Technical Writing Chapter 8

Post Hoc Reasoning

-(the complete phrase is post hoc, ergo propter hoc) -An argument that claims that because A precedes B, A caused B "There must be something wrong with the new circuit breaker in the office. Ever since we had it installed, the air conditioners haven't worked right." -Maybe the air conditioners are malfunctioning because of the circuit breaker, but the malfunction might have other causes.

Avoiding Logical Fallacies

-A logical fallacy — that is, a mistake in reasoning — can undercut the persuasiveness of your writing. An example is "Antidepressants are a scam; I know that because Tom Cruise says so, and he's a world-famous actor." Although Tom Cruise is a world-famous actor, it does not follow that what he thinks about antidepressants is true

Expert Testimony

-A message from an expert is more persuasive than the same message from someone without credentials. A well-researched article on flextime written by a respected business scholar in a reputable business journal is likely to be persuasive. When you make arguments, you will often cite expert testimony from published sources or interviews you have conducted. -Related to expert testimony are testimonials by peers and members of the general public. Although individually testimonials aren't as strong as expert testimony, a series of strong testimonials from reliable sources can make a convincing case about a product, service, or policy.

Ad Hominen

-Ad hominem argument; also called argument against the speaker -An argument against the writer, not against the writer's argument "Of course Matthew wants us to buy more computers — he's a computer geek." -The fact that Matthew is a "computer geek" doesn't necessarily mean that his argument for buying more computers is unwise.

Appeal to Pity

-An argument based on emotion, not reason "We shouldn't sell the Ridgeway division. It's been part of the company for over 40 years." -The fact that the division has long been a part of the company is not in itself a good reason to retain it.

Considering the Context of Your Argument

-An argument can be as short as a sentence or as long as a multivolume report. It can take many forms, including oral communication. And it can discuss almost any kind of issue. Here are some examples: -From a description of a construction site: Features A, B, and C characterize the site. -From a study of why a competitor is outselling your company: Company X's dominance can be attributed to four major factors: A, B, C, and D. -From a feasibility study considering four courses of action: Alternative A is better than alternatives B, C, and D. -From a set of instructions for performing a task: The safest way to perform the task is to complete task A, then task B, and so on. -Before you can develop an effective argument, you must understand your audience's broader goals and your own constraints.

Argument for Ignorance

-An argument that a claim is true because it has never been proven false, or false because it has never been proven true "Nobody has ever proven that global warming is occurring. Therefore, global warming is a myth." -The fact that a concept has not yet been proven does not necessarily mean that it is false. Perhaps the measurement techniques are insufficiently precise or not yet available.

Ad Populum Argument "Bandwagon Argument"

-An argument that a claim is valid because many people think it is or act as if it is "Our four major competitors have started selling online so we should, too." -The fact that our competitors are selling online is not in itself an argument that we should sell online, too.

Argument from Authority

-An argument that a claim is valid because the person making the claim is an authority "According to world-renowned climatologist Dr. William Smith, global warming is definitely a fact." -Even if Dr. Smith is a recognized authority in this field, the claim that global warming is a fact is not valid unless you present a valid argument to support it.

Hasty Generalization "Inadequate Sampling"

-An argument that draws conclusions based on an insufficient number of cases "The new Tata is an unreliable car. Two of my friends own Tatas, and both have had reliability problems." -To reach any valid conclusions, you would have to study a much larger sample and compare your findings with those for other cars in the Tata's class.

Oversimplifying

-An argument that omits important information in establishing a causal link "The way to solve the balance-of-trade problem is to improve the quality of the products we produce." -Although improving quality is important, international trade balances are determined by many factors, including tariffs and currency rates, and therefore cannot be explained by simple cause-and-effect reasoning.

Either or Argument

-An argument that poses only two alternatives when in fact there might be more "Either we start selling our products online or we're going to be out of business within a year." -This statement does not explain why these are the only two alternatives. The company might improve its sales by taking measures other than selling online.

Circular Argument

-An argument that restates its main point without presenting any evidence to support it "Facebook's stock price keeps falling because the company's value is still going down." -Because a company's stock price is a measure of the company's value, the argument simply says that Facebook's stock price keeps falling because its stock price keeps falling. Using the word because doesn't necessarily mean that the writer has presented a reason. The writer needs to explain why the stock price keeps going down.

Examples

-An example makes an abstract point more concrete and therefore more vivid and memorable. -Mary Saunders tried for weeks to arrange for child care for her two preschoolers that would enable her to start work at 7 A.M., as required at her workplace. The best she could manage was having her children stay with a non-licensed provider. When conditions at that provider led to ear infections in both her children, Mary decided that she could no longer continue working. -Examples are often used along with numerical data. The example above gives the problem a human dimension, but the argument also requires numerical data to show that the problem is part of a pattern, not an isolated event.

Political Constraints

-Don't spend all your energy and credibility on a losing cause. If you know that your proposal would help the company but that management disagrees with you or that the company can't afford to approve it, either consider what you might achieve through some other means or scale back the idea. Two big exceptions to this rule are matters of ethics and matters of safety. As discussed in Chapter 2, ethical and legal constraints might mean compromise is unacceptable.

Financial Constraints

-Financial constraints are related to personnel constraints: if you had unlimited funds, you could hire all the personnel you needed. But financial constraints can also affect other kinds of resources: you might not be able to print as many copies of a document as you want, or you might need to settle for black and white instead of full color

Format Constraints

-Format constraints are limitations on the size, shape, or style of a document. For example, your reader might want all tables and figures presented at the end of the report. If you are writing to someone in your own organization, follow the format constraints described in the company style guide, if there is one, or check similar documents to see what other writers have done. Also ask more experienced co-workers for their advice. If you are writing to someone in another organization, learn what you can about that organization's preferences.

Understanding the Role of Culture in Persuasion

-If you are making a persuasive argument to readers from another culture, keep in mind that cultures differ significantly not only in matters such as business customs but also in their most fundamental values. These differences can affect persuasive writing. Culture determines both what makes an argument persuasive and how arguments are structured -What makes an argument persuasive. Statistics and experimental data are fundamental kinds of evidence in the West, but testimony from respected authority figures can be much more persuasive in the East. -How to structure an argument. In a Western culture, the claim is usually presented up front. In an Eastern culture, it is likely to be delayed or to remain unstated but implied. -When you write for an audience from another culture, use two techniques: Study that culture, and adjust the content, structure, and style of your arguments to fit it. Include in your budget the cost of having important documents reviewed and edited by a person from the target culture. Few people are experts on cultures other than their own.

Visual Evidence

-Images and graphics can help you convey technical information to support your points. Photographs, for example, are often used to document an event. The photographs in Figure 8.4 show the melting of a glacier over a period of 65 years. Other types of visuals, such as maps and charts, can demonstrate data or ideas graphically, making information easier to understand -excerpts from a white paper published by McAfee, the computer-security company, shows a portion of an argument that combines several of these types of evidence. A white paper is an argument, typically 10-20 pages long, that a company's product or service will solve a technological or business challenge in an industry. The readers of white papers are technical experts who implement technology and managers who make purchasing decisions.

Deciding Where to Present the Claim

-In most cases, the best place to state your claim is at the start of the argument. Then provide the evidence and, if appropriate, the reasoning. Sometimes, however, it is more effective to place the claim after the evidence and the reasoning. This indirect structure works best if a large number of readers oppose your claim. If you present your claim right away, these readers might become alienated and stop paying attention. You want a chance to present your evidence and your reasoning without causing this kind of undesirable reaction.

Working with Constraints

-In planning a persuasive document, you need to work within the constraints that shape your environment on the job. As a student, you routinely work within constraints: the amount of information you can gather for a paper, the required length and format, the due date, and so forth. On the job, you will face similar constraints, which fall into eight categories: ethical, legal, political, informational, personnel, financial, time, and format.

Ethics Note (Using Digital Enhancement Tools Responsibly)

-Many tools are available to enhance and otherwise alter digital images, but manipulating photographs or videos in order to strengthen an argument is most likely unethical and possibly illegal. Photo editing, according to the Code of Ethics of the National Press Photographers Association (2016), "should maintain the integrity of the photographic images' content and context. Do not manipulate images or add or alter sound in any way that can mislead viewers or misrepresent subjects

Presenting Yourself Effectively

-No matter how strong your arguments, your audience won't read them — or won't read them sympathetically — unless they see you as a professional.

Numerical Data

-Numerical data — statistics — are generally more persuasive than commonsense arguments. -Statistics drawn from the personnel literature (McClellan, 2013) show that, among Fortune 500 companies, flextime decreases turnover by 25 to 35 percent among employees with young children. -Notice that the writer states that the study covered many companies, not just one or a handful. If the sample size were small, the claim would be much less persuasive. (The discussion of logical fallacies later in this chapter explains such hasty generalizations.)

Connectedness

-People like to be part of communities, whether at work or at home. In the workplace, connectedness can take many forms, from working with others on project teams to participating in company sports leagues to helping improve the community. Organizations that encourage employees to connect with their peers through social media such as wikis, blogs, and discussion forums help satisfy this human need for community. A new trend in the working world is to encourage employees to spend weeks or even months of company time working on community educational or environmental projects. These projects not only improve the organization's image but also help employees feel connected to the community. -shows an example of a program that takes advantage of people's need for connectedness. Citizens Connect is a Boston-based initiative that enables city residents to download an app that lets them report infrastructure problems, such as graffiti or broken street lights.

Recognition

-People like to be praised for their hard work and their successes. Where appropriate, be generous in your praise. Similarly, people hate being humiliated. Therefore, allow people to save face. Avoid criticizing their actions or positions and speculating about their motivations. Instead, present your argument as a response to the company's or other stakeholders' present and future needs. Look ahead, not back, and be diplomatic. A persuasive advertisement for a hospital's weight-loss support group will not criticize potential members for their lack of exercise or poor diet; rather, it will recognize that they have already been working hard to maintain their health. One type of workplace document that is used to recognize professional success is a newsletter. A newsletter, a short newspaper published by an organization, can help the organization foster a sense of community within its membership, both internal and external, including customers, employees, investors, and the general public. Newsletters often include descriptions of new activities undertaken by the organization; major investments by the organization in new equipment or facilities; announcements of upcoming events and summaries of previous events, such as presentations, performances, or lectures given by organization members; notices of jobs available in the organization; profiles of new members, officers, or administrators; and important changes in relevant laws or regulations

Security

-People resist controversial actions that might hurt their own interests. Those who might lose their jobs will likely oppose an argument that their division be eliminated, even if there are many valid reasons to support the argument. Another aspect of security is workload; most people resist an argument that calls for them to work more. People also want security outside the workplace — for instance, in their health care, finances, and personal safety. If you are drafting a press release about the addition of bicycle lanes to a town's already-congested streets, you need to assure residents that the town's civil engineers took the proper steps to ensure that the bike lanes were designed safely.

Growth

-People want to develop and grow. They want to learn new skills and assume new duties. People also want to work for an organization that is developing and growing. Your argument will be more persuasive if you can show how the recommended action will help an organization improve the quality of its products or services, branch out into new areas, or serve new customers and stakeholders. A brochure advertising a CPR certification course might emphasize the sense of empowerment that comes with the ability to assist co-workers in danger

Crafting a Persuasive Argument

-Persuasion is important, whether you wish to affect a reader's attitude or merely present information clearly. To make a persuasive case, you must identify the elements of your argument, consider opposing viewpoints, use the right kinds of evidence, understand the use of visuals as persuasive elements, appeal to emotions responsibly, decide where to state your claim, and understand the role of culture in persuasion.

Time Constraints

-Start by determining the document's deadline. (Sometimes a document will have several intermediate deadlines.) Then create a schedule. Keep in mind that tasks almost always take longer than estimated. And when you collaborate, the number of potential problems increases, because when one person is delayed, others may lack the necessary information to proceed, leading to a logjam.

Identifying the Elements of Your Argument

-The claim is the conclusion you want your readers to accept. For example, your claim might be that your company should institute flextime, a scheduling approach that gives employees some flexibility in when they begin and end their workdays. You want your readers to agree with this idea and to take the next steps toward instituting flextime. (the idea you are communicating) -The evidence is the information you want your readers to consider. For the argument about flextime, the evidence might include the following(the facts and judgments that support your claim) : -The turnover rate of our employees with young children is 50 percent higher than that of our employees without young children. The turnover rate for female employees with young children is double that of all employees without young children. -At exit interviews, 40 percent of our employees with young children stated that they quit so that they could be home for their school-age children. -Replacing a staff-level employee costs us about one-half the employee's annual salary; replacing a professional-level employee costs a whole year's salary. -Other companies have found that flextime significantly decreases turnover among employees with young children. -Other companies have found that flextime has additional benefits and introduces no significant problems. -The reasoning is the logic you use to connect the evidence to your claim. In the discussion of flextime, the reasoning involves three links(the logic you use to derive the claim from the evidence): -At other companies, flextime appears to have reduced the turnover problem among employees with young children. -Our company is similar to these other companies. -Flextime is therefore likely to prove helpful at our company.

Informational Constraints

-The most common informational constraint is the inability to get the information you need. You might want your organization to buy a piece of equipment, for example, but be unable to find unbiased evidence that would convince a skeptical reader. -What do you do? You tell the truth. Explain the situation, weighing the available evidence and carefully noting what is missing. If you unintentionally suggest that your evidence is better than it really is, you will lose your most important credential: your credibility.

Personnel Constraints

-The personnel constraint you are most likely to face is a lack of access to as many collaborators as you need. In such cases, present a persuasive proposal to hire the personnel you need. However, don't be surprised if you have to make do with fewer people than you want.

Ethics Note (Seeming honest v. Being honest) in Persuasive Writing

-The young actor asks the old actor, "What's the key to great acting?" The old actor replies, "Sincerity. Once you learn how to fake sincerity ...." Any discussion of image and persuasion has to address the question at the heart of this old joke. Does a writer have to be honest to appear honest? -There are tricks for appearing honest, and they can work for a while. But the easiest way to appear honest is to be honest. As suggested in Chapter 2, you need to tell the truth and not mislead your readers. As suggested in Chapter 4, you also need to be cooperative, diplomatic, and constructive. And as suggested in this chapter, you need to remember people's broader goals: to protect their own security, to achieve recognition, to learn and grow in their professional and personal lives, and to connect with others.

Using Visuals as Persuasive Elements

-When used responsibly, visuals that provide nontechnical information can lend powerful support to your argument. The alarming image in Figure 8.6 of tap water catching on fire was used by Greenpeace to illustrate the potential dangers of hydraulic fracturing ("fracking"). The poster in Figure 8.7 combines verbal and visual techniques to convince readers to take precautions to avoid contracting a dangerous virus

Understanding Your Audience's Broader Goals

-When you analyze your audience, consider the values that motivate them. Most people are concerned about their own welfare and interests within the company, but they also want their company and their colleagues to prosper. If your document is intended for the public, as opposed to the employees in an organization, consider your audience's personal goals — their desire for health and well-being, for example, or their need to feel safe. Your argument is most likely to be effective if it responds to four goals that most people share: security, recognition, growth, and connectedness.

Considering Opposing ViewPoints

-When you present an argument, you need to address opposing points of view. If you don't, your opponents will conclude that your proposal is flawed because it doesn't address problems that they think are important. In meeting the skeptical or hostile reader's possible objections to your case, you can use one of three tactics, depending on the situation: -The opposing argument is based on illogical reasoning or on inaccurate or incomplete facts. You can counter the argument that flextime increases utility bills by citing unbiased research studies showing that it does not. -The opposing argument is valid but is less powerful than your own. If you can show that the opposing argument makes sense but is outweighed by your own argument, you will appear to be a fair-minded person who understands that reality is complicated. You can counter the argument that flextime reduces carpooling opportunities by showing that only 3 percent of your employees currently use carpooling and that three-quarters of these employees favor flextime anyway because of its other advantages. -The two arguments can be reconciled. If an opposing argument is not invalid or clearly inferior to your own, you can offer to study the situation thoroughly to find a solution that incorporates the best from each argument. For example, if flextime might cause serious problems for your company's many carpoolers, you could propose a trial period during which you would study several ways to help employees find other carpooling opportunities. If the company cannot solve the problem or if most of the employees prefer the old system, you would switch back to it. This proposal can remove much of the threat posed by your ideas. -When you address an opposing argument, be gracious and understated. Focus on the argument, not on the people who oppose you. If you embarrass or humiliate them, you undermine your own credibility and motivate your opponents to continue opposing you. -There is no one best place in your document to address opposing arguments. In general, however, if you know that important readers hold opposing views, address those views relatively early. Your goal is to show all your readers that you are a fair-minded person who has thought carefully about the subject and that your argument is stronger than the opposing arguments.

Using the Right Kinds of Evidence

-Which include 4 kinds of evidence that people most often react favorable to: Numerical Data, Examples, Expert Testimony, and Visual Evidence

Appealing to Emotions Responsibly

-Writers sometimes appeal to the emotions of their readers. Writers usually combine emotional appeals with appeals to reason. For example, an argument that we ought to increase foreign aid to drought-stricken African countries might describe (and present images of) the human plight of the victims but also include reason-based sections about the extent of the problem, the causes, the possible solutions, and the pragmatic reasons we might want to increase foreign aid. -When you use emotional appeals, do not overstate or overdramatize them, or you will risk alienating readers. Try to think of additional kinds of evidence to present that will also help support your claim

Legal Constraints

-You must abide by all applicable laws on labor practices, environmental issues, fair trade, consumer rights, and so forth. If you think you have been asked to do something that might be illegal, meet with your organization's legal counsel and, if necessary, with attorneys outside the organization.

Ethical Constraints

-Your greatest responsibility is to your own sense of what constitutes ethical behavior. Being asked to lie or mislead challenges your ethical standards directly, but in most cases you have options. Some organizations and professional communities have a published code of conduct. In addition, many large companies have ombudspersons: ethics officers who use mediation to help employees resolve ethical conflicts.

Creating a Professional Persona

-Your persona is how you appear to your readers. Demonstrating the following four characteristics will help you establish an attractive professional persona. -Cooperativeness. Make clear that your goal is to solve a problem, not to advance your own interests. -Moderation. Be moderate in your judgments. The problem you are describing will not likely spell doom for your organization, and the solution you propose will not solve all the company's problems. -Fair-mindedness. Acknowledge the strengths of opposing points of view, even as you offer counterarguments. -Modesty. If you fail to acknowledge that you don't know everything, someone else will be sure to volunteer that insight.

Technical Information

-like any other kind of communication, calls for making persuasive claims and supporting them effectively. It is a mistake to think that technical communication is only about facts. Certainly, facts are important. But communication is about determining which facts are appropriate, describing the context that helps people understand what those facts mean, and presenting a well-reasoned argument about those facts. Your job as a communicator is to convince a reader of a viewpoint — about what factors caused a situation, for example, or what a company ought to do to solve a problem. If you are lucky, you will be reinforcing a viewpoint the reader already holds. Sometimes, however, you will want to change the reader's mind. Regardless, you are presenting an argument: an arrangement of facts and judgments about some aspect of the world.