TBR Psych 3 - Learning and Memory

While behaviorists attribute changes in instrumental behavior to various consequences, cognitive theorists believe it is the incentive of the reward rather than the reward itself that drives learning. The ______________ value of a reward, or the expectation and anticipation of its pleasure, is not the same as the reward's sensory experience.

While behaviorists attribute changes in instrumental behavior to various consequences, cognitive theorists believe it is the incentive of the reward rather than the reward itself that drives learning. The *incentive* value of a reward, or the expectation and anticipation of its pleasure, is not the same as the reward's sensory experience.

__________________ is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows

*Reinforcement* is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows

_____________________ are a type of mnemonic that aids in the memorization of lists. It takes the first letter of each word within a list and creates a memorable phrase.

*Acronyms* are a type of mnemonic that aids in the memorization of lists. It takes the first letter of each word within a list and creates a memorable phrase.

_____________________, also known as *sign-tracking*, is an instinctive response to certain stimuli that has not been reinforced by reward or punishment.

*Autoshaping*, also known as *sign-tracking*, is an instinctive response to certain stimuli that has not been reinforced by reward or punishment.

Is this escape or avoidance? Before: no bad smell Behavior: apply deodorant After: no bad smell

*Avoidance* Before: no bad smell Behavior: apply deodorant After: no bad smell

____________________ is a processing strategy that organizes information into familiar, manageable units enabling better retrieval.

*Chunking* is a processing strategy that organizes information into familiar, manageable units enabling better retrieval.

_______________________ is a learning strategy that aids memory formation by distributing study or practice over time for better encoding. It takes advantage of the phenomenon known as the _____________________ - students who use this strategy and spread their learning over a week or a month, rather than cramming it all in a day, will have better long-term recall.

*Distributed practice* is a learning strategy that aids memory formation by distributing study or practice over time for better encoding. It takes advantage of the phenomenon known as the *spacing effect* - students who use this strategy and spread their learning over a week or a month, rather than cramming it all in a day, will have better long-term recall.

__________________ is the process of transforming information into a usable construct that can be stored within the brain. It is the first step in creating a new memory. The process begins with attention to sensory input, which then becomes ______________-ed within the various sensory areas of the cortex. The perceived sensations are then combined into a single construct in the hippocampus, which acts as the brain's sorting center - deciding which sensory inputs will eventually become stored memories. This process occurs through both chemical and electrical changes in the brain. _____________________ is the ability of neuronal synapses to strengthen or weaken in response to increases or decreases in their activity. When sensory information is perceived, it initiates biochemical changes that alter proteins and affect NT release in order to strengthen the relevant synaptic connections. Thus, the sensory information is transformed into a usable construct called an __________________, the actual synaptic changes by which the brain records an event.

*Encoding* is the process of transforming information into a usable construct that can be stored within the brain. It is the first step in creating a new memory. The process begins with attention to sensory input, which then becomes *encoded* within the various sensory areas of the cortex. The perceived sensations are then combined into a single construct in the hippocampus, which acts as the brain's sorting center - deciding which sensory inputs will eventually become stored memories. This process occurs through both chemical and electrical changes in the brain. *Synaptic plasticity* is the ability of neuronal synapses to strengthen or weaken in response to increases or decreases in their activity. When sensory information is perceived, it initiates biochemical changes that alter proteins and affect NT release in order to strengthen the relevant synaptic connections. Thus, the sensory information is transformed into a usable construct called an *engram*, the actual synaptic changes by which the brain records an event. Sensory information -> Biochemical changes in the brain -> Engram

Is this escape or avoidance? Before: bad smell Behavior: take a shower After: bad smell gone

*Escape* Before: bad smell Behavior: take a shower After: bad smell gone

______________________ is the diminishing of a conditioned response due to a repeated exposure of the CS in the absence of the US. In Pavlov's classic experiment, after the tone was associated with salivation, he repeatedly presented the tone (CS) in the absence of food (US). What he found was that the dog salivated less and less with each subsequent tone. Eventually, the tone (CS) was no longer eliciting salivation (CR), and the behavior was deemed extinguished. However, following this, if there is a long delay before the next presentation of the CS, _____________________ can occur. This is defined as the reappearance of a weakened CR after a rest period, suggesting that the CR is being suppressed rather than unlearned during extinction.

*Extinction* is the diminishing of a conditioned response due to a repeated exposure of the CS in the absence of the US. In Pavlov's classic experiment, after the tone was associated with salivation, he repeatedly presented the tone (CS) in the absence of food (US). What he found was that the dog salivated less and less with each subsequent tone. Eventually, the tone (CS) was no longer eliciting salivation (CR), and the behavior was deemed extinguished. However, following this, if there is a long delay before the next presentation of the CS, *spontaneous recovery* can occur. This is defined as the reappearance of a weakened CR after a rest period, suggesting that the CR is being suppressed rather than unlearned during extinction.

*Extinction*, within the operant conditioning paradigm, is the reduction of an instrumental behavior when it is no longer reinforced. A rat that is trained to press a lever for food will stop responding if its behavior is no longer rewarded. If one day your favorite vending machine starts taking your money with no return, you will eventually stop trying to use it. While a ________________ stimulus is a stimulus that predicts the *presence* of reinforcement, an ____________ stimulus predicts the *absence* of reinforcement.

*Extinction*, within the operant conditioning paradigm, is the reduction of an instrumental behavior when it is no longer reinforced. A rat that is trained to press a lever for food will stop responding if its behavior is no longer rewarded. If one day your favorite vending machine starts taking your money with no return, you will eventually stop trying to use it. While a *discriminative stimulus* is a stimulus that predicts the *presence* of reinforcement, an *extinction stimulus* predicts the *absence* of reinforcement.

____________ memory stores skills and conditioning effects. ____________ memory stores facts and stories.

*Implicit / nondeclarative* memory stores skills and conditioning effects. *Explicit / declarative* memory stores facts and stories.

______________ is the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

*Memory* is the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

________________________ is the process of accessing stored memories.

*Retrieval* is the process of accessing stored memories.

__________________ of information is often based on *priming* interconnected nodes of the neural/semantic network.

*Retrieval* of information is often based on *priming* interconnected nodes of the neural/semantic network.

_________________ is the process in which the magnitude of a response to a stimulus *increases* with repeated exposure to that stimulus. E.g. if your professor is lecturing and says "um" every other sentence. The first time you hear the word, you wouldn't notice much, but after you hear it 5+ times, you find the word increasingly annoying and eventually can't stand to hear the prof say it.

*Sensitization* is the process in which the magnitude of a response to a stimulus *increases* with repeated exposure to that stimulus. E.g. if your professor is lecturing and says "um" every other sentence. The first time you hear the word, you wouldn't notice much, but after you hear it 5+ times, you find the word increasingly annoying and eventually can't stand to hear the prof say it.

________________________ strengthens a response by *removing or reducing* an unfavorable event or outcome. E.g. wearing sunscreen to prevent sunburn or stopping at a red light to avoid getting a ticket. _______________________ strengthens a response by *presenting* a pleasurable event or outcome after the response. E.g. giving a dog a treat after it performs your command or receiving a paycheck after a week of employment. _______________________ strengthens a response by presenting a learned stimulus that gained its reinforcing power through pairing with a primary reinforcer. E.g. money, grades, and praise. _______________________ strengthens a response by presenting an unlearned reinforcing stimulus of innate biological value. E.g. food, caffeine, water.

*Negative reinforcement* strengthens a response by *removing or reducing* an unfavorable event or outcome. E.g. wearing sunscreen to prevent sunburn or stopping at a red light to avoid getting a ticket. It is important to note that negative reinforcement is NOT punishment. Instead, it increases a response by ending an aversive event. *Positive reinforcement* strengthens a response by *presenting* a pleasurable event or outcome after the response. E.g. giving a dog a treat after it performs your command or receiving a paycheck after a week of employment. *Conditioned reinforcement* strengthens a response by presenting a learned stimulus that gained its reinforcing power through pairing with a primary reinforcer. E.g. money, grades, and praise. *Primary reinforcement* strengthens a response by presenting an unlearned reinforcing stimulus of innate biological value. E.g. food, caffeine, water.

*Observational learning* is not just limited to humans, and has been seen in a variety of animals. A young monkey that has seen an adult monkey open a box using a lever will use a lever; a young monkey that has seen an adult monkey open a box using a chain will use a chain. What are the biological influences behind this type of learning? A ___________________ is a type of neuron that fires both when an animal performs a specific behavior and when the animal observes another performing that specific behavior. This system is presumed to play an integral role in social interactions. The ________________________ refers to one's ability to infer another person's mental state and thus to explain and predict their behavior. It acknowledges that other people have minds and that through the simulation of events, we can understand the actions and intentions of other people. __________________ is the capacity to share or recognize another person's beliefs, desires, and emotions.

*Observational learning* is not just limited to humans, and has been seen in a variety of animals. A young monkey that has seen an adult monkey open a box using a lever will use a lever; a young monkey that has seen an adult monkey open a box using a chain will use a chain. What are the biological influences behind this type of learning? A *mirror neuron* is a type of neuron that fires both when an animal performs a specific behavior and when the animal observes another performing that specific behavior. This system is presumed to play an integral role in social interactions. The *theory of mind* refers to one's ability to infer another person's mental state and thus to explain and predict their behavior. It acknowledges that other people have minds and that through the simulation of events, we can understand the actions and intentions of other people. *Empathy* is the capacity to share or recognize another person's beliefs, desires, and emotions. *Autism* is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by an impaired social interaction. A person with this might suffer from communication difficulties, restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, and an impaired ability to make friends with peers. Studies have shown that people with this have mirror neurons that fire when they perform a behavior but do not fire when they observe another person performing a behavior. Since these neurons are responsible for observational learning, a deficient mirror-neuron system could compromise normal social development. People with this have difficulty feeling empathy, with imitation, and with developing a theory of mind.

_____________________, or *modeling*, is the acquisition of behavior by watching others.

*Observational learning*, or *modeling*, is the acquisition of behavior by watching others.

_____________________ is any event that weakens or decreases the behavior it follows. There are two types: ____________________ weakens a response by PRESENTING an aversive stimulus after the response. E.g. giving a toddler a spanking for throwing a tantrum, or receiving a bad grade for forgetting to turn in your homework. ____________________ weakens a response by REMOVING a desirable stimulus following the response. E.g. taking away a teenager's cell phone for swearing or ignoring your dog and not petting her after she chewed up all of your shoes.

*Punishment* is any event that weakens or decreases the behavior it follows. (Do not confuse with negative reinforcement!!) There are two types: *Positive punishment* weakens a response by PRESENTING an aversive stimulus after the response. E.g. giving a toddler a spanking for throwing a tantrum, or receiving a bad grade for forgetting to turn in your homework. *Negative punishment* weakens a response by REMOVING a desirable stimulus following the response. E.g. taking away a teenager's cell phone for swearing or ignoring your dog and not petting her after she chewed up all of your shoes.

Which is stronger? Recognition or recall?

*Recognition* of information is stronger than *recall*.

______________________ is the process of recalling previously stored information and consolidating it again in order to maintain, strengthen, or modify a memory. It retrieves a stored memory and places it into one's working memory, in turn, making the memory _____________ - readily open to change.

*Reconsolidation* is the process of recalling previously stored information and consolidating it again in order to maintain, strengthen, or modify a memory. It retrieves a stored memory and places it into one's working memory, in turn, making the memory *labile* - readily open to change. While in working memory, the neural network of the memory is constantly being activated, strengthening old synaptic connections as well as forming new ones. For this reason, memories are subject to change over time; how you recall a memory five years later is likely to be different than the initial memory trace. Similarly, a witness's memory of a crime is labile and can be highly influenced by news broadcasts, public opinion, and emotional stability. This is an important phenomenon when considering court cases and the role of memory recall in eyewitness testimonies.

What is the difference between sensory adaptation, fatigue, and habituation? How to distinguish between them?

*Sensory adaptation* is a physiological phenomenon that occurs when an animal can no longer detect a repeated stimulus (think of adapting to the hot water of a bathtub). While *habituation* typically occurs on a conscious level (you could hear the tone or feel the shock, if you wanted), we have no conscious control over sensory adaptation. Similarly, *fatigue* reveals a progressive decrease in response due to incapacitated muscles. The animal ceases to respond because it is incapable of doing so. In summary, when trying to distinguish between habituation and other similar processes that result in a diminished response, remember the four key properties of frequency, strength, dishabituation, and habituation of dishabituation.

_______________________ involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory: a person remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context under which those details were gained. This often manifests when a person hears a story of something that happened to someone else, and later recalls the story as having happened to themselves.

*Source-monitoring error* involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory: a person remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context under which those details were gained. This often manifests when a person hears a story of something that happened to someone else, and later recalls the story as having happened to themselves.

_________________________ occurs when a conditioned response to a specific stimulus transfer to other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

*Stimulus generalization* occurs when a conditioned response to a specific stimulus transfer to other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus. E.g. "Little Albert" experiment. Have 9mo child named Little Albert. Initially, presentation of a white rat did not induce fear in child. But, in a later presentation, the rat made a loud noise scaring Albert and causing him to cry. This was repeated. Albert began to cry with presentation of the rat alone. In additional experiments, Albert displayed the fearful response not only to the rat but also to a wide array of similar stimuli like a white rabbit and even a Santa Claus beard.

True or false: Unconditioned stimuli cause an unconditioned response, while conditioned stimuli cause a conditioned response.

*TRUE*: Unconditioned stimuli cause an unconditioned response, while conditioned stimuli cause a conditioned response.

While the definition of a reinforcer is something that strengthens behavior, the degree to which a behavior is strengthened depends on the number of presentations, the timing of presentations, and the reliability of the presentation. A pattern that defines how often a response is reinforced is called a *reinforcement schedule*. There are two general types of reinforcement schedules: continuous and partial. With continuous reinforcement, a response is reinforced every time it occurs. Experimental learning occurs most rapidly with this schedule. In life outside the lab, however, this is rare. With partial (intermittent) reinforcement, a response is only sometimes reinforced. There are 4 schedules of partial reinforcement. They are: Fixed-Interval Variable-Interval Fixed-Ratio Variable-Ratio Complete the following: *Type of schedule*: __________________________ *Rate of response*: high, steady responding until reinforcement is delivered. *Pause after reinforcement*: brief response pause, but responding quickly resumes. *Type of schedule*: _________________________ *Rate of response*: high, steady. *Pause after reinforcement*: only a brief pause. *Type of schedule*: _________________________ *Rate of response*: increase gradually as reinforcement time draws closer. *Pause after reinforcement*: fairly significant post-reinforcement pause in responding. *Type of schedule*: _________________________ *Rate of response*: slow, but steady. *Pause after reinforcement*: very minimal pause.

*Type of schedule*: *Fixed-Ratio* *Rate of response*: high, steady responding until reinforcement is delivered. *Pause after reinforcement*: brief response pause, but responding quickly resumes. *Type of schedule*: *Variable-Ratio* *Rate of response*: high, steady. *Pause after reinforcement*: only a brief pause. *Type of schedule*: *Fixed-Interval* *Rate of response*: increase gradually as reinforcement time draws closer. *Pause after reinforcement*: fairly significant post-reinforcement pause in responding. *Type of schedule*: *Variable-Interval* *Rate of response*: slow, but steady. *Pause after reinforcement*: very minimal pause.

1) Questions that suggest a particular answer are known as.... 2) The idea that misleading information presented after an event can alter one's memory of the actual event is known as the ........

1) Questions that suggest a particular answer are known as *leading questions*. 2) The idea that misleading information presented after an event can alter one's memory of the actual event is known as the *misinformation effect*.

Answer bank (once, more than once, not at all): a) recall b) familiarity c) recognition d) relearning 1) There are three types of memory retrieval. What are they? 2) ____________________ is identifying information that was previously learned, after being cued. E.g. multiple-choice questions. It goes hand-in-hand with ______________________ - the feeling that you know a stimulus, but either cannot place the memory or identify the last time it was encountered. 3) __________________ is remembering information that was previously learned but is currently not physically present. E.g. fill in the blank questions. The process depends heavily on tracing a neural network, since it requires a memory search to locate specific information. 4) ____________________ is the increased rate of learning information that has previously been learned. Each of these 3 types of retrievals is a measure of the retention of learning.

1) There are three types of memory retrieval: *recall, recognition, and relearning.* 2) *Recognition* is identifying information that was previously learned, after being cued. E.g. multiple-choice questions. It goes hand-in-hand with *familiarity* - the feeling that you know a stimulus, but either cannot place the memory or identify the last time it was encountered. 3) *Recall* is remembering information that was previously learned but is currently not physically present. E.g. fill in the blank questions. The process depends heavily on tracing a neural network, since it requires a memory search to locate specific information. 4) *Relearning* is the increased rate of learning information that has previously been learned. Each of these types of retrievals is a measure of the retention of learning.

A ____________________ is a memory aid that translates information into a more retainable form through organization.

A *mnemonic* is a memory aid that translates information into a more retainable form through organization. Information that is humorous, personal, spatial, surprising, or sexual is often most easily remembered.

A *stimulus* is any event or situation that evokes a response. There are 3 types of stimuli: a) neutral stimulus b) conditioned stimulus c) unconditioned stimulus and there are 2 types of responses to stimuli: d) conditioned response e) unconditioned response 1) ______________: a stimulus that initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention. In experiments, a tone, click, light, or taste is used for this. 2) ______________: a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response; its effects do not depend on previous experiences. Common experiential examples are food, water, sucrose, shocks, and temperature changes. 3) _____________: a stimulus that was previously neutral, but after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, it eventually elicits a conditioned response. E.g. a neural tone, click, light, or taste once it has become conditioned. 4) ______________: a response that is unlearned and occurs naturally with presentation of an unconditioned stimulus. E.g. behavioral actions like licking, chewing, jumping, wincing, blinking, freezing, etc. 5) ______________: a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.

A *stimulus* is any event or situation that evokes a response. There are 3 types of stimuli: a) neutral stimulus b) conditioned stimulus c) unconditioned stimulus and there are 2 types of responses to stimuli: d) conditioned response e) unconditioned response 1) *neutral stimulus*: a stimulus that initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention. In experiments, a tone, click, light, or taste is used for this. 2) *unconditioned stimulus*: a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response; its effects do not depend on previous experiences. Common experiential examples are food, water, sucrose, shocks, and temperature changes. 3) *conditioned stimulus*: a stimulus that was previously neutral, but after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, it eventually elicits a conditioned response. E.g. a neural tone, click, light, or taste once it has become conditioned. 4) *unconditioned response*: a response that is unlearned and occurs naturally with presentation of an unconditioned stimulus. E.g. behavioral actions like licking, chewing, jumping, wincing, blinking, freezing, etc. 5) *conditioned response*: a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.

A term that commonly gets confused with *short-term memory* is *working memory*. Working memory is STM's underlying support system that processes, manipulates, and stores current information. While short-term memory is [dynamic / static], working memory is [dynamic / static]. [STM / working memory] is a storage space. [STM / working memory] is a dynamic process.

A term that commonly gets confused with *short-term memory* is *working memory*. Working memory is STM's underlying support system that processes, manipulates, and stores current information. While short-term memory is *static*, working memory is *dynamic*. *STM* is a storage space. *Working memory* is a dynamic process.

Age-related memory loss is considered normal. It is NOT the same as the memory dysfunctions of neurological diseases. 1) When memory loss begins to interfere severely with a person's daily functioning, it is called ____________. This is not a specific brain disease, but rather a symptom of other diseases. People suffering from this have a decline in memory, social abilities, difficulties with communication, and personality changes that make everyday activities a challenge. 2) _____________________ is a major cause of (1), characterized by a general atrophy of the brain. This neurological degeneration is attributed to the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. 2a) _________________ are fibers of the tau protein that build up *inside* neurons. 2b) ________________ are deposits of protein fragments that build up *around* neurons. 3) Another neurological disorder that results in memory dysfunction is ___________________, a brain disease characterized by a thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency, most often assoc. with alcohol abuse. Deficiencies in thiamine affect the limbic system, which is responsible for memory and emotion, as well as cause general neuronal loss throughout the brain. Symptoms include anterograde and retrograde amnesia, *confabulation* (invented memories to compensate for memory gaps), and apathy. For the most part, explicit memory loss occurs in this disorder, while implicit memory remains largely intact.

Age-related memory loss is considered normal. It is NOT the same as the memory dysfunctions of neurological diseases. 1) When memory loss begins to interfere severely with a person's daily functioning, it is called *dementia*. This is not a specific brain disease, but rather a symptom of other diseases. People suffering from this have a decline in memory, social abilities, difficulties with communication, and personality changes that make everyday activities a challenge. 2) *Alzheimer's disease* is a major cause of *dementia*, characterized by a general atrophy of the brain. This neurological degeneration is attributed to the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. 2a) *Neurofibrillary tangles* are fibers of the tau protein that build up *inside* neurons. *("N"eurofibrillary tangles = "N"side the neuron)* 2b) *Amyloid plaques* are deposits of protein fragments that build up *around* neurons. *("A"myloid plaques = "A"round the neuron)* 3) Another neurological disorder that results in memory dysfunction is *Korsakoff's syndrome*, a brain disease characterized by a thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency, most often assoc. with alcohol abuse. Deficiencies in thiamine affect the limbic system, which is responsible for memory and emotion, as well as cause general neuronal loss throughout the brain. Symptoms include anterograde and retrograde amnesia, *confabulation* (invented memories to compensate for memory gaps), and apathy. For the most part, explicit memory loss occurs in this disorder, while implicit memory remains largely intact.

Answer bank (once): decay theory ineffective encoding cue-dependent forgetting forgetting curve anterograde amnesia context-dependent forgetting motivated forgetting retrograde amnesia repression amnesia interference theory proactive interference retroactive interference Despite its benefits, *forgetting* can become a much bigger problem when people fail to remember significant information. There are six main reasons why we forget. 1) The idea that ________________ leads to forgetting suggests that information from working/short-term memory fails to ever enter long-term storage. 2) The _____________ attributes the loss of memory entirely to the function of time. Hermann Ebbinghaus, one of the most influential figures in the study of memory, hypothesized the ______________________, which explained the ability to retain information as a function of time. This pattern of forgetting is best attributed to information lost from short-term memory rather than long-term memory. 3) The _________________ suggests forgetting occurs due to memory disruptions from both previously learned information and newly presented information. There are two forms that can occur: 3a) In _________________, old memories disrupt the retrieval of newer memories. This is especially relevant if both the old and new material are similar in nature. 3b) In _________________, new memories disrupt the retrieval of older memories. 4) _____________________, also known as ____________________, is based on the idea that the target information is present in long-term memory, but it is currently and temporarily inaccessible. In other words, if the right retrieval cue is presented, the memory can be made available. 5) Although most of our forgetting is unintentional and unwanted, occasionally the mind purposefully forgets information for certain reasons. _______________________, also known as __________________, is a defense mechanism the mind employs to forget unpleasant memories. 6) The last of the six reasons attributes forgetting to organic causes, such as physical trauma, neurological disease, and aging. Any deficit in memory due to these organic causes is termed ______________________. There are two types: 6a) People suffering from _________________ have an inability to form new long-term memories. They are still able to recall childhood memories and any information stored prior to the organic cause, but the damage results in a failure to encode; new memories are not successfully transferred from short-term storage to long-term storage. 6b) People suffering from _________________ have an inability to retrieve old memories formed prior to a particular date, such as when the organic damage occurred.

Answer bank (once): decay theory ineffective encoding cue-dependent forgetting forgetting curve anterograde amnesia context-dependent forgetting motivated forgetting retrograde amnesia repression amnesia interference theory proactive interference retroactive interference Despite its benefits, *forgetting* can become a much bigger problem when people fail to remember significant information. There are six main reasons why we forget. 1) The idea that *ineffective encoding* leads to forgetting suggests that information from working/short-term memory fails to ever enter long-term storage. 2) The *decay theory* attributes the loss of memory entirely to the function of time. Hermann Ebbinghaus, one of the most influential figures in the study of memory, hypothesized the *forgetting curve*, which explained the ability to retain information as a function of time. This pattern of forgetting is best attributed to information lost from short-term memory rather than long-term memory. 3) The *interference theory* suggests forgetting occurs due to memory disruptions from both previously learned information and newly presented information. There are two forms that can occur: 3a) In *proactive interference*, old memories disrupt the retrieval of newer memories. This is especially relevant if both the old and new material are similar in nature. 3b) In *retroactive interference*, new memories disrupt the retrieval of older memories. ##TIP: you can remember the difference between retroactive and proactive interference by knowing that the term refers to the type of memory that is disrupted, e.g. "retro" refers to OLD memories being disrupted. 4) *Cue-dependent forgetting*, also known as *context-dependent forgetting*, is based on the idea that the target information is present in long-term memory, but it is currently and temporarily inaccessible. In other words, if the right retrieval cue is presented, the memory can be made available. 5) Although most of our forgetting is unintentional and unwanted, occasionally the mind purposefully forgets information for certain reasons. *Motivated forgetting*, also known as *repression*, is a defense mechanism the mind employs to forget unpleasant memories. 6) The last of the six reasons attributes forgetting to organic causes, such as physical trauma, neurological disease, and aging. Any deficit in memory due to these organic causes is termed *amnesia*. There are two types: 6a) People suffering from *anterograde amnesia* have an inability to form new long-term memories. They are still able to recall childhood memories and any information stored prior to the organic cause, but the damage results in a failure to encode; new memories are not successfully transferred from short-term storage to long-term storage. 6b) People suffering from *retrograde amnesia* have an inability to retrieve old memories formed prior to a particular date, such as when the organic damage occurred.

Answer bank (once, more than once, or not at all): backward conditioning trace interval higher-order conditioning acquisition forward conditioning simultaneous conditioning _____________________ is the initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship. In classical conditioning, the period in time where the CS comes to elicit the CR is when the response is deemed acquired. There are a number of factors that influence how quickly the S-R association is acquired. In _______________________, the presentation of the CS precedes the presentation of the US. This ordering produces the quickest learning, as it is the most biologically relevant (i.e. predictive cues precede a good or bad event. If they didn't and instead followed it, there would be no time for the animal to prepare). The two most common forms of this type of conditioning are delay conditioning (CS is presented before the US and continues throughout the presentation of the US) and trace conditioning (CS presented and then the US is presented, there is no overlap). In _______________________________, the CS and US are presented and terminated simultaneously. ____________________________ is a procedure in which an existing CS is paired with a NS, creating a second (often weaker) CS. E.g. if a tone is associated with a shock and forward conditioning is performed to associate a light with the tone, the light alone will come to elicit the CR of a jump. In _______________________, the US is presented before the CS (e.g. the food is presented before the bell). But which of these is ideal for the best experiment design? Pavlov believed in contiguity - the closer in time two events occur, the more likely they are to become associated. With contiguity and evolutionary preparation in mind, delay conditioning (forward conditioning) has proven to be the most effect in building an S-R association both quickly and strongly. Trace conditioning can also create an S-R association, but it is most effective when the ____________________ (the time between CS and US presentation) is short. Simultaneous and higher-order conditioning are either rarely effective or create weak associations. Backward conditioning is unique in that rather than being completely ineffective, the CS comes to inhibit the response (e.g. bell presented after food inhibits salivation).

Answer bank (once, more than once, or not at all): backward conditioning trace interval higher-order conditioning acquisition forward conditioning simultaneous conditioning *Acquisition* is the initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship. In classical conditioning, the period in time where the CS comes to elicit the CR is when the response is deemed acquired. There are a number of factors that influence how quickly the S-R association is acquired. In *forward conditioning*, the presentation of the CS precedes the presentation of the US. This ordering produces the quickest learning, as it is the most biologically relevant (i.e. predictive cues precede a good or bad event. If they didn't and instead followed it, there would be no time for the animal to prepare). The two most common forms of this type of conditioning are delay conditioning (CS is presented before the US and continues throughout the presentation of the US) and trace conditioning (CS presented and then the US is presented, there is no overlap). In *simultaneous*, the CS and US are presented and terminated simultaneously. *Higher-order conditioning* (aka second-order conditioning) is a procedure in which an existing CS is paired with a NS, creating a second (often weaker) CS. E.g. if a tone is associated with a shock and forward conditioning is performed to associate a light with the tone, the light alone will come to elicit the CR of a jump. In *backward conditioning*, the US is presented before the CS (e.g. the food is presented before the bell). But which of these is ideal for the best experiment design? Pavlov believed in contiguity - the closer in time two events occur, the more likely they are to become associated. With contiguity and evolutionary preparation in mind, delay conditioning (forward conditioning) has proven to be the most effect in building an S-R association both quickly and strongly. Trace conditioning can also create an S-R association, but it is most effective when the *trace interval* (the time between CS and US presentation) is short. Simultaneous and higher-order conditioning are either rarely effective or create weak associations. Backward conditioning is unique in that rather than being completely ineffective, the CS comes to inhibit the response (e.g. bell presented after food inhibits salivation).

Answer choices: (once) Semantic Nondeclarative memory Priming Episodic Flashbulb memory Declarative memory Explicit memory Implicit memory Classical conditioning Procedural memories Amygdala 1) ______________, aka ____________, is information you *know* and can *tell*. It requires conscious awareness. There are 2 types: 1a) ______________ describes memory for specific events or experiences (e.g. # ppl who attended your 16th bday) 1b) _____________ describes memory for general knowledge and facts (e.g. George Washington was the 1st POTUS) 2) ______________, aka ______________, is information you *know* and can *show*. It is most often thought of as memory without awareness; it is both unconscious and unintentional. There are 3 types: 2a) ________________: a person's future behavior is influenced by previous subconscious preparation. For example, in the *word-stem completion* task, participants are given a long list of words to read, then presented with 3-ltr word stem and asked to complete word. They were more likely to complete the stem with words they'd previously read. 2b) _______________ allow us to perform daily tasks, especially motor skills, without thought. 2c) Through _____________, they can influence behavior based on previously learned associations. 3) Though not a formal type of memory such as explicit or implicit memory, emotion-related memory should be thought of and discussed as one. The role of emotion in memory formation is of evolutionary benefit. Our emotions trigger hormonal changes in the body that influence memory processing. Most importantly, these hormones recruit the _________________ and give it a vital role in memory formation. Rather than acting as a storage place, it strengthens emotionally significant memories stored elsewhere. 4) Similarly, stimulating events such as getting your first college acceptance letter or experiencing a bank robbery can lead to ___________________ - a clear, vivid account of an emotionally significant experience. (e.g. everyone remembers where they were, what they were doing, and who they were around on 9/11)

Answer choices: (once) Semantic Nondeclarative memory Priming Episodic Flashbulb memory Declarative memory Explicit memory Implicit memory Classical conditioning Procedural memories Amygdala 1) *Explicit memory*, aka *declarative memory*, is information you *know* and can *tell*. It requires conscious awareness. There are 2 types: 1a) *Episodic* describes memory for specific events or experiences (e.g. # ppl who attended your 16th bday) 1b) *Semantic* describes memory for general knowledge and facts (e.g. George Washington was the 1st POTUS) 2) *Implicit memory*, aka *nondeclarative memory*, is information you *know* and can *show*. It is most often thought of as memory without awareness; it is both unconscious and unintentional. There are 3 types: 2a) *Priming*: a person's future behavior is influenced by previous subconscious preparation. For example, in the *word-stem completion* task, participants are given a long list of words to read, then presented with 3-ltr word stem and asked to complete word. They were more likely to complete the stem with words they'd previously read. 2b) *Procedural memories* allow us to perform daily tasks, especially motor skills, without thought. 2c) Through *classical conditioning*, implicit memories can influence behavior based on previously learned associations. 3) Though not a formal type of memory such as explicit or implicit memory, emotion-related memory should be thought of and discussed as one. The role of emotion in memory formation is of evolutionary benefit. Our emotions trigger hormonal changes in the body that influence memory processing. Most importantly, these hormones recruit the *amygdala* and give it a vital role in memory formation. Rather than acting as a storage place, it strengthens emotionally significant memories stored elsewhere. 4) Similarly, stimulating events such as getting your first college acceptance letter or experiencing a bank robbery can lead to *flashbulb memory* - a clear, vivid account of an emotionally significant experience. (e.g. everyone remembers where they were, what they were doing, and who they were around on 9/11)

Besides retrieval cues, the ease of memory retrieval is influenced by the order in which objects appear. a) Recency effect b) Serial position effect c) Primacy effect 1) _________________: the tendency to remember the first and last items in a list best. When given 20 words, you are more likely to recall the first four words and the last four words. Your ability to recall the first four words presented is called the ___________________. Your ability to recall the last four words presented is called the _______________________.

Besides retrieval cues, the ease of memory retrieval is influenced by the order in which objects appear. a) Recency effect b) Serial position effect c) Primacy effect 1) *Serial position effect*: the tendency to remember the first and last items in a list best. When given 20 words, you are more likely to recall the first four words and the last four words. Your ability to recall the first four words presented is called the *Primacy effect*. Your ability to recall the last four words presented is called the *Recency effect*.

Classical conditioning is defined by reflexive, automatic responses and the idea that the environment can control behavior. While this is true, the level or degree to which an S-R association is formed varies. What makes a response to one CS stronger than to another? Robert Rescorla suggested that it was cognitive processing that contributes to the variability. ___________________ is a belief that something will happen. It can result in _________________, a discrepancy between what you expect and what you get.

Classical conditioning is defined by reflexive, automatic responses and the idea that the environment can control behavior. While this is true, the level or degree to which an S-R association is formed varies. What makes a response to one CS stronger than to another? Robert Rescorla suggested that it was cognitive processing that contributes to the variability. *Expectancy* is a belief that something will happen. It can result in *surprise*, a discrepancy between what you expect and what you get. In order to form a CS-US association, there must be some degree of surprise.

Define: 1) Explicit memory 2) Implicit memory The two main structures of the brain involved in processing [1 / 2] are the frontal lobes and the hippocampus. When a person retrieves these memories, the brain sends a collection of information to the *frontal lobes* to be processed by working memory. The medial temporal lobe, specifically the *hippocampus*, serves as a temporary holding zone for new _________ memories, keeping them just long enough to be moved to long-term storage or forgotten. The two main structures of the brain involved in processing [1 / 2] are the cerebellum and the basal ganglia. The *cerebellum* is responsible for both the formation of new _________ memories and the storage of them, created by classical conditioning. Patients who suffer from damage to the cerebellum are unable to learn CS-US associations. The *basal ganglia*, on the other hand, are responsible for the formation and retrieval of procedural memories.

Define: 1) *Explicit memory*, aka *declarative memory*, is information you *know* and can *tell*. It requires conscious awareness. 2) *Implicit memory*, aka *nondeclarative memory*, is information you *know* and can *show*. It is most often thought of as memory without awareness; it is both unconscious and unintentional. The two main structures of the brain involved in processing *explicit memories* are the frontal lobes and the hippocampus. When a person retrieves these memories, the brain sends a collection of information to the *frontal lobes* to be processed by working memory. The medial temporal lobe, specifically the *hippocampus*, serves as a temporary holding zone for new explicit memories, keeping them just long enough to be moved to long-term storage or forgotten. The two main structures of the brain involved in processing *implicit memories* are the cerebellum and the basal ganglia. The *cerebellum* is responsible for both the formation of new implicit memories and the storage of them, created by classical conditioning. Patients who suffer from damage to the cerebellum are unable to learn CS-US associations. The *basal ganglia*, on the other hand, are responsible for the formation and retrieval of procedural memories.

the process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others is known as.....

observational learning (e.g. Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment)

Have you ever walked upstairs to get something, only to realize that you cannot remember what it was? Then, as you walk downstairs back to where you came from, the memory seems to return suddenly? Since the retrieval of memories is highly influenced by retrieval cues, returning to the thought's original context can help jolt your memory. This phenomenon is known as _________________________.

Have you ever walked upstairs to get something, only to realize that you cannot remember what it was? Then, as you walk downstairs back to where you came from, the memory seems to return suddenly? Since the retrieval of memories is highly influenced by retrieval cues, returning to the thought's original context can help jolt your memory. This phenomenon is known as *context-dependent memory*. Related experiment: Scuba divers listened to a list of words to memorize under water and a list of words to memorize on land. When asked to retrieve as many words as possible from a particular list, the effects of context were clearly seen. Words that were learned under water had the greatest recall under water, whereas words that were learned on land had the greatest recall on land. As the memory of each word was encoded, other contextual sensory input was also encoded simultaneously. By returning to the context of learning, retrieval cues such as the temperature of water and the sight of fish helped activate the memory trace.

Just as external cues can facilitate memory retrieval (i.e. context-dependent memory), internal emotions can too. This is known as __________________________. It applies to drunk/sober, happy/sad, etc etc.

Just as external cues can facilitate memory retrieval (i.e. context-dependent memory), internal emotions can too. This is known as *state-dependent memory* It applies to drunk/sober, happy/sad, etc etc.

______________ is the process of acquiring new and relatively permanent information or behaviors.

Learning

Learning that one event occurs with another is known as _______________________________. There are two types: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Learning that one event occurs with another is known as *associative learning*. There are two types of associative learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

In ________________________ (also known as Pavlovian conditioning), learning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is pared with an unconditioned stimulus, causing an association to form between the two. Eventually, the conditioned stimulus comes to elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov's famous experiment involved a bell, food, and a salivating dog. What he knew was that a dog did not have to learn to salivate in response to the presence of food - this was automatically and unconditionally triggered. Hence, he deemed the presence of food the ______________________ and the act of salivating the ______________________. However, every time he brought food into the room, the dog began to salivate even before presentation of the food; the sight of the bowl, the presence of Pavlov, even the sound of footsteps led to salivation. But was the dog aware of these associations and did it in fact anticipate the arrival of food? In order to test this concept, Pavlov sounded a tone every time before presenting the food. What he found was after several pairings of tone and food (CS and US), the dog began salivating to the tone alone. The tone transitioned from a ______________________ to a ______________________, and the dog's salivation in response to the tone became the ______________________.

In *classical conditioning* (also known as Pavlovian conditioning), learning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is pared with an unconditioned stimulus, causing an association to form between the two. Eventually, the conditioned stimulus comes to elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov's famous experiment involved a bell, food, and a salivating dog. What he knew was that a dog did not have to learn to salivate in response to the presence of food - this was automatically and unconditionally triggered. Hence, he deemed the presence of food the *unconditioned stimulus (US)* and the act of salivating the *unconditioned response (UR)*. However, every time he brought food into the room, the dog began to salivate even before presentation of the food; the sight of the bowl, the presence of Pavlov, even the sound of footsteps led to salivation. But was the dog aware of these associations and did it in fact anticipate the arrival of food? In order to test this concept, Pavlov sounded a tone every time before presenting the food. What he found was after several pairings of tone and food (CS and US), the dog began salivating to the tone alone. The tone transitioned from a *neutral stimulus* to a *conditioned stimulus (CS)*, and the dog's salivation in response to the tone became the *conditioned response*.

In _____________________, a type of associative learning, learning occurs by associating an action with a consequence. These learned associations allow an organism to act on the environment to maximize reward and to minimize distress. Behavior that is a result of this is called instrumental behavior or goal-directed behavior.

In *operant conditioning*, a type of associative learning, learning occurs by associating an action with a consequence. These learned associations allow an organism to act on the environment to maximize reward and to minimize distress. Behavior that is a result of this is called instrumental behavior or goal-directed behavior.

In Tolman and Honzik (1930), the cognitive theory of latent learning was demonstrated. In the experiment, rats were allowed to run a maze for 10 days without a reward. Based on the behaviorist theory of operant conditioning, learning would not have occurred because a response was not associated with a consequence. However, when a food reward was presented on day 11, the rats' performance rapidly improved, implying that the animals were learning all along. On day 11, the rats were demonstrating the phenomenon of ____________________ - learning that is not shown in performance until rewards are given for performance. This provides evidence that when given the opportunity to explore a maze, rats develop a _________________ - a mental representation of their environment.

In Tolman and Honzik (1930), the cognitive theory of latent learning was demonstrated. In the experiment, rats were allowed to run a maze for 10 days without a reward. Based on the behaviorist theory of operant conditioning, learning would not have occurred because a response was not associated with a consequence. However, when a food reward was presented on day 11, the rats' performance rapidly improved, implying that the animals were learning all along. On day 11, the rats were demonstrating the phenomenon of *latent learning* - learning that is not shown in performance until rewards are given for performance. This provides evidence that when given the opportunity to explore a maze, rats develop a *cognitive map* - a mental representation of their environment.

In addition to shallow processing and deep processing, the process of encoding can also happen either *automatically* or *effortfully* (aka controlled). ____________________ processing: you process some information, including space, time, and frequency, as you go about your day. Sensory input alone, however, is not always sufficient for encoding. We do not have the capacity to remember every input from every moment of our lives. Rather, we filter large amounts of information and selectively choose the information that is subsequently encoded. The idea of __________________ processing requires attention and repetitive practice.

In addition to shallow processing and deep processing, the process of encoding can also happen either *automatically* or *effortfully*. *Automatic processing*: you process some information, including space, time, and frequency, as you go about your day. Sensory input alone, however, is not always sufficient for encoding. We do not have the capacity to remember every input from every moment of our lives. Rather, we filter large amounts of information and selectively choose the information that is subsequently encoded. The idea of *controlled/effortful processing* requires attention and repetitive practice.

Moving a memory from long-term storage back into working memory requires tracing a neural network (aka semantic network) of associations to find the target piece of information. Since one memory is highly intertwined with the mental representations of other memories (due to repetitive, synchronous firing), cues in the environment associated with these other memories can speed up the retrieval process. The framework of the process can be thought of as a web of nodes. Imagine the mental representation of one memory as a single *node*. Based on sensory input that often occurs together, this node begins to form connections with neighboring nodes, creating a neural network. If one node reaches the threshold level of activation, the node will fire, ______________________________ to other nodes in all directions. Think of falling dominoes. If enough force is exerted to push one domino over and if the neighboring dominoes are close enough, they will also fall over. Multiple sub-threshold levels of activation of a node can also ________________, causing the node to fire. For this reason, cues in the environment (brown hair color) that are related to a target piece of information (the name of your first-grade teacher), can fire an associated neighboring node (image of your teacher's face), eventually leading to the activation of the target node. These informative environmental prompts that facilitate memory retrieval are called ____________________________.

Moving a memory from long-term storage back into working memory requires tracing a neural network (aka semantic network) of associations to find the target piece of information. Since one memory is highly intertwined with the mental representations of other memories (due to repetitive, synchronous firing), cues in the environment associated with these other memories can speed up the retrieval process. The framework of the process can be thought of as a web of nodes. Imagine the mental representation of one memory as a single *node*. Based on sensory input that often occurs together, this node begins to form connections with neighboring nodes, creating a neural network. If one node reaches the threshold level of activation, the node will fire, *spreading activation* to other nodes in all directions. Think of falling dominoes. If enough force is exerted to push one domino over and if the neighboring dominoes are close enough, they will also fall over. Multiple sub-threshold levels of activation of a node can also *summate*, causing the node to fire. For this reason, cues in the environment (brown hair color) that are related to a target piece of information (the name of your first-grade teacher), can fire an associated neighboring node (image of your teacher's face), eventually leading to the activation of the target node. These informative environmental prompts that facilitate memory retrieval are called *retrieval cues*.

Observational learning is a form of social learning that introduces the influential effects of a ___________, someone of authority whose own behavior changes the behavior of another.

Observational learning is a form of social learning that introduces the influential effects of a *model*, someone of authority whose own behavior changes the behavior of another.

Once sensory information is encoded as a usable construct, it must be stored for later retrieval. _______________ is the process of retaining information. The earliest stage of memory that records sensory information is called _____________________. After a scene is perceived, this holds information regarding what is visually sensed for less than one second (auditory input a few sec longer). The iconic, echoic, and haptic systems are 3 types of this stage of memory. Only a fraction of the information that enters these systems passes into the next stage of memory. ____________________________ also stores information temporarily, on the order of seconds and minutes, before it is lost. It is our active memory store - holding the info we are currently thinking about. It stores our conscious thoughts and perceptions at any given moment. The capacity of this is *7±2 items* at a time. A term that is commonly confused with the answer to this prompt is ______________, which acts as its underlying support system that processes, manipulates, and stores current information. ___________________________ stores a relatively limitless amount of information for a relatively indefinite amount of time.

Once sensory information is encoded as a usable construct, it must be stored for later retrieval. *storage* is the process of retaining information. The earliest stage of memory that records sensory information is called *sensory memory*. After a scene is perceived, this holds information regarding what is visually sensed for less than one second (auditory input a few sec longer). The iconic, echoic, and haptic systems are 3 types of this stage of memory. Only a fraction of the information that enters these systems passes into the next stage of memory. *Short-term memory (STM)* also stores information temporarily, on the order of seconds and minutes, before it is lost. It is our active memory store - holding the info we are currently thinking about. It stores our conscious thoughts and perceptions at any given moment. The capacity of this is *7±2 items* at a time. A term that is commonly confused with STM is *working memory*, which acts as its underlying support system that processes, manipulates, and stores current information. *Long-term memory* stores a relatively limitless amount of information for a relatively indefinite amount of time.

Since short-term memory has a limited capacity, information that is not attended to can be easily forgotten. *Rehearsal* refers to the mental techniques that strengthen the retention of memories. There are two types of rehearsal. 1) ___________________: the target piece of information is continuously repeated. While this technique is effective in retaining information over the short term, it usually does not result in long-term storage. 2) __________________: the meaning of the target piece of information is considered and further associated with previously stored information. This is more effective in the long-term retention of new memories.

Since short-term memory has a limited capacity, information that is not attended to can be easily forgotten. *Rehearsal* refers to the mental techniques that strengthen the retention of memories. There are two types of rehearsal. 1) *Maintenance rehearsal*: the target piece of information is continuously repeated. While this technique is effective in retaining information over the short term, it usually does not result in long-term storage. 2) *Elaborative rehearsal*: the meaning of the target piece of information is considered and further associated with previously stored information. This is more effective in the long-term retention of new memories.

Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future is known as ______________ memory.

Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future is known as *prospective memory*.

Since short-term memory has a limited capacity, information that is not attended to can be easily forgotten. ______________________ refers to the mental techniques that strengthen the retention of memories.

Since short-term memory has a limited capacity, information that is not attended to can be easily forgotten. *Rehearsal* refers to the mental techniques that strengthen the retention of memories.

The presence of a ___________________ - the increased chance of developing a pattern of behavior based on a genetic makeup - affects the degree to which an association (i.e. associative learning) is made. This has another name as well.

The presence of a *biological predisposition* - the increased chance of developing a pattern of behavior based on a genetic makeup - affects the degree to which an association (i.e. associative learning) is made. The other name for this is *preparedness*. Our survival depends on avoiding toxic food; therefore, we are biologically predisposed to form stronger associations between taste and smell stimuli and eating behaviors as compared to associations formed from auditory and visual stimuli. For example, an animal conditioned with a bell (auditory stimuli) would form a weaker taste aversion than one conditioned with a pungent odor (olfactory stimuli). Conditioned stimuli that are more biologically relevant and sensory-specific are more susceptible to being learned.

_________________________ is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with an unconditioned stimulus. This is the opposite of *stimulus generalization*.

Stimulus *discrimination* is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with an unconditioned stimulus. This is the opposite of *stimulus generalization*. For example, Pavlov's dogs could have been conditioned to discriminate between bells of different tones by having one tone paired with meat, and another presented without meat.

The ______________________ contends that favorable consequences *strengthen* behavior and unfavorable consequences *weaken* behavior.

The *Law of Effect* (Thorndike) contends that favorable consequences *strengthen* behavior and unfavorable consequences *weaken* behavior. This has to do with operant conditioning

The Baddeley and Hitch model of working memory was based off of 4 subsystems: 1) _____________________: subsystem dedicated to the temporary storage of auditory information. 2) ___________________: subsystem dedicated to the temporary storage of visual information. 3) _________________: serves to integrate representations from the (1) and the (2) in an ordered, timely, and coherent sequence. 4) _________________: responsible for controlling and coordinating the activities of the other three subsystems, ensuring that attention and resources are allocated properly.

The Baddeley and Hitch model of working memory was based off of 4 subsystems: 1) *Phonological loop*: subsystem dedicated to the temporary storage of auditory information. 2) *Visuospatial sketchpad*: subsystem dedicated to the temporary storage of visual information. 3) *Episodic buffer*: serves to integrate representations from the (1) and the (2) in an ordered, timely, and coherent sequence. 4) *Central executive*: responsible for controlling and coordinating the activities of the other three subsystems, ensuring that attention and resources are allocated properly.

The opposing processes of habituation and sensitization are the two simplest forms of nonassociative learning. Habituation is decrease in response after repeated exposure to same stimulus. Sensitization is increase in response after repeated exposure to same stimulus. With this in mind, what makes one stimulus decrease a response, while another increases a response? The ____________________________ states that both of these processes occur at the same time, and the resulting behavioral response is a net effect of the two processes. In other words, the observed behavior depends on which of the two processes has the greater level of activation.

The opposing processes of habituation and sensitization are the two simplest forms of nonassociative learning. Habituation is decrease in response after repeated exposure to same stimulus. Sensitization is increase in response after repeated exposure to same stimulus. With this in mind, what makes one stimulus decrease a response, while another increases a response? The *dual-process theory of habituation and sensitization* states that both of these processes occur at the same time, and the resulting behavioral response is a net effect of the two processes. In other words, the observed behavior depends on which of the two processes has the greater level of activation.

The likelihood that an animal will learn a goal-directed behavior depends on the natural association between the desired behavior and the consequence. In shaping experiments, a raccoon could not learn to drop 2 coins into a can because it was contradicting its innate behavior. Since the coins resembled food in shape and size and since the response was paired with a food reward, the conditioned stimulus came to evoke innate, food-related behaviors that were unlearned. The tendency of the raccoon to revert to instinctive, species-typical behaviors that interfered with a conditioned response is known as ________________________. Perhaps, if the experiment had been done with using a CS that did not resemble food and was paired with a non-food reward, the behavior could have been successfully conditioned.

The likelihood that an animal will learn a goal-directed behavior depends on the natural association between the desired behavior and the consequence. In shaping experiments, a raccoon could not learn to drop 2 coins into a can because it was contradicting its innate behavior. Since the coins resembled food in shape and size and since the response was paired with a food reward, the conditioned stimulus came to evoke innate, food-related behaviors that were unlearned. The tendency of the raccoon to revert to instinctive, species-typical behaviors that interfered with a conditioned response is known as *instinctive drift*. Perhaps, if the experiment had been done with using a CS that did not resemble food and was paired with a non-food reward, the behavior could have been successfully conditioned.

The more attention that is given to a memory trace in short-term memory, the greater the strength of an engram within long-term memory. _______________________ is the process of stabilizing this memory. When attention is repeatedly given to an engram in short-term memory, its neuronal connections are strengthened, and even rewired, transferring the memory to long-term storage. ______________________ refers to the increasing strength of a synapse due to the repeated firing of its neurons. By stabilizing a memory, this process enables learning. With new experiences and information, these neuronal connections grow and expand, creating ______________ consisting of thousands of different connections. The complexity behind learning and memory formation is attributed to these.

The more attention that is given to a memory trace in short-term memory, the greater the strength of an engram within long-term memory. *Consolidation* is the process of stabilizing this memory. When attention is repeatedly given to an engram in short-term memory, its neuronal connections are strengthened, and even rewired, transferring the memory to long-term storage. *Long-term potentiation (LTP)* refers to the increasing strength of a synapse due to the repeated firing of its neurons. By stabilizing a memory, this process enables learning. With new experiences and information, these neuronal connections grow and expand, creating *neural networks* consisting of thousands of different connections. The complexity behind learning and memory formation is attributed to these.

While the definition of a reinforcer is something that strengthens behavior, the degree to which a behavior is strengthened depends on the number of presentations, the timing of presentations, and the reliability of the presentation. A pattern that defines how often a response is reinforced is called a *reinforcement schedule*. There are two general types of reinforcement schedules: continuous and partial. With continuous reinforcement, a response is reinforced every time it occurs. Experimental learning occurs most rapidly with this schedule. In life outside the lab, however, this is rare. With partial (intermittent) reinforcement, a response is only sometimes reinforced. There are 4 schedules of partial reinforcement. They are: Fixed-Interval Variable-Interval Fixed-Ratio Variable-Ratio 1) In __________________ schedules, a set number of responses is required for a reward. E.g. smoothie shops that reward the buyer with a free drink after purchasing five smoothies; a rat that earns a food pellet after exactly 10 lever presses. 2) In _________________ schedules, a variable or random number of responses is required to earn a reward. E.g. playing slot machines; fishing. 3) In _________________ schedules, a set amount of time is required before a response is rewarded. E.g. you might check the oven more around the time a cake should be finished or check the mailbox more often on delivery day. 4) In _________________ schedules, a variable or random amount of time is required before a response is rewarded. For instance, checking your email, surprise health inspections, and pop quizzes are all examples of reinforcement on this schedule.

While the definition of a reinforcer is something that strengthens behavior, the degree to which a behavior is strengthened depends on the number of presentations, the timing of presentations, and the reliability of the presentation. A pattern that defines how often a response is reinforced is called a *reinforcement schedule*. There are two general types of reinforcement schedules: continuous and partial. With continuous reinforcement, a response is reinforced every time it occurs. Experimental learning occurs most rapidly with this schedule. In life outside the lab, however, this is rare. With partial (intermittent) reinforcement, a response is only sometimes reinforced. There are 4 schedules of partial reinforcement. They are: Fixed-Interval Variable-Interval Fixed-Ratio Variable-Ratio 1) In *fixed-ratio schedules*, a set number of responses is required for a reward. E.g. smoothie shops that reward the buyer with a free drink after purchasing five smoothies; a rat that earns a food pellet after exactly 10 lever presses. 2) In *variable-ratio schedules*, a variable or random number of responses is required to earn a reward. E.g. playing slot machines; fishing. 3) In *fixed-interval schedules*, a set amount of time is required before a response is rewarded. E.g. you might check the oven more around the time a cake should be finished or check the mailbox more often on delivery day. 4) In *variable-interval schedules*, a variable or random amount of time is required before a response is rewarded. For instance, checking your email, surprise health inspections, and pop quizzes are all examples of reinforcement on this schedule.

The process of *habituation* is characterized by 4 key principles: 1) Frequency of stimulus presentation. 2) Strength of stimulus. 3) Dishabituation. 4) Habituation of dishabituation. Both the frequency and strength properties apply to the repeated presentation of the same stimulus. But, following habituation, a single presentation of a different stimulus restores the response to the *original* stimulus. This response recovery is called _____________________ and results in a renewed interest. E.g. you play peek-a-boo with infant. When you first reveal your face, the baby smiles and squeals with laughter. With many repetitions of this same experience, the baby's response will eventually decrease. Then you wear a funny mask and the baby sees that instead of your face, and the baby will again smile and squeal with laughter. *What is characterized here is not the increase in response to the novel stimulus but what happens next!* After the presentation of the mask, the next time you reveal your normal face, the baby will restore its original response of smiling and laughter.

The process of *habituation* is characterized by 4 key principles: 1) Frequency of stimulus presentation. 2) Strength of stimulus. 3) Dishabituation. 4) Habituation of dishabituation. Both the frequency and strength properties apply to the repeated presentation of the same stimulus. But, following habituation, a single presentation of a different stimulus restores the response to the *original* stimulus. This response recovery is called *dishabituation* and results in a renewed interest. E.g. you play peek-a-boo with infant. When you first reveal your face, the baby smiles and squeals with laughter. With many repetitions of this same experience, the baby's response will eventually decrease. Then you wear a funny mask and the baby sees that instead of your face, and the baby will again smile and squeal with laughter. *What is characterized here is not the increase in response to the novel stimulus but what happens next!* After the presentation of the mask, the next time you reveal your normal face, the baby will restore its original response of smiling and laughter.

The process of *habituation* is characterized by 4 key principles: 1) Frequency of stimulus presentation. 2) Strength of stimulus. 3) Dishabituation. 4) Habituation of dishabituation. E.g. you play peek-a-boo with infant. When you first reveal your face, the baby smiles and squeals with laughter. With many repetitions of this same experience, the baby's response will eventually decrease. Then you wear a funny mask and the baby sees that instead of your face, and the baby will again smile and squeal with laughter. *What is characterized here is not the increase in response to the novel stimulus but what happens next!* After the presentation of the mask, the next time you reveal your normal face, the baby will restore its original response of smiling and laughter. This recovery of the ORIGINAL stimulus is *dishabituation*. In other words, habituation is reversible - a response that gradually declines over time CAN be returned to its original magnitude. However, with repeated presentation of the novel, dishabituating stimulus, the extent to which dishabituation has an effect can progressively decrease. The more often you present the funny mask to the baby in order to restore the original response to your face, the more the baby will eventually habituate to the dishabituating mask. This concept is known as the ____________________________.

The process of *habituation* is characterized by 4 key principles: 1) Frequency of stimulus presentation. 2) Strength of stimulus. 3) Dishabituation. 4) Habituation of dishabituation. E.g. you play peek-a-boo with infant. When you first reveal your face, the baby smiles and squeals with laughter. With many repetitions of this same experience, the baby's response will eventually decrease. Then you wear a funny mask and the baby sees that instead of your face, and the baby will again smile and squeal with laughter. *What is characterized here is not the increase in response to the novel stimulus but what happens next!* After the presentation of the mask, the next time you reveal your normal face, the baby will restore its original response of smiling and laughter. This recovery of the ORIGINAL stimulus is *dishabituation*. In other words, habituation is reversible - a response that gradually declines over time CAN be returned to its original magnitude. However, with repeated presentation of the novel, dishabituating stimulus, the extent to which dishabituation has an effect can progressively decrease. The more often you present the funny mask to the baby in order to restore the original response to your face, the more the baby will eventually habituate to the dishabituating mask. This concept is known as the *habituation of dishabituation*.

The process of *habituation* is characterized by 4 key principles: 1) Frequency of stimulus presentation. 2) Strength of stimulus. 3) Dishabituation. 4) Habituation of dishabituation. The ________________ and _____________ properties of habituation define the magnitude of a response. If the _______________ of stimulus presentation increases, the process of habituation occurs more rapidly. However, if the ________________ of the stimulus increases, the process of habituation is slowed or even stopped.

The process of *habituation* is characterized by 4 key principles: 1) Frequency of stimulus presentation. 2) Strength of stimulus. 3) Dishabituation. 4) Habituation of dishabituation. The *frequency* (rate) and *strength* (intensity) properties of habituation define the magnitude of a response. If the *frequency* of stimulus presentation increases, the process of habituation occurs more rapidly. However, if the *strength* of the stimulus increases, the process of habituation is slowed or even stopped.

The processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination all influence operant conditioning as well. For each of these, say whether it refers to *Classical Conditioning (CC)* or to *Operant Conditioning (OC)*. 1) *Acquisition:* the period in time where behavior becomes associated with a consequence 2) *Acquisition:* the period in time where the CS comes to elicit the CR 3) *Extinction:* diminishing of a CR through repeated exposure of the CS in the absence of the US 4) *Extinction:* reduction of an instrumental behavior when it is no longer reinforced 5) *Spontaneous recovery:* reappearance of a weakened CR after a rest period 6) *Spontaneous recovery:* reappearance of a goal-directed behavior after a rest period 7) *Generalization:* tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the reward-paired stimuli 8) *Generalization:* tendency to respond to other stimuli similar to the CS 9) *Discrimination:* learned ability to distinguish between responses that are reinforced and responses that are not reinforced 10) *Discrimination:* learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that have no been associated with an US

The processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination all influence operant conditioning as well. For each of these, say whether it refers to *Classical Conditioning (CC)* or to *Operant Conditioning (OC)*. 1) *OC* - *Acquisition:* the period in time where behavior becomes associated with a consequence 2) *CC* - *Acquisition:* the period in time where the CS comes to elicit the CR 3) *CC* - *Extinction:* diminishing of a CR through repeated exposure of the CS in the absence of the US 4) *OC* - *Extinction:* reduction of an instrumental behavior when it is no longer reinforced 5) *CC* - *Spontaneous recovery:* reappearance of a weakened CR after a rest period 6) *OC* - *Spontaneous recovery:* reappearance of a goal-directed behavior after a rest period 7) *OC* - *Generalization:* tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the reward-paired stimuli 8) *CC* - *Generalization:* tendency to respond to other stimuli similar to the CS 9) *OC* - *Discrimination:* learned ability to distinguish between responses that are reinforced and responses that are not reinforced 10) *CC* - *Discrimination:* learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that have no been associated with an US

There are different levels of processing that describe how well information is encoded (encoding = the first step in creating a new memory). _____________________________ encodes on a rudimentary level based on *sensory features* (e.g. appearance and sound of a word). ____________________________ encodes semantically based on *meaning* and relationships (e.g. definition of a word).

There are different levels of processing that describe how well information is encoded (encoding = the first step in creating a new memory). *Shallow processing* encodes on a rudimentary level based on *sensory features* (e.g. appearance and sound of a word). *Deep processing* encodes semantically based on *meaning* and relationships (e.g. definition of a word). Craik & Tulving (1975) demonstrated this concept with a list of 60 words that were presented to participants in various ways. First, a word momentarily flashed on a screen. Then, a question asking about the nature of a word followed.

There are four types of memory *encoding*: Acoustic Semantic Tactile Visual 1) ________________ encoding is the process of transforming visual sensory information. Sensory input such as color, shape, or size that is visually perceived is temporarily stored within our ____________ memory. 2) ___________________ encoding is the process of transforming auditory sensory information. Auditory input such as words, melodies, and noises is temporarily stored within our _________________ memory. 3) ___________________ encoding is the process of encoding the sense of touch. Sensory input including vibration, texture, and pressure is temporarily encoded within our ____________ memory. 4) ___________________ encoding is different from the other 3 in that meaningful or contextual sensory information is encoded, as opposed to neutral sensory input. Information stored using this type of encoding typically is stronger and easier to retrieve because it has been associated with something that already has meaning.

There are four types of memory *encoding*: Acoustic Semantic Tactile Visual 1) *Visual encoding* is the process of transforming visual sensory information. Sensory input such as color, shape, or size that is visually perceived is temporarily stored within our *iconic memory*. 2) *Acoustic encoding* is the process of transforming auditory sensory information. Auditory input such as words, melodies, and noises is temporarily stored within our *echoic memory*. 3) *Tactile encoding* is the process of encoding the sense of touch. Sensory input including vibration, texture, and pressure is temporarily encoded within our *haptic memory*. 4) *Semantic encoding* is different from the other 3 in that meaningful or contextual sensory information is encoded, as opposed to neutral sensory input. Information stored using this type of encoding typically is stronger and easier to retrieve because it has been associated with something that already has meaning.

There are two types of behaviors that describe the elusion of aversive consequences (negative reinforcement): *escape* and *avoidance*. (these are the only 2 answer choices) In ________________ behavior, a response *prevents* an unpleasant stimulus, rather than terminating it. In ________________ behavior, a response *terminates* an unpleasant stimulus that is already present. In _________________ conditioning, a response is strengthened because it prevents an unfavorable outcome from occurring. In ________________ conditioning, a response is strengthened because it removes or reduces an unfavorable outcome that is already present.

There are two types of behaviors that describe the elusion of aversive consequences (negative reinforcement): *escape* and *avoidance*. (these are the only 2 answer choices) In *avoidance* behavior, a response *prevents* an unpleasant stimulus, rather than terminating it. In *escape* behavior, a response *terminates* an unpleasant stimulus that is already present. In *avoidance* conditioning, a response is strengthened because it prevents an unfavorable outcome from occurring. In *escape* conditioning, a response is strengthened because it removes or reduces an unfavorable outcome that is already present.

Through operant conditioning, a rat can be taught to press a lever, a pigeon to peck a light, a raccoon to drop a coin into a can, and even a chicken to play music and dance. The procedure by which such behavior is learned is called ________________. This method of training reinforces successive approximations toward a desired response.

Through operant conditioning, a rat can be taught to press a lever, a pigeon to peck a light, a raccoon to drop a coin into a can, and even a chicken to play music and dance. The procedure by which such behavior is learned is called *shaping*. This method of training reinforces successive approximations toward a desired response.

Through operant conditioning, a rat can be taught to press a lever, a pigeon to peck a light, a raccoon to drop a coin into a can, and even a chicken to play music and dance. The procedure by which such behavior is learned is called *shaping*. This method of training reinforces successive approximations toward a desired response. An important factor that influences shaping, as well as other processes of operant conditioning, is the animals predisposition for _________________________. Every animal has species-specific, unlearned behavior that is often a response to particular environmental stimuli. Despite the strength and persistence of operant conditioning, an animal cannot learn a behavior for which it is not equipped by its evolutionary history and instinctive patterns.

Through operant conditioning, a rat can be taught to press a lever, a pigeon to peck a light, a raccoon to drop a coin into a can, and even a chicken to play music and dance. The procedure by which such behavior is learned is called *shaping*. This method of training reinforces successive approximations toward a desired response. An important factor that influences shaping, as well as other processes of operant conditioning, is the animals predisposition for *instinctive behavior*. Every animal has species-specific, unlearned behavior that is often a response to particular environmental stimuli. Despite the strength and persistence of operant conditioning, an animal cannot learn a behavior for which it is not equipped by its evolutionary history and instinctive patterns.

Throughout our lives, we experience a range of sensory information. What is important to the construction of true memories is our ability to decipher the source of this information. The system in the brain responsible for sifting through the different features of a memory (e.g. a current event in the world, a thought in the mind, something said by a friend) to determine its context is __________________________. However, similar to misleading information, misattribution of the source of a memory can also lead to the construction of FALSE MEMORIES. The inability to remember the source of previously learned information is called ___________________. (e.g. I know all porcupines float in water, but I cannot recall whether I read this in a newspaper, heard it on TV, or imagined it in a dream). This phenomenon also helps to explain the concept of _________ - a strong sense that a current experience has happened before.

Throughout our lives, we experience a range of sensory information. What is important to the construction of true memories is our ability to decipher the source of this information. The system in the brain responsible for sifting through the different features of a memory (e.g. a current event in the world, a thought in the mind, something said by a friend) to determine its context is *source monitoring*. However, similar to misleading information, misattribution of the source of a memory can also lead to the construction of FALSE MEMORIES. The inability to remember the source of previously learned information is called *source amnesia*. (e.g. I know all porcupines float in water, but I cannot recall whether I read this in a newspaper, heard it on TV, or imagined it in a dream). This phenomenon also helps to explain the concept of *déjà vu* - a strong sense that a current experience has happened before.

True or false: 1) Learning how memory makes errors is not as informative as learning how memory functions. 2) Once a new memory is retrieved, it is transferred from long-term memory to working memory, where it is manipulated and reconstructed. 3) New information cannot transform the interpretation of an old memory.

True or false: 1) FALSE: Learning how memory makes errors is not as informative as learning how memory functions. >> it is just as informative. 2) TRUE: Once a new memory is retrieved, it is transferred from long-term memory to working memory, where it is manipulated and reconstructed. 3) FALSE: New information cannot transform the interpretation of an old memory. >> New information can and does transform the interpretation of an old memory. For this reason, there are errors in memory construction.

There are 5 conditioning processes: 1) Acquisition 2) Extinction 3) Spontaneous recovery 4) Generalization 5) Discrimination True or false?

True.

True or false: Observational learning can have both *antisocial effects* and/or *prosocial effects*.

True.

Two of the simplest forms of *nonassociative learning* are habituation and sensitization. _____________________ is a process in which the magnitude of a response to a stimulus *increases* with repeated exposure to that stimulus. _____________________ is a process in which the magnitude of a response to a specific stimulus *decreases* with repeated exposure to that stimulus.

Two of the simplest forms of *nonassociative learning* are habituation and sensitization. *Sensitization* is a process in which the magnitude of a response to a stimulus *increases* with repeated exposure to that stimulus. *Habituation* is a process in which the magnitude of a response to a specific stimulus *decreases* with repeated exposure to that stimulus.

You move into a new house that is right next to an airport. The first day, you hear a loud roar of a plane causing you to jump in fright. A few weeks go by with this loud noise sounding periodically, and before long, you hardly even notice it anymore. Your response to this repeated stimulus has decreased. 1) Is this an example of sensitization or habituation? 2) Habituation and sensitization are two types of what kind of learning?

You move into a new house that is right next to an airport. The first day, you hear a loud roar of a plane causing you to jump in fright. A few weeks go by with this loud noise sounding periodically, and before long, you hardly even notice it anymore. Your response to this repeated stimulus has decreased. 1) *Habituation* 2) Habituation and sensitization are two types of what kind of learning? *Nonassociative learning: a change in response to a stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus*

What is *nonassociative learning*?

a change in response to a stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus