native Americans generally sought to stay out of Revolutionary War; though exceptions joining British were treated brutally by 'contintentals'. When colonies became states, they each created constitutions, opening voting to more people (white males). Thomas Jefferson called for a wall of separation between church/state. Changed the economy- decline in apprenticeship. Immediately a North/South split after the war with reliance on paid labor vs. slave labor. Slavery was on decline until Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, increasing need for cotton-picking. Ideas (process) of liberty at heart to the "revolution". Most founders equated liberty with property. 1777-1804 all states north of Maryland got rid of slavery; number of free people skyrockets. Idea of equal opportunity regardless of birth/status influential to revolutions that followed.

Progressive Presidents

Rise of strong national government seen as an alternative to lives being controlled by provincial city/state gov OR by growing corporations. Roosevelt's (1901 following McKinley assn.) Square Deal aimed to distinguish Good Corporations (providing fair-priced products) from Bad Corporations (existing solely for profit). Felt it was gov responsibility to regulate economy + break of powerful trusts by using the Sherman Act against the likes of the Northern Securities Co. (JP Morgan) which held major railroads + monopolized transport. 1906 Hepburn Act gave gov power to regulate rates + investigate records. Also a conservationist (hunter). He appointed noted progressive Gifford Pinchot to head the forest service + national parks. Taft also a trust-buster (Standard Oil), but only saw big business as bad when it stifled competition. Election of 1912 saw Roosevelt run again (after Taft) to restore national park (?)-- here he founded the Bull Moose Party. 1912 Election had 4 candidates, all leftist (Taft, Roosevelt, Wilson, Debs). Ultimately saw Roosevelt against Wilson in competing views on dangers of increasing gov power + economic concentration. Bull Moose platform: women's suffrage, federal regulation, labor/health legislation, 8 hrs + living wage, social insurance. Wilson won as Taft/Roosevelt split republican vote. Wilson's 'New Freedom' was anti-tariff, anti-monopoly; Congress passed graduated income tax on richest 5%. Clayton Act (1913) exempted unions from antitrust laws; Keating-Owen Act outlawed labor in manufacturing; Adamson Act mandated 8-hr workday for railroad workers. Wilson engaged in less trust-busting, more regulation of economy. Supported the Federal Reserve, giving gov more control over banks, in response to 1907 panic. CONTRADICTION in progressive presidents' domestic concerns against big business, WHILE opening Latin America for business; most famously in Panama. 1903 Panama is part of Colombia; US encourages Bunau-Varilla (representative of the Panama Canal Company) to lead an uprising + sends a gunboat to ensure Colombia gov could not stop him. He then signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903) giving US right to build/operate + sovereign control of the Canal Zone. Roosevelt added the Roosevelt Corollary (US would defend Latin American states from Euro intervention) to the Monroe Doctrine. In practice, this meant using US troops to 'stabilize' Latin America for investment. Also encouraged Fruit Investment in Central America (Honduras + Costa Rica), hoping to turn them into Banana Republics. Taft less eager to occupy; was more interested in loans (Dollar Diplomacy). Wilson sought to spread American ideals through consumerism; but also intervened in Latin America often. In Mexico he sent 10k troops (led by Pershing) to hunt Pancho Villa who had killed 17 Americans in New Mexico. Wilson-Taft become first modern American presidents in their expansion of gov power at home (regulating economy) + abroad (Latin America). Gov must get big to deal w/big business. Built neo-imperialstic (realist?) foreign policy around the idea that the safer it was for American business, the better it was for Americans

WWII, Part II

WWII strengthened the federal government; bringing more intervention, taking unprecedented control of economy (fixed wages/rents/production quotas, rationing food/supplies). Unemployment dropped to 2% in 1943. ENORMOUS production output (planes/ships). Much of the war was paid for with taxes, as federal government began the practice of withholding taxes from paychecks. Big business got even bigger. Defense spending created west coast as industrial center. Government forced business to recognize unions in order to prevent labor strikes, so that war production would not decrease. Many of the workers in those factories were women. Government + employers saw this growth as temporary + expected women to leave workforce after the war (more aptly, were fired). WWII was an ideological war, encapsulated by FDR's 4 Freedoms (Speech, Worship, Freedom From Want, Freedom From Fear). Congress passed a GI Bill of Rights to protect returning soldiers from unemployment; spurring education + housing boom. Business piggybacked on this w/free enterprise. Changed the way Americans thought of themselves (different from Nazis, more tolerant, diverse). Only 21k Jews allowed to come to the US during WWII. White fear of minorities continued; violence in Detroit Race Riots + Zoo Suit Riots in LA (1943). Dramatic increase in Mexican immigration under the Bracero program (lasting until 1964). Chinese immigration continued, because US couldn't restrict its ally. 1942 all persons of Japanese descent were expelled from the west coast as 110k (2/3 of which were American citizens) were sent to internment camps, living in barracks under the eyes of guards. African Americans experienced the greatest change from WWII. Many moved to war-industry-centered West for work opportunities. Start of Civil Rights movements as African American workers demanded fairer treatment. This resulted in the banning of discrimination in defense hiring + created Fair Employment Practices Commission. Double-V campaign: victory over racist axis powers abroad + racists at home. The US became the financial leader of a capitalist order.

Westward Expansion

(Mid-19th Century) West mythology started early (Ohio) as a unoccupied terrain; representing opportunity/upward mobility. In reality, most western settlers were families/immigrant groups (chinese, mexican migrant workers, former slaves). West was also already occupied by native americans. Federal government cleared much of the work in: granting homestead acts, removing NAs, sponsoring railroad. Railroads made the west profitable w/providing tools, shoes, books, etc (allowed people to stay connected). Gov cleared west in a big way by forcing out NAs-- General Sheridan burned villages, killed buffalo. 1890 Ghost Dance movement arose in South Dakota (response to vicious treatment); seeking the disappearance of white/return of buffalo. (1876) Little Bighorn saw Sioux/Cheyenne warriors destroyed General Custer's 250 cavalry. 1871 US gov ENDs the Treaty System w/native americans, treating them as if they were independent nations. 1887 Dawes Act, lands set aside for Indians was now allotted for individual families, rather than tribes. Indians embracing small-scale Jeffersonian agrarianism would be granted citizenship with (supposed) protections on land. Indians lost much of the land in their possession following Dawes. Bureau of Indian Affairs enacts cultural genocide w/American Boarding School; children taken away from families to schools that took away their identity; taught english, removed clothes, re-named (similar to South Africa/Chile). Cowboys needed industrial meat market, were driven to railroads (not solitary). Women were integral family-run farms. International competition seen here. Large-scale irrigation required heavy capital investment, as West started to more resemble agrobusiness than family farm (1900) CA home to giant commercial farms ("not a country of farms, but of plantations and estates"). Wild West looking more like industrial capitalism.

Colonizing America

1607 First successful English colony in Jamestown, Virginia (others failed in Roanoke-- disappeared). Jewelers sent by the Virginia Co. seeking gold (like Spanish in SA)-- would 'rather starve than farm' (Capt. John Smith). 1618 Virginia Co. recruits w/'Headright System' 50 acres of land; enabling the creation of large estates worked by indentured servants. 1619 First shipment of African slaves arrives in Virginia. Colony thrived on tobacco trade (30 million lbs/year in 1680). Massachusetts Bay more known early settlers (religious pilgrims/puritans). English settlers mostly protestant puritans (seeking to separate from English church and its catholic-ish bishops). Pilgrims were more separatist than Puritans in that they sought to separate completely from church-- ended up in Massachusetts, founding the 'Plymouth' colony. While on the Mayflower en route they signed the *'Mayflower Compact'* binding themselves to follow "just and equal laws". Local Indians, led by Squanto, saved pilgrims from complete starvation by showing them Native Methods of planting corn/squash. Pilgrims "Gave Thanks" for the natives saving them. Massachusetts Bay colony absorbed Pilgrims. Puritans' 'City on the Hill' valued needs of many over the needs of few (or one).

Slavery

1619 - 1865. Cotton a major factor (overseas trade, growing northern economy in textile factories), most prominently in south. Few urban sites in the south (except New Orleans). Little technological/manufacture movement, due to all investment going back to slave-based economy; dominating the south economically/culturally. 1860, 4M slaves in US, making up 1/3 of total Southern population. Majority of slaveholders kept 5 or fewer slaves, though most whites owned no slaves, as it was concentrated on property owners. Elites justified ownership with paternalism (caring/providing for slaves)- notably John C. Calhoun calling it a "positive good"-- and citing religion, greco-roman norms (Aristotle), racism. Arbitrary cruelty with whipping, branding, rape. Intentionally brutal, because in order for slavery to function, slaves had to be dehumanized. First resistance was seen in familial organization. Slave worship focused on stories of exodus (Moses brings slaves out of bondage). Two of the most important slave uprisings in South were led by preachers. Also resisted by running away. Harriet Tubman escapes to Philadelphia at age of 29, then over her life makes 20 trips to assist more come back on the Underground Railroad. 1831 Nat Turner's Rebellion saw the preacher + 80 slaves march across Virginia farm-to-farm killing mostly women/children whites (most men away at religious revival meeting in NC). Virginia responded w/harsh laws forbidding black preachers + teaching blacks to read. Reaffirmed their humanity through family/faith.

The 7 Years War + The Great Awakening

1754 - 1763 (The French and Indian War). Mercantilism (trade) key to British Empire in 18th century. Tobacco/Sugar were key colonial crops (relied on slave labor). French were greatest rival to Britain as they formed alliances with natives in attempt to dominate fur trade. In 1749 disagreement with Ohio Co. over land claims. 1754 British colonists, led by George Washington, forced out French from Pennsylvania; erecting Fort Necessity. Ended with Treaty of Paris in 1763. Outcomes were territorial; Britain gained Canada from France, Florida from Spain. French out of Mississippi/Ohio river valleys leaving natives compelled to fight back as British moved west. 1763 Indians launch 'Pontiac's Rebellion' - managing to besiege Detroit and slow British western settlement as Parliament issues 'Proclamation Line of 1763 which forbid settlement west of Appalachians. Republicanism and liberalism (gov was to protect natural rights-- life/liberty/property, Locke. Social Contract-- giving up some liberties for protection of natural rights.) The Great Awakening (early 18th century) saw Americans revitalized in faith.

Thomas Jefferson

1800 Election (Jefferson/Republican v. Adams/Federalist) was first where both parties campaigned. 12th amendment passed slightly simplified electoral college (though not w/direct election), as more became involved in democratic process. Jefferson owned/sold slaves, also wrote "created equal". 1800 saw first large-scale slave uprising attempt in Gabriel's Rebellion where a blacksmith sought to seize capitol until demands for abolition were met (was discovered before/hanged). Virginia responded w/harsh laws against blacks. Jefferson sought to reduce size of gov, lower taxes, shrink military, agrarian utopia. John Marshall was chief justice presided over Marbury v. Madison-- which gave the supreme court the power of judicial review (of laws, later exec actions). 1803 Jefferson doubles size of US w/Louisiana Purchase from France (Napoleon) for $15M -- initially sought to only purchase New Orleans! Jefferson conflicted (as a republican seeking strict adherence to Constitution- which did not include that part) but also sought land for agrarian utopia. Jefferson sent Lewis & Clark to explore new purchase (1804-1806). The Embargo was meant to punish Britain for impressing American sailors, by stopping trade-- this devastated US economy and would lead to war. Presidency encapsulates best/worst.

The Civil War

1861 - 1865 (corresponding w/Lincoln presidency). Confederate gov implemented first conscription act in nat'l history, implemented taxes. Lincoln initially downplayed slavery, arguing it was only about the union. Union advantages: greater population, manufactured 90% of all goods, 2x the length of railroad. Only military advantage of South was in better leaders (Lee, Jackson, Stewart). South was doomed. South sought strategy of attrition (wait the North out). Uly Grant willing to suffer heavy casualties. 1861-1863 union lost many battles, revealing possibility of union to cede. Siege of Vicksburg, Mississippi (1863) gave union control of Mississippi. (1863) Battle of Gettysburg shifted the tide of the war in favor of North. (1864) General Sherman takes Atlanta (railroad hub/manufacturing center). Lincoln had to run for re-election summer 1864 as war was unpopular- capture of Atlanta swayed opinion of Lincoln to win. War's victory was ensured by political victory (not just war).

Women's Suffrage

1890 - 1920 (Women's Era), able to own property, wages, make their wills. Women active as reformers, bringing them into political movements before progressive era. 1874 Women's Christian Temperance Union (Frances Willard) broad reform agenda including suffrage. 2nd Wave of Industrial Revolution saw many time-saving products aimed at women (washing machine). Women realized being the primary consumer for the home gave them powerful leverage to bring about change. Florence Kelley headed the National Consumers League; encouraging the purchase of products made w/o child labor. New opportunities for (white) women w/introduction of telephone + other office work. Women also pushed contraceptives as part of need to work (w/o being encumbered by children); Margaret Sanger. Put women at the front of free speech debate. Birth control movement cut across class lines, bringing people together the way other movements never did. Jane Addams headed the Whole House in Chicago, creating settlement housing. This pioneered the field of Social Work. Addams became a spokesperson of progressive ideas. Seneca Falls Convention 1848; National American Women's Suffrage Association (some of which made nativist arguments). National Women's Party (Alice Paul) picketed the White House in 1917; compared Wilson to the Kaiser, chained themselves to fence. Started a hunger strike during their prison sentence, were force-fed. War moved suffrage along through patriotic women's support of war (working in wartime industries), mistreatment of Paul created outrage. 1920 the 19th Amendment is ratified. Prohibition movement galvanized women. Same support was not mustered for the Equal Rights Amendment. Women weren't given these rights, they had to fight for them.

The Rise of Conservatism

1950s growing number of libertarians argued for unregulated capitalism + individual autonomy as the essence of American freedom; their target was regulatory state created by New Deal. Second strand were moral conservatives with laws that enforced traditional notions of family/morality. Both strands were hostile towards communism + big government. Election of 1964 young conservatives played a pivotal role in re-shaping the republican party. Here, R candidate Goldwater argued for use of atomic bombs, against New Deal welfare state, harshly anti-communist. KEY: though Goldwater lost, 5 of the states he won were in the deep south-- formerly democratic, known as the 'solid south'. Democratic championing of civil rights played a role in southern democrats abandoning the party. 1968 Nixon wins election as the 'candidate of the silent majority' (not anti-war, not free love, alarmed at supreme court rights expansions, 'tough on crime' coded language to southerners on protests; equating crimes w/African-Americans). 56% of electorate chose candidates who were explicitly (Wallace) or quietly (Nixon) against Civil Rights. Many environmental (Clean Air Acts) + labor (OSHA) acts were passed under Nixon. Roe V Wade established right of women to have an abortion in 1st trimester; that decision galvanized catholics and evangelical protestants. Conservatives responded to the decline of 'family values' (higher divorce rate, fewer children/family). Backlash against a greater number of women in workforce. Backlash seen in defeat of ERA in 1974. Phyllis Schlafly argued consumerism would give women true freedom; persuading enough to not ratify ERA. June 1972 Nixon's people break-in to Watergate Hotel (office of opponent McGovern) possibly to plant bugs; leading to his resignation (only president to do so). Paranoid Nixon (after Panama Papers) drew-up an enemies list + had a group of 'plumbers' to stop leaks; what doomed him was revelation that he authorized hush money payments + told FBI to not investigate. Conservatism argued against big government (post-WWII expansions) as government abuses came to light (Vietnam/Pentagon Papers, McCarthyism, attempts to disrupt Civil Rights, Watergate-- revealed a gov that truly was out of control), undermining the liberal notion that gov was an institution for good.

The Constitution

Articles of the Confederation (1778) was the first governing system- lacked a framework for national government; established a house with each state having 1 vote that could collectively make decisions affecting all (13) states; no president + no judiciary. Gov could declare war, conduct foreign affairs, make treaties. Could coin money, but could not collect taxes (left to states). Deliberately weak (anti-crown). 1787 Shay's Rebellion saw indebted (from war) rise up against courts foreclosing on their properties. Thomas Jefferson 'tree of liberty ... blood of patriots and tyrants'. Rich respond to Rebellion woes (unable to collect taxes, valueless war bonds, private property in danger) by meeting to establish a constitution (1786). 1787 (2nd meeting) 55 men (wealthy, educated) met in Philadelphia seeking a stronger national government; agreed on: 3 branches, should be representative (rather than direct democracy); overarching idea was to protect against tyranny of government itself, and by tyranny of people (as in Shay's Rebellion?). First conflicts arose between large states [Madison's Virginia Plan: two-house legislature with proportional (to population) representation in both houses] AND small states [single house with equal representation for each state]. Sherman's 'Great Compromise' gave us two houses (proportional house of representatives AND senate with equal representation-- 2 senators-- for each state ). House is responsive, senate is not. 3/5ths compromise settled disagreements between states with many/few slaves-- still in the constitution as well as the slave escape clause which becomes problematic for slave/non-slave states. Constitution embraced 2 principles: separation of power + federalism (idea that governmental authority rest both in the national/state government). The framers built-in safeguards (electoral college/senators elected by states) against too much democracy, worried that the rabble would vote in someone to redistribute wealth. Constitution needed to be ratified by 9 of 13 states; Hamilton, Madison, John Jay wrote Federalist Papers (85 essays) to sway delegates to ratify the Constitution. Anti-federalist feared an empirical wealthy government, arguing smaller governments are more responsive to people.

19th Century Women

First time women significantly enter the public sphere. The higher the social class, the greater the oppression on women. Under legal principle of coverture, husbands held authority over person/property of wives. Republican motherhood: women tasked with raising boys to be upstanding citizens-- allowed women access to education. Women also counted in determining population (unlike slaves). Cult of Domesticity- resulted from rise of factory production; believed women were to act to support their husband (food/home) providing non-market values (love/friendship/mutual obligation). Idea of true male/female equality was radical. Many women (Carry Nation, Frances Willard) found work in reform movements. If women were expected to be moral center of the home, they could be the moral center of the nation. Women led: planning asylums, temperance movement, gave temperance lectures. Led to realization women would be a more powerful ally if they could vote. Beecher Stowe's 'Uncle Tom's Cabin' humanized slaves for many americans. Abolitionists didn't support suffrage, arguing it would undermine their goal. Declaration of Sentiments (1848, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mot) attacking the patriarchal structure. Faced strong resistance.

Taxes Before Revolution

Frustrated Americans faced taxes for French-Indian War debts, and were held East of Appalachia. Americans avoided taxes through smuggling. Lacked Parliamentary representation. The Sugar Act was being enforced as British courts were now able to try colonial smugglers. 1765 Stamp Act declared all printed material (mostly newspapers/legal docs) must contain British stamp. All colonies united (first time) in Stamp Act Congress to boycott British goods in response. British Gov repealed the Stamp Act, but passed Declaratory Act which declared that British could (but didn't) pass taxes. Townshend Acts (1767) were new taxes with more boycotts/protests in response. Boston Massacre (1770). Most taxes were repealed, except tea tax. British offered exemptions/rebates to British East India Co.-- 1773 colonists dress up as Indians and dump tea in 'Boston Tea Party' in protest. British responded with what colonists called 'Intolerable Acts' (limiting self-governance, Quartering Act, Quebec Act). Colonial response to this is the start of the American Revolution. Massachusetts resolved to disobey acts, stop paying taxes, prepare for war. September 1774 delegates from 12 of the 13 colonies met in Philadelphia for the First Continental Congress to resist British authority-- the first colony-wide gov in NA. War began in 1775 w/the "shot heard 'round the world" in Massachusetts (Paul Revere's midnight ride). Not all colonists (esp. NY/PA elites) were pro-independence since it meant artisans/farmers would have say in political process. January 1776 Thomas Payne's 'Common Sense' written in plain English denouncing "crowned ruffians" and "cause of America ... cause of mankind". Within 6 mos. the 2nd Continental Congress signs the Declaration of Independence. Pen over sword.

The Election of 1860 + Road to Civil War

Fugitive Slave Law (1850 Compromise) Deputized all citizens to turn-in runaway slaves. 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act sought to organize the territory in an effort to run through the transcontinental railroad (innovative); the act formalized Popular Sovereignty (allowing white citizens to decide if state would be free/slave); also led to creation of Republican Party. Some believed Congress to be controlled by Slave Power, doing bidding of rich plantation owners. Buchanan won 1856 Election, as he had no position on slavery. 'Bleeding Kansas' named for violence over slave/free disagreement (nullifying Missouri Compromise line)- some consider it to be start of civil war as northerners/southerners move to the state to influence fraudulent elections. Kansas passed 2 constitutions. Dred Scot supreme court decision sought to end disagreement on slavery by writing (Justice Taney) slaves essentially had no rights. 1860 Election Lincoln won 0 votes in 9 states, but 40% of popular vote, winning electoral college. By the time he took office, 7 states had seceded + formed Confederate States of America. 1861 Southern troops fire upon Fort Sumter 1 month after Lincoln takes office, officially starting Civil War.

Terrorism, War, Bush 43

Gore asked Clinton not to campaign. Bush former oil/baseball team owner; ran as a compassionate conservative (religious/fiscal conservatives). Didn't win popular vote. Solidified the Red/Blue divide. Florida, under Jeb, gave Bush electoral vote. Supreme Court intervened in Bush's favor, arguing re-count should be stopped; interfering w/state law + state electoral process. Supported oil drilling in arctic. Said it wouldn't abide by Kyoto agreement; putting out more carbon emissions. NCLB mandated rigorous testing, to prove standards were met. Pushed through largest tax cut in US history in 2001; hoping to stimulate growth after .com bubble burst. 9/11 ensured foreign policy would rule. Bush's popularity soared. Another critical moment where 'freedom' is re-imagined; as the freedom to be safe; while simultaneously having privacy impinged. Bush Doctrine, America would go to war against terrorism ('with us or the terrorists'). First strikes were in Afghanistan; setting up a new US-friendly gov. 2007 Taliban starting to make a comeback. Proclaimed Iran/Iraq/NK as Axis of Evil, even though they had no direct ties to terrorism. 2003 invasion predicated on WMDs, and some link between Sadaam's Iraq + 9/11. Iraq created a new gov, then descended into sectarian chaos. 2006 intelligence analysis determined Iraq had become a terrorist have (which it hadn't been before invasion). Costs of war $200 billion. Disaster. USA Patriot Act; gave government the ability to wiretap/spy on Americans. Established GitMo prison camp. Authorized NSA to warrantless wiretapping. 2013 Americans learn of surveillance program PRISM. Congress banned use of torture in 2005; but also condoned water-boarding. 2000s jobless recovery. 1,500 dead from Katrina saw poor response from Homeland Security + FEMA as thousands of mostly African-Americans suffered. Exposed persistent poverty.

Growth, Cities, and Immigration

Post-1890, Agriculture's 'Golden Age'. Agriculture demand (movement to) was in response to to urban growth. 1890 - 1910 American went from predominately rural, to largely urban as it became the world's leading industrial power. Growth was centered in New York. Much of growth due to immigration. 1840s potato famine led 1M Irish to flee to US. 2nd wave of immigrants were Germans. Most Irish started as unskilled workers, but developed over time. Irish women worked in factories. Most Germans were farmers in home country, would remain so in US. Many Germans moved to mid-west (OH, MO), some becoming brewers (pabst, schlitz, busch). 1894 Immigration Restriction League in Boston; lobbied Congress to limit immigration. 1897 one such law passed, but was vetoed by Grover Cleveland. 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act; 100K Chinese in mostly CA; SF refused to educated them until ordered by Supreme Court. Chinese males had been coming to the west since 1850s (gold rush, contracted by mines). Faced vigilante-led riots like in Rockspring, WY. Immigration was a global phenomenon at this time. American companies used labor recruiters that went to Europe to advertise opportunities. LES in NY became a magnet w/Germans, Jews, Italians moving in Tenement Housing. During Gilded Age rich/poor lived in close proximity. Improved transportation meant that (wealthy) no longer had to live/work in the same place. Modern industrial America takes shape.

Native Americans

Pre-European no classical elements like monumental architecture or empires. Native NA had NO gun powder/wheel/written language/domesitcated animals -- they DID have farming/complex social structures/wide trade networks. 2-10 million living within NA border. Tribes communed around natural resources (rivers, buffalo); Tribal bands united into confederacies/leagues-- best known is the Iroquois Confederacy. Religion geared toward lifestyle. Most believed in a single creator god (dissimilar to Christianity). Viewed land as common for everyone to use (for subsistence)-- not to own. Rulers came from same families, though with less class distinction than Europe. Women were important religious leaders. 1513 Juan Ponce deLeon (Spain) arrives in Florida (now) seeking Gold and the Fountain of Youth. Spanish established military colonies to thwart pirates seeking boats carrying silver. Spanish missionaries successful colonizing Southwest (1610 first perma-settlement in Santa Fe). SF also site of first native NA uprising against Europeans led by Po'pay (1680), driving out Christians. The Black Legend - tale of Spanish cruelty against Indians-- later used by English in justification for expansion to 'save the Indians'.

Reconstruction + 1876

US left w/unifying former rebels + slaves. For reconstruction: Lincoln sought reunion + reconciliation, BUT was assassinated; so Andrew Johnson argued the south never had a right to secede. 1865 - 1867; new state govs established, similar to old; HBCUs Fisk/Howard established along w/many primary/secondary schools- thanks to Freedmen's Bureau (lasting to 1870). Many slaves felt they were promised land, as in General Sherman did. Same people owned the same land. 1866, sharecropping replaces slavery in South as landowners provide housing + a share of the crop to former slaves working the land; this was quasi-serfdom, tying workers to land they didn't own. 1866 Civil Rights Bill defined persons born in US as citizens. Johnson vetoed the law, arguing discrimination against whites- congress overrode presidential veto (first time), making Civil Rights Act law. Black Codes replaced 'slave' w/'negro'. 1867 (again overriding Johnson's veto) Congress passed the Reconstruction Act, dividing the south into 5 military zones, requiring them to ratify the 14th amendment if they wanted to re-join the union-- beginning Radical Reconstruction. 1868 Election won by former union general Grant. National government becomes 'the custodian of freedom'. Republican party came to dominate southern politics as more African-Americans were able to vote and were a large part of the population. Reconstruction ended as unpopular Republican governments sought higher taxes (for schools/reconstruction) AND white southerners couldn't accept blacks holding office/voting. Redeemers: white southern politicians claiming to 'redeem' the south from northern corruption + black rule. Process was aided by Northern republicans losing interest in reconstruction. 1876 Election saw Tilden (Southern Dem.) face Rutherford B. Hayes (Ohio Republican). Bargain of 1877 (ceding control of south to democrats + built transcontinental railroad through Texas) effectively ended reconstruction. Southern states now free to go back to restricting rights of black people, as legislatures passed Jim Crow laws (limiting access to public accommodations/legal protections); states passed laws taking away blacks right to vote. True freedom (in free market capitalist system) was curtailed as very few supported providing the newly freed with land to support upward mobility. Is a man free if he isn't free to support himself?

Birth of US Politics

What kind of country should we be? Hamilton (federalist/Britain/elitists) believed US should be deeply involved in world trade (mercantile); his party (Federalist Party) would be of the rich/able/well-born; passion for elitism/trade + alliance w/Britain. Jefferson (republican/anti-federalist/France/for the people) wanted small-scale agrarian US- small scale local economy served by a small scale local government; believed concentrated gov/economic power more of a threat to liberty than tyrannical majority. Washington entered first presidency unopposed. The Whiskey Rebellion (1791) protested whiskey taxes that were part of Hamiltonian economy. Washington warned of party animosity. 1796 election of John Adams exposed flaw in electoral system: POTUS/VP split ideologically from 2nd-most-votes-gets-VP. Adams presidency known for conflict w/France (due to wanting to foster good commerce w/Britain) in XYZ Affair (French emissaries seeking bribes)- causing anti-French hysteria w/the Alien and Sedition Acts (lengthening the time to become a citizen + making it a crime to criticize gov)-- opening arguments between nullification (of unpopular Sedition Act) and states rights would come to head later (civil war). UNSETTLED politics in first decade.