Systems Analysis and Design Ch 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
How can you make a DFD easier to understand? (Think first about how to make one difficult to understand.)
Make it flow, put it in numerical order, add arrows.
What is meant by a DFD semantic error? Provide an example.
the meaning of the DFDs and whether they accurately describe the business process being modeled, balance errors
Describe the major elements and issues with throwaway prototyping.
-Uses prototypes to explore design alternatives rather than as actual new system. -Issues: Takes longer to deliver final product.
What are metadata? Why are they important to system developers?
Metadata is information we want to collect and document regarding the components of the data model. It helps System developers more fully understand the meaning and use of the data model components.
Describe how project portfolio management is used by IT departments.
Helps measure the efficiency of IT investments. Prioritizes projects, allocates employees, monitor projects in real time, etc.
How are mutually exclusive data flows (i.e., alternative paths through a process) depicted in DFDs?
You use the Process description to explain that they are alternatives.
Describe how projects are selected in organizations.
-Entire portfolio of projects. -Expected risks and returns in relation to other projects is also considered. -Prioritize business strategies and assess project based on how it meets the need. -Feasibility analysis
Give an example of a closed-ended question, an open-ended question, and a probing question. When would each type of question be used?
Closed- How many telephone orders are received per day? Open- What do you think about the way invoices are currently processed? Probing- Can you give me an example? Go up one question for when to use them.
Why is document analysis useful? What insights into the organization can it provide?
Document analysis focuses on existing documentation of the current system, forms and reports that are a part of the current system, plus any personal forms, reports, or files that have been developed informally by the end users. By studying this material the analysts can gain insight into the existing system, how it is used, and possibly also aspects of the system that are not being used.
Describe three technical skills and three technical skills and three interpersonal skills that would be very important to have on any project.
Desirable technical skills might include programming experience in the chosen programming language, experience in configuring the hardware and communications technology platform correctly, and experience in utilizing the file/database environment effectively.
Explain the use of structured English in process descriptions.
It uses short sentences to describe the work that a process performs.
What are the key elements of the system proposal?
Key elements of a System Proposal include: detailed requirements definition, use cases, process models, data models, a revised feasibility analysis and a work plan.
"Interviews should always be conducted as structured interviews." Do you agree with this statement? Why or why not?
No, because both have their uses. Unstructured are hard to do but are very broad and structured have more specific questions.
Describe the major elements and issues with the V-model.
- Intended to address testing issues of waterfall. Testing is defined for each element and throughout the process. Improves overall quality. - Issues: suffers from the rigidity of the waterfall development process
What type of high-level business rule can be stated by an ERD? Give two examples.
A business rule is a constraint or guideline to follow during operation of the system. Examples of business rules are: an order belongs to just one customer; a customer cannot cancel an order that has been shipped.
Define what is meant by an attribute in a data model. How should an attribute be named? What information about an attribute should be stored in the CASE repository?
An attribute is a characteristic that describes an entity. Attribute names are nouns.
Define what is meant by a data store in a process model. How should a data store be named? What information about a data store should be stored in the CASE repository?
A data store is a collection of data that is stored in some way. Every data store should be named with a noun, an assigned ID number, and a description. Every data store has a name, an ID number, outputs, inputs, and a description which should be stored in the CASE repository.
Is the primary purpose of requirements determination to discover facts or to discover opinions? Explain your answer.
Facts, because the list of requirements is supported, confirmed, and clarified by the other activities of the analysis phase.
What is the scope creep, and how can it be managed?
Refers to the addition of new requirements to the project after the initial project scope was defined and "frozen." Can be managed by doing the best possible job in determining the project requirements at the outset.
Compare and contrast outcome analysis, technology analysis, and activity elimination. What general contribution do these strategies play in determining requirements?
Outcome analysis focuses on fundamental outcomes providing value to customers. Technology analysis analyzes a group of important and interesting technologies and identifies how each technology could be applied to the business. These strategies allow businesses to make informative decisions with technology and potential outcomes
What is the difference between intangible value and tangible value? Give three examples of each.
Tangible value represents the system benefits that are quantifiable and measurable. Intangible value represents benefits that are real, but are difficult to quantify and measure. Examples of tangible benefits might be increased sales, reduced operating costs, and reduced interest costs. Examples of intangible value might include increased customer satisfaction, improved decision making, improved problem recognition.
Describe the differences between a technical lead and a functional lead. How are they similar?
The technical lead is typically a project team member who supervises the programmers and more technically-oriented project staff. The functional lead is a team member who oversees the systems and business analysts on the team. Both positions report to the project manager, and are responsible for managing, controlling, and coordinating the work of their assigned team members.
What is the difference between upper CASE (computer-aided software engineering) and lower CASE?
Upper CASE refers to diagramming and other tools that are commonly used during the Analysis phase of the SDLC. Lower CASE refers to diagramming and prototyping tools and code generators that are used primarily to support the Design phase of the SDLC.
What is the purpose of normalization?
To eliminate redundancy.
What is the distinction between an external trigger and a temporal trigger. Give two examples of each.
An external trigger is generally caused by an outside action. One example would be a trigger going off if a user violates a system rule. The book used a fire alarm as an external trigger, and I would also say that a burglar alarm would also work. On the other hand, a temporal trigger is time based. Hulu has a trigger to alert users if they have been watching for over three hours this a good example. Another temporal trigger would be my computer telling me it is time to go to bed if I am still active at 1:40 am.
Discuss several ways to verify the correctness of a process model.
use tools like Visio and BPWin that will help with syntax checking.
What is a CRUD matrix? How does it relate to process models and data models?
(Create, read, update, delete) a table that depicts how the system's processes use the data within the system. It is a tool used to clearly depict the interrelationship between processes and data models.
Give three examples of business needs for a system.
1. To maintain or improve the competitive position. 2. To perform a business function more efficiently. 3. To take advantage of a new business opportunity.
What is the difference between a methodology and a work plan? How are the two terms relate?
A methodology provides a standard, formalized list of steps and deliverables for the SDLC. Work plans include the specific steps, tasks, and deliverables that will be needed for a specific project. Methodologies form the basis for creating work plans; the project manager can select the parts of the methodology that apply to the specific project, and use that in defining the appropriate steps and tasks.
Explain what is meant by a nonfunctional requirement. What are the primary types of nonfunctional requirements? Give two examples of each. What role do nonfunctional requirements play in the project overall?
A nonfunctional requirement refers to behavioral properties that the system must exhibit. Types of nonfunctional requirements include: Operational, Performance, Security, and Cultural and Political.
Define what is meant by a relationship in a data model. How should a relationship be named? What information about a relationship should be stored in the CASE repository?
A relationship describes the association between entities. Relationship names are labeled as active verbs.
Suppose that your goal is to create a set of DFDs. How would you begin an interview with a knowledgeable user? How would you begin a JAD session?
Ask them questions, discuss goals of the session.
What are the best ways to motivate a team? What are the worst ways?
Best-Recognition, achievement, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and the chance to learn new skills. Worst- setting unrealistic deadlines, failing to recognize good effort, accepting low quality output, rewarding all team members monetarily regardless of work quality, failing to include team members in important project decisions, and providing poor working conditions.
What are the major roles on a project team?
Business analyst, systems analyst, infrastructure analyst, change management analyst, project manager.
What are the key factors in selecting a methodology?
Clarity of user requirements, familiarity with technology, system complexity, system reliability, short time schedules, and schedule visibility.
Compare and contrast duration analysis and activity based costing. What role do these activities play as analysis strategies?
Duration Analysis- Detailed examination of the amount of time it takes to perform each process in the current as-is system. Activity Based Costing- Examines the cost of each major process or step in a business process rather than the time taken.
A team of developers is considering including 'warehouse' as an entity in their data model. The company for whom they are developing the system has just one warehouse location. Should warehouse be included? Why or why not?
Entities represent something for which there exist multiple instances or occurrences. If there is only one instance of a warehouse, then it would not be best represented by an entity.
What is an independent entity? What is a dependent entity? How are the two types of entities differentiated on the data model?
Independent entities are entities that can exist without the presence of another entity. Dependent entities are entities that require the presence of another entity in order to exist. Independent entities are represented by rectangles, and Dependent entities are usually represented as rectangles with double-border lines.
Discuss problem analysis as an analysis strategy. What are the strengths and limitations of this technique?
Means asking the users and managers to identify problems with the as-is system and to describe how to solve them in the to-be system. Very effective at improving a system's efficiency or ease of use. Usually only provides minor improvements in business value.
Compare and contrast phases, steps, techniques, and deliverables.
Phases are broad grouping of tasks. Steps are tasks (work to be performed). Techniques are ways to carry out tasks. Deliverables are the understanding (or materials) produced during task accomplishment. Each phase is itself composed of a series of steps, which rely upon techniques that produce deliverables (specific documents and files that provide understanding about the project.)
Describe the principal steps in the planning phase. What are the major deliverables?
Project Initiation is identification of the system business value. Project management is work, staffing, controls and procedures defined. Deliverables are system requests, problem statements, business case scenarios, feasibility analysis, and project plans.
Why do we outline the major steps performed in the use case?
Steps are outlined in order to determine the sequence of events that must occur to complete the use case. An outline of the sequence of events aids in ensuring that all steps are included.
What is the purpose of an approval committee? Who is usually on this committee?
The approval committee generally serves as the decision making body regarding investments in information systems projects. This committee generally has a broad organizational representation and therefore can avoid allocating resources that will serve only narrow organizational interests. The approval committee commonly has project oversight responsibilities as well; monitoring project performance after the project has been accepted. The composition of the approval committee will vary from organization to organization, but generally consists of high-level managers from throughout the organization. The committee is often chaired by the CIO.
Identify three typical syntax errors commonly found in DFDs.
a process must have a name, violating the law of conservation of data, all data stores should have at least one inflow and one outflow
Describe the three-step process of creating an intersection entity.
step 1: Remove the M:N relationship line and insert a new entity in between the two existing ones. Step 2: Add two 1:N relationships to the model. Step 3: Name the intersection entity.
Describe how the data model and process model should be balanced against each other.
they should be balanced against each other to make sure that all of the data is consistent.
Discuss the appropriate way to set up and conduct interviews to elicit requirements.
Selecting Interviewees- Create interview schedule, listing who will be interviewed. Listed based off of the analyst's needs. Designing interview Questions- Use three types of interview questions. 1. Closedended questions, requiring a specific answer 2. Openended questions, making them elaborate. 3. Probing questions, basically a follow up question. Mostly used when the interviewer is unclear about the interviewee's answer. Preparing for the Interview- Make a list of questions, anticipate possible answers to let you come up with follow up questions. Conducting the Interview- build rapport, making sure he or sure trusts you letting you know the whole truth. Appear to be professional and unbiased. Post interview Follow-up- provide an interview report, describing the information from the interview. Containing interview nots.
Explain how an expected value can be calculated for a cost or benefit. When would this be done?
An expected value consists of a combining set of possible outcomes along with the associated probability of each outcome. For example, the Production department may estimate possible increases in costs for parts based on economic indicators. They estimate that there is a 40% chance the costs will increase to $300,000, a 25% chance the costs will increase to $400,000 and a 35% chance the costs will increase to $350,000. Overall the expected value of the rise in costs would be estimated to be $342,500 = ($300,000 * .40) + ($400,000 * .25) + ($350,000 * .35). Estimating the expected value of a cost or benefit would be done when assigning costs and benefits when determining economic feasibility.
Define what is meant by an external entity in a process model. How should an external entity be named? What information about an external entity should be stored in the CASE repository?
An external entity is a person, organization, or system that is external to the system, but interacts with it. An external entity should be named like a normal entity, the book didn't give any other specifics. Every external entity has a name and a description that should be stored in the CASE repository.
What is the meaning of analysis? What is the purpose of the analysis phase of the SDLC?
Analysis is to gather information about a particular development. The purpose of the analysis phase is to take the information gathered and to analyze it in an attempt to learn what went wrong, what went right, what can be done differently, etc.
Provide three different options that are available for selecting an identifier for a student entity. What are the pros and cons of each option?
(1) Put together a combination of attributes to serve as the identifier (such as first_name and last_name). (2) Sometimes, a single attribute is available that can serve as the identifier (such as social security number, though there may be legal constraints on use of this data in this way). (3) A new attribute can be created to serve as the identifier (such as student_id).
Describe the major elements and issues with system prototyping.
-"Quick and dirty" simple version for evaluation and feedback. Evolves into final. -Issues: lack of analysis prior to design and implementation leads to fundamental design limitations.
Describe the major elements and issues with agile development.
-streamlining the SDLC, includes face-to face communication. -Issues: recommended only for small group (less than 10), maintenance of large systems may be impossible.
Describe the four steps of business process management. Why do companies adopt BPM as a management strategy?
1. Defining and mapping the steps in a business process. 2. Creating ways to improve on steps in the process that add value. 3. Finding ways to eliminate or consolidate steps in the process that don't add value. 4. Creating or adjusting electronic workflows to match the improved process maps. Businesses use these steps because it can improve efficiency, make moderate changes to the organization's operations, and can improve effectiveness.
What are the steps of assessing economic feasibility? Describe each step.
1. Identify costs and benefits of the proposed system. List tangible costs and benefits, including one time and recurring costs. 2. Assign values to the costs and benefits. Work with business users and IT professionals to quantify each of the costs and benefits. Try to estimate and intangible costs and benefits as well. 3. Determine the cash flow of the project over the analysis period. Project the costs and benefit annually over the analysis period, usually 3-5 years. 4. Determine the project's net present value. Calculate the present value of each year's costs and benefits, using the appropriate required rate of return for the project. Subtract the cumulative PV of costs from the cumulative PV of benefits to determine the project's net present value. If it is a positive number, the project is considered acceptable.
Outline suggestions to make observation a useful, reliable requirements elicitation technique.
1. Keep a low profile. 2. Do not interrupt employees at work. 3. Do not influence those being observed. 4. Keep in mind that what you observe may not be normal day to day behavior 5. Gather clues from working environment.
What is meant by a concatenated identifier?
A concatenated identifier is one in which a combination of attributes serves to uniquely identify an entity. For instance, an appointment entity may have multiple instances for a single date identifier, but the combination of date and time will uniquely identify each instance.
Explain what is meant by a functional requirement. What are two types of functional requirements? Give two examples of each.
A functional requirement relates directly to a process the system has to perform (process-oriented) or information it needs to contain (information-oriented).
Define what is meant by a process in a process model. How should a process be named? What information about a process should be stored in the CASE repository?
A process in a process model is an activity or a function that is performed for some specific business reason. A process should be named starting with a verb and ending with a noun. Every process has a unique ID number, a name, and a description which should be stored in the CASE repository.
Why is a process model typically composed of a set of DFDs? What is meant by decomposition of a business process?
A process model is a formal way of representing how a business system operates, so it Makes sense that it consists of a set of data flow diagrams which are used to focus on the logical and physical processes involved in the business process. It requires a set because each one is focused, and the business process model would be too complex to be explained in just one DFD. Essentially decomposition means breaking the DFDs down into lower levels.
Describe a "risky" project in terms of technical feasibility. Describe a project that would not be considered risky.
A project that would be technically risky would be one that is large in scale, utilizes technology that we have little or no experience with, and is for a business area that is new and unfamiliar to the organization. A project that would not be considered technically risky would be one that is small in scale, uses technology that is well-understood, and is for a business area that is very familiar to the users and developers.
What is the value of producing a requirements definition and having the project sponsor and key users review and approve it?
A requirements definition effectively describes the scope of the project. Project sponsors and key users need to review the requirements definition to ensure that it encompasses the key features of the new system. At this point, any discrepancies and misunderstandings can be addressed.
What belongs in the project binder? How is the project binder organized?
All project deliverables, all internal communication, and all project documentation should be placed in the project binder. The sections of the project binder should follow the phases of the life cycle, and each deliverable produced during the project should be placed in its appropriate place.
Which phase in the SDLC is the most important?
All systems development projects follow essentially the same fundamental process called the system development life cycle (SDLC).
Define what is meant by an entity in a data model. How should an entity be named? What information about an entity should be stored in the CASE repository?
An entity is a person, place, thing, or event about which data is collected and stored. Entities names are nouns. Information stored in a CASE repository regarding an entity includes: Name Definition Special Notes
Describe the principal steps in the implementation phase. What are the major deliverables?
Build system, Writing and testing system. Train users, Assuring that end users understand new system's functions and work procedures. Convert to new system, managing transition from old to new. Support new system, monitoring performance of system and need for changes. Deliverables, Programs manuals, training materials, and plans for system support.
Distinguish between business, user, and functional requirements.
Business-what the business needs. User- What the users need to do. Functional- What the software should do.
Describe, in terms a businessperson could understand, what are meant by the cardinality and modality of a relationship between two entities.
Carnality is the maximum number of times an instance of one entity can be related to instances of the other entity. Modality is whether or not an instance of a child entity can exist without a related instance in the parent entity.
List three techniques to reduce conflict.
Clearly define the roles on the project, hold team members accountable for their assigned tasks, develop detailed operating procedures and make sure the team members understand them, have each team member commit to the project charter.
Describe three types of standards, and provide examples of each.
Coding- standards define the content and structures that are to be used in programs. Procedural- standards define processes that are to be followed by all team members. User interface design- standards create a common understanding of the appearance and functioning of the screens the end users see.
Some companies hire consulting firms to develop the initial project plans and manage the project, but use their own analysts and programmers to develop the system. Why do you think some companies do this?
Company does not have skilled project managers available on its in-house staff. Project management requires a unique set of skills, and consulting firms may develop project management capabilities because of the many projects undertaken. It may also be useful to have an 'outsider' serving as project manager, since he or she may be better able to assess the project objectively and resist scope creep more effectively than an in-house employee.
Why do many projects end up having unreasonable deadlines? How should a project manager react to unreasonable demands?
Consequence of trying to complete the project to accomplish some business goal rather than being based on a realistic assessment of how long the project will actually take to complete..The project manager must develop accurate and realistic time estimates for the project, and use these to convince the sponsor that his/her timelines can't be achieved.
Explain the relationship between a DFD context diagram and the DFD level 0 diagram.
DFD context diagram is built to showwhole system in form of asingle process, so that it couldinterfacebetween the system and the outside terminaters. Level 0 DFD is the top-level diagram orexpanded digram of the single process in DFDcontext diagram. 2. DFD level 0: It modifiesall the major processes of context diagram-the internal component of the processi.e
Describe the principal steps in the design phase. What are the major deliverables?
Design strategy, determining proper approach for acquiring. System architecture, describing basic hardware, software, and networking. User interface, developing system's overall structure, navigation, inputs, outputs, and screens. Database and file specifications, specifying data storage structures. Program design, plans and outlines for each program to be written. Deliverable, system specification.
Explain the relationship between a DFD level 0 diagram and a DFD level 1 diagram(s).
Each process on the level 0 DFD can be decomposed into a more explicit DFD, called a level 1 DFD, which shows how it operates in greater detail.
Describe the elements of the use case's basic information section?
Each use case is identified by a unique name and number. An importance level tends to be a subjective priority ranking in relation to the entire system. The primary actor is an external user in which the system will respond to. Other major elements include triggers. These are classified as external or temporal.
Describe two special issues that may be important to list on a system request.
Examples of special issues that may be important to include are: environmental factors that should be considered (e.g., new governmental reporting requirements); competitive factors (e.g., IS-enabled systems introduced or anticipated by competitors); externally imposed deadlines that cannot be altered (e.g., completion by the start of the next fiscal year); mandated technologies.
Compare and contrast extreme programming and throwaway prototyping.
Extreme Programming XP is founded on four core values which provide a foundation on which XP developers use to create any system. The four core values are Communication, Simplicity, Feedback and Courage. Throwaway prototyping-based methodologies balance the benefits of well thought out analysis and design phases with the advantages of using prototypes to refine key issues before a system is built. Each of these issues is examined by analyzing, designing, and building a design prototype.
Discuss the considerations that should be made when determining who to include in interviews and/or JAD sessions.
First, identify the information that is needed, and then identify the people who can provide that information.
Describe the major elements and issues with iterative development.
Gets a preliminary version of the system to users so that business value is provided. Issues- Users are working with a system that is incomplete. Users must accept that only critical requirements will be in early versions.
Should a use case be prepared for every item on the event-response list? Why or why not?
I think that Use Case should be prepared for every item on the event response list but they should be grouped together in packages so the study do not turn highly complex.
How can informal benchmarking contribute to requirements determination?
Informal Benchmarking- Managers and analysts think about other organizations, or visit them as customers to watch how the business process is performed. It's able to help requirements determination because informal is seeing how things are being performed and then that data can be used to contribute to requirements determination to make the business better.
What does gradual refinement mean in the context of SDLC?
Initially, requirements are only vaguely understood. Understanding is improved during analysis phase. Further detail is developed during design. Understanding is fully expressed during implementation.
Is an intersection entity dependent or independent? Explain you answer.
It depends, sometimes an intersection entity has a logical identifier that can uniquely identify its instances, other times it doesn't.
What is the purpose of an intersection entity? How do you know whether one is needed in an ERD?
It exists in order to capture some information about the relationship between two other entities. If it only has one instance then it is not needed.
What role does iteration play in developing use cases?
It is best to develop the major use cases and their basic information first so that no major events are forgotten. Then, the inputs and outputs are added and the detailed steps are outlined. As the inputs and outputs associated with each step are identified, more details may be identified. It is not practical to try and get every detail right the first time through the use case, so we cycle through the steps iteratively until the use case is complete.
Describe the analysis that is applied to a data model in order to place it in second normal form (2NF).
It requires that all entities are in 1NF and contain only attributes whose values are dependent on the whole identifier.
How do use cases relate to the requirements stated in the requirements definition?
It states that we often donot need to create a use case, The infromation in the requirements definitionitself is sufficient to describe what the system should do.
Information stored in a CASE repository regarding an attribute includes:
Name Definition Alias Sample Values Acceptable Values Format Type Special Notes
Discuss how the analyst knows how to stop decomposing the process model into more and more levels of detail.
Once you have met the requirements definition then it is pretty much straight forward.
List two intangible benefits. Describe how these benefits can be quantified.
One example of an intangible benefit is reduced response time to address customer requests. Estimating the increase in the number of customers that could be served and the average revenue gained per customer could approximate the value of this benefit. So, if we currently have 1000 customers, the average revenue per customer is $100, and by reducing our response time we can increase the number of customers served by 30%, then our benefit will be $30,000 (300 add'l customers @ $100). A second example of an intangible benefit is improved customer satisfaction. Determining how much repeat business we lose from dissatisfied customers could approximate the value of this benefit. The amount of repeat business lost could be determined through customer satisfaction surveys or marketing research. Assume we currently have 1000 customers, each customer brings in average revenue of $100, and we currently lose the repeat business of 10% of our customers due to dissatisfaction. If an improvement in customer satisfaction resulted in losing only 5% of repeat business, then the value of that benefit would be $5,000 (50 customers retained @$100).
What is the purpose of developing an identifier for an entity?
One of the aspects of the definition of an entity is the fact that there are multiple occurrences of the entity. Must be a way of identifying each individual occurrence of an entity. That is the purpose of having identifiers with unique values.
Describe two ways to handle a situation in which there are a large number of use cases.
One possibility for the large number is that the use cases are not defined at the right level of detail. If the use cases are too „small‟ we do not need to bother to create a use case, but simply use the information in the requirements definition itself to build the process and data models. If there really are more than eight or nine major use cases, the use cases are grouped together into packages of related use cases. These packages are then treated as the major processes for the top level of the process model with the use cases appearing on lower levels. The packages could also be treated as separate systems and modeled as separate systems.
Describe the major phases in the systems development life cycle (SDLC).
Planning is justifying system, setting strategy. Analysis is developing logical specifications. Design is developing physical specifications. Implementation is Constructing (or installing), testing, converting, training, and providing support for system.
What is a process model? What is a data flow diagram? Are the two related? If so, how?
Process model is a diagrams or a structure which actually represents the system, the flow of the system or business, and in it we actually elaborate the requirements of the system. It caters to and explains what would be the system ins and outs. Data flow diagrams helps a team of developers in identifying the set of flow a system should exhibit and how the flow should be managed and executed in the system, it will tell the team about the system working flow and its execution path
Describe the best way to validate the content of the use cases.
Role-playing can be useful in confirming the validity of the use case. If the users execute the steps of the use cases using the written steps of the use cases as a "script" for actions to take, they will be able to find errors or confirm the correctness of the use cases.
Describe the five major steps in conducting JAD sessions.
Selecting Participants- Almost the same as interview participants. Selected based on information they can contribute, providing a broad mix of organizational levels, and to build political support for the new system. Designing the JAD session- Last as little as a half day to several weeks. Designed to collect specific information from users, and this requires the development of a set of questions prior to the meeting. JAD sessions are structured, must be carefully planned. Preparing for the JAD Session- Prepare the analysts and participants for the JAD session. It can go beyond the depth of a typical interview, usually conducted off-side, and participants can be more concerned on how to prepare. Conducting the JAD Session- Try to follow a formal agenda, formal ground rules. JAD facilitator performs three key functions. Ensures the group sticks to the agenda, must help the group understand the technical terms and jargon, and records the groups input on a public display area.
What is timeboxing, and why is it used?
Sets a fixed deadline for a project and delivers the system by that dealdline no matter what, even if functionality needs to be reduced. Time boxing ensures that project teams don't get hung up on the final "finishing touches" that can drag out indefinitely, and it satisfies the business by providing a product within a relatively fast time frame.
What factors are used to determine project size?
Some factors that can be used to determine project size include: the number of people on the project team, the expected time to complete the project, the breadth/scope of the project, the number of distinct features to be included in the system, the degree of integration required between the system and existing systems.
What is stakeholder analysis? Discuss three stakeholders that would be relevant for most projects.
Stakeholder analysis is a systematic process that identifies all parties that will be affected by a new information system, and attempts to estimate the consequences of the project for each stakeholder group. A major goal of stakeholder analysis is to ensure that the consequences of a new system are considered for all parties that will be affected by the system. The most common stakeholders to consider for most systems projects are the system champion, the system users, and the organization's management. The system champion is the person or group who initiates the project and provides support for it. The users are the individuals who will work with the system once it is implemented. The organization management commits resources to the project and has an interest in seeing those resources be used to improve the functioning of the organization.
Compare and contrast the role of a systems analyst, business analyst, and infrastructure analyst.
Systems Analyst- focuses on the IS issues surrounding the system. Develops ideas and suggestions for ways that IT can support and improve business processes, helps design new business processes supported by IT. Experience in analysis and design and in programming. Business Analyst- Focuses on the business issues surrounding the system. Identify the business value that the system will create, develops ideas for improving the business processes and helps design new business processes and polices. Experience and business training plus knowledge of analysis and design. Infrastructure Analyst- Focuses on technical issues surrounding the ways the system will interact with the organizations technical issues (hardware, software, networks, and databases). Ensures that the new information system conforms to organizational standards and helps to identify infrastructure changes that that will be needed to support the system. Experience in networking, database administration, and various hardware and software products.
Describe a strategy for using the various requirements elicitation techniques in a project.
The different information gathering techniques all have strengths and weaknesses, and the astute analyst will use a combination of techniques in any project. The analyst should select the techniques based on the type of information being sought, the breadth and depth of information needed, the degree to information needs to be integrated, the need for user involvement, and the cost of the technique. Interviews and JAD sessions are the most productive information gathering methods; however, these techniques require the most skilled analysts to conduct.
Describe the three dimensions of feasibility analysis.
Technical feasibility looks at the capability of the organization to successfully develop the proposed system. Included in this assessment are the project size, the types of technologies to be used in the project, and the amount of prior experience with that technology and the business application. Economic feasibility addresses the economic justification of the project. Here, we attempt to determine if the value of the project's benefits justifies investing in the project's estimated costs. Organizational feasibility evaluates whether the system is likely to be accepted and used by the organization. Included in this assessment will be the strength of the sponsor's and management's support for the project and the enthusiasm or resistance of the users for the project.
What are the six general skills all project team members should have?
Technical, Business, Analytical, Interpersonal, Management, and Ethical skills.
Describe the principal steps in the analysis phase. What are the major deliverables?
The analysis phase answers the questions of who will use the system, what the system will do, and where and when it will be used. During this phase, the project team investigates any current system(s), identifies improvement opportunities, and develops a concept for the new system. This phase has three steps. - Analysis Strategy, Developed to guide the project team's efforts. Such a strategy usually includes an analysis of the current system (as-is system) and its problems, and then ways to design a new system (to-be system). Requirements Gathering, The analysis of this information—in conjunction with input from project sponsor and many other people—leads to the development of a concept for a new system. The system concept is then used as a basis to develop a set of business analysis models that describes how the business will operate if the new system were developed. System Proposal, The analyses, system concept, and models are combined into a document called the system proposal, which is presented to the project sponsor and other key decision makers.
What is the break-even point for the project? How is it calculated?
The break-even point is the point in time when the project has generated enough cash flow to recapture its cost. The year in which the project breaks even is the first year in which the cumulative NPV is a positive number. The exact point during that year at which break even occurs is calculated by: (Yearly NPV (for first positive year) - Cumulative NPV at that year) / Yearly NPV (for the first positive year)
What is the purpose of the input and outputs section of the use case?
The definition of inputs and outputs is to identify all possible major i/o and their source or destination in the use case. Essentially i/o serves a broad purpose and is related in every way to the interface and how a user actually uses a system.
Describe the primary roles involved in JAD sessions. What is the major contribution made by the person(s) fulfilling each role?
The facilitator is responsible for conducting the session. He/she is generally knowledgeable about IS issues, JAD facilitation, and group behavior management. The facilitator is responsible for guiding the group through the planned activities on the JAD agenda. The facilitator must keep the group on track and try to prevent it from digressing in unproductive directions. The facilitator also helps foster communication among the group members and assists them through the analysis techniques that are being used. Finally, the facilitator records the group's ideas on a public display area, organizes the information, and assists the group in working with the information.
What is the purpose of developing use cases during systems analysis?
The general purpose of a use case is to help us better understand the situation so that we can make further steps easier. One thing I see potential in for a use case is to identify system scope. By outlining the ways in which our system will work with users we identify new ways that our system may be used that may not have been apparent previously.
Why is it important to state the priority level for a use case?
The importance level of a use case identifies the relative significance of the use case in the overall system. Use cases are classified as high, medium, or low. This classification allows for immediate identification of essential use cases.
Distinguish between logical process models and physical process models.
The logical model will usually come first and represents the implementation nonspecific data requirements while the physical model covers the implementation specific details used to implement the database.
Explain the net present value and return on investment for a cost-benefit analysis. Why would these calculations be used?
The net present value (NPV) method compares the present values of the project's cash inflows and outflows. If the present value of the benefits (inflows) is equal to or greater than the present value of the costs (outflows), then the project is considered economically justifiable. NPV has the advantage of including a required rate of return in the calculation, so the NPV figure captures the costs associated with tying up money in the project. NPV also explicitly considers the timing of the cash flows throughout the system life. The return on investment (ROI) method simply compares the total net cash flows from the project with the total outflows in aggregate. While this ROI number gives some sense of how much money the project generates in comparison to its total cost, it omits any consideration of the timing of the cash flows and the time value of money. The ROI method, while simple to compute, is flawed in many ways and should not be used as the only economic indicator of a project's merit.
Describe the major elements and issues with parallel development.
The parallel development methodology attempts to address the problem of long delays between the analysis phase and the delivery of the system. Instead of doing design and implementation in sequence, it performs a general design for the whole system and then divides the project into a series of distinct subprojects that can be designed and implemented in parallel. Once all subprojects are complete, there is a final integration of the separate pieces, and the system is delivered. The major issues in this approach are that it still suffers from problems caused by paper documents. It also adds a new problem such as sometimes the subprojects are not completely independent; design decisions made in one subproject may affect another, and the end of the project may require significant integration efforts.
What are the trade-offs that project managers must manage?
The project manager must trade off system size, development time, and project cost.
Describe the roles of the project sponsor and the approval committee.
The project sponsor is the individual or department responsible for initiating a systems request. Typically during the Planning phase the project sponsor works with the IT department to conduct a feasibility analysis. The approval committee (or steering committee) then evaluates the systems request along with the results of the feasibility study to determine whether or not to approve the request.
What is the purpose of an event-response list in the process of developing use cases?
The purpose of an event-response list is to provide an intermediate step between the requirements definition and use cases. Building an event-response list allows for a review of the requirements definition and associated actions.
What is the purpose of stating the primary actor for the use case?
The purpose of stating the primary actor is to identify the external entity that initiates the event to which the system responds. The primary actor may be a user, or a system event, or another system.
What are the purposes of the system request and the feasibility analysis? How are they used in the project selection process?
The purpose of the system request is to initiate a systems project. The system request pulls together preliminary ideas on the reason for the system and its expected value to the organization. The feasibility analysis represents a more detailed investigation into the proposed system outlined in the system request. The system analyst and the project sponsor work together to more fully develop the objectives of the system and to understand its potential costs and benefits to the organization. The system request and the feasibility analysis are the key inputs used by the approval committee in determining if the proposed system has enough merit to move into the analysis phase.
Compare and contrast BPS, BPI, and BPR. Which is most risky? Which has the greatest potential value?
The three techniques applied within BPM for business processes are that of Automation (BPA), Improvement (BPI), and Reengineering (BPR). It is entirely possible that all three of these techniques could be used on the same project depending on the scope and impact the planned change will have on the steps of BPM. As a rule, when technology is applied to a process to enhance agility and provide more ability for change the project would be a BPA. When a process incorporates industry "best practices" or perhaps finds ways to that of Automation (BPA), Improvement (BPI), and Reengineering (BPR). It is entirely possible that all three of these techniques could be used on the same project depending on the scope and impact the planned change will have on the steps of BPM. As a rule, when technology is applied to a process to enhance agility and provide more ability for change the project would be a BPA. When a process incorporates industry "best practices" or perhaps finds ways to eliminate or consolidate steps in the process it would be termed BPI. The BPR technique changes the fundamental way in which the organization operates. In effect, BPR makes major changes to take advantage of new ideas and new technology. BPR is considered to contain the most amount of risk of the three techniques due to the significant organizational and operational changes that result. The answers can certainly vary with regard to greatest potential. In many cases it will be a "hybrid" blend of all three that could hold the most potential for the organization.
Why would one use a decision tree and/or decision table in a process description?
They are useful to the systems analyst in conveying the proper understanding of what goes on "inside" a process
Creating use cases when working with users is a recent development in systems analysis practice. Why is the trend today to employ use cases in user interviews or JAD sessions?
To inform the interviewees of what the plans are and give them a chance to respond and give input.
List two tangible benefits and two operational costs for a system. How would you determine the values that should be assigned to each item?
Two tangible benefits are: an increase in sales and a decrease in uncollectible accounts receivable. The best way to measure these benefits is to go to the business people who understand these areas and ask them for reasonable estimates. The sales and marketing managers and the accounts receivable managers will be in the best position to determine these values. Operational costs are the ongoing costs associated with the new system, and are fairly easy to determine objectively. One common operational cost is that of maintenance agreements for new hardware, which can be determined by contacting hardware vendors about the costs of their maintenance contracts. Another common operations cost is that of new employees that will be needed to run the new system. Salaries and benefits for new employees can be determined by checking local and regional salary and wage surveys for the type of employee needed.
Describe the factors that the project manager must evaluate when a project falls behind schedule.
Typically a project falls behind schedule when one of the risk factors listed above are realized. At that point the manager should determine which of those risks factors, or which combination of those risk factors, is responsible for the project falling behind. Once identified, the issue can be addressed.
A system development project may be approached in one of two ways. A single, monolithic project in which all requirements are considered at once or as a series of smaller projects focusing on smaller sets of requirements. Which approach seems to be more successful? Why do you suppose that this is true?
Typically, breaking a large project into smaller manageable projects has a higher rate of success. One reason for this is that it is difficult to determine requirements for a "monolithic‟ project, the scope is simply too large to conceptualize. Breaking it down into smaller component projects allows for ease of understanding of functionality and processes.
Why should the system request be created by a businessperson as opposed to an IS professional?
Usually, the system request originates with a businessperson because the need for the system or system improvement is recognized in the business unit. It is unlikely the IS professionals in the organization will be able to recognize all the business needs and opportunities for systems and improvements in the business units since they are not involved directly in those areas. Also, the businessperson will have a much better idea of the value of the proposed system or improvement, and therefore is in a better position to create a meaningful system request.
Information stored in a CASE repository regarding a relationship includes:
Verb Phrase Parent Entity Child Entity Definition Cardinality Modality Special Notes
Describe the major elements and issues with waterfall development.
Waterfall Development follows life cycle. Requires that system requirements be precisely specified prior to implementation. Effort devoted to specifying requirements is a strength -Issue: Specifying requirements on paper is laborious and may lead to errors and omissions. Issue: Freezing requirements during development helps assure that system is developed according to specifications, but in a dynamic business environment, system that is ultimately developed may bear little resemblance to what is actually needed
Create a list of potential risks that could affect the outcome of a project.
Weak personnel, scope creep, poor design decisions, overly optimistic project estimates.
Explain the distinction between identifying and nonidentifying relationships.
When relationships have an independent child entity, they are called nonidentifying relationships, and when relationships have a dependent child entity, they are called identifying relationships.
What are the three basic steps of the analysis process? Is each step performed in every project? Why or why not?
[1]Understand the as-is system - study the existing system and processes and understand the strengths and weaknesses.[2]Identify improvement opportunities - look for the specific things that need to change.[3]Develop a system concept - create one or more target conceptualizations for the to-be system, including an outline of features and models of its basic design. The first step is sometimes skipped or done in a cursory fashion. This is because there may not be an existing system to study, the existing system may be irrelevant to the new system, or the methodology in use (particularly RAD and Agile Development) does not emphasize the existing system at all.
Explain the process of balancing a set of DFDs.
balencing means ensuring that all information presented in a DFD at one level is accurately represented in the next in the next-level DFD.
Suppose that a process on a DFD is numbered 4.3.2. What level diagram contains this process? What is this process's parent process?
level 1, and process 2
