TEFL - Unit 1

linguistic knowledge

1. sound/sign system 2. words 3. grammar 4. meaning

social constructivist

As a social constructivist he believed that social interaction was key to the cognitive and linguistic development of children. He observed how higher level mental functions developed within particular cultural groups and individually through social interactions with significant people, in most cases children's primary caregivers.

berko

Berko's findings suggested that children are active learners who do more than imitate what they hear around them. The children were able to extract grammatical rules from the language they already knew and apply them to unfamiliar words, suggesting that there is something internal guiding the language acquisition process. In short, her findings refuted the behaviorist notion that language is acquired through imitation and rewards alone. WUG suggests - That internal mechanisms guided language acquisition.

Which of the following statements would Vygotsky most likely disagree with?

Children develop in set stages. Children should work independently when learning a new skill.

Which of the following describe the behaviourist view of errors made by L2 learners?

Errors are an intrusion on learning. Errors are always caused by L1 transfer. Errors need to be eliminated.

5th - 6th Centuries

Germanic settlers arrive in England

Which of the following is a belief of usage-based approach to L2 acquisition?

High-frequency constructions are learned more quickly.

output hypothesis

In 1985, Merril Swain published research on elementary school French immersion programs in Ontario. In her paper, she observed that despite receiving lots of comprehensible input, the students were far from native-like proficiency in French. Swain concluded that input alone was not enough to foster language acquisition. She proposed that producing communicative output was also essential in SLA. According to Swain, communicative output played three important roles (Swain, 1985, 1993): 1. Producing output helps learners to notice the gap between what they know and don't know or what they can and can't do in the L2 and this noticing helps learners acquire new linguistic forms. 2. Producing output allows learners to test various hypotheses they might have about how the L2 works. By getting feedback from other speakers (particularly more proficient ones), the learner can see whether what they said was comprehensible. 3. Producing output requires more syntactic processing, unlike input which might rely more on semantic processing. In other words, the meaning (semantics) of individual words might be enough to get the general meaning of what someone is saying to you. However, saying something comprehensible is more dependent on correct word order (syntax) and morphology.

negation

Inspired by the work of Bellugi on negation in L1 acquisition, Raven, Wood, and Schumann examined negation in L2 development. Again, they found consistent order of acquisition: negator no placed before phrase - no book (I don't have a book), no is happy (I'm not happy) negator no moves inside sentence; don't is used sporadically and often incorrectly - He no can swim. / I don't can play good. Modals appear and can be used correctly - I can't play. Do appears and is used correctly with not in a variety of tenses - He doesn't know. / I didn't go out.

Which of the following is true about the effects of instruction on language acquisition?

It can play an important role in motivation. It might lead to higher ultimate proficiency.

Why has the EFL label been criticized by some scholars?

It gives too much prominence to inner circle Englishes.

Which is true about the Zone of Proximal Development?

It's what the learner can do with help.

Which of the following is an example of the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis?

My students produce 3rd person -s in grammar exercises but not in their writing.

synthetic languages

Russian, Italian, Turkish, Swahili.

unconscious processes

Selinker believed that the development and use of interlanguage was an unconscious process that suggested the workings of universal grammar in L2 acquisition. the learners were not usually aware of the linguistic characteristics of their interlanguage when asked about the rules of their interlanguage, learners often talked about rules learned in language class but these did not match the interlanguage that they were producing

interlanguage

Selinker introduced the concept of interlanguage - which is the linguistic system that language learners use when they are learning a new language. Some of his claims about interlanguage include: It's a system of communication as learners transition from L1 to L2 It has elements of both L1 and L2 but is neither the native nor the target language It is strongly influenced by L1 transfer It is systematic, autonomous and patterned (rather than just a collection of random errors)

Which of the following are generally true of analytic languages?

They rely on syntax to show grammatical relationships.

krashen - affective filter hypothesis

This hypothesis states that a number of attitudinal (affective) factors can hinder language acquisition even when there's adequate comprehensible input.

verb related morphemes

VanPatten and Andersen looked more specifically at verb forms and found that there was also a consistent order of acquisition: progressive -ing (e.g. jumping) regular past (e.g. jumped) irregular past (e.g. went) 3rd person -s (jumps)

inner circle

english is primary language England, Canada, US, Australia, MZ, Scottland

What is the role of the MKO?

facilitation of learning

L1

native language, mother tongue

16th century

start of British colonization

English is an official language in 55 countries

true

Norman Invasion

1066

brown's 5 stages of development

12-26 months - During this stage, children can produce 1-2 word utterances. 27-30 months - two word stage and also begin to display the following characteristics: start using present progressive (-ing) >> it going start using plural -s distinguish between in and on 31-34 months - utterances close to three words long. irregular past tense >> me fell down 's possessives >> man's book simple yes/no questions/answers with verb to be >> Is it daddy? Yes, it is daddy. 35-40 months - Most can now produce 3-4 word utterances which include the following features: articles >> A cat on the chair. regular past tense >> He jumped. Third person regular -s >> She jumps. 41-46+ months - 4+ word utterances and have mastered the following: third person irregulars >> He does. / She has. Uncontractible and contractible verb to be >> Are they swimming. / She was laughing. / She's ready. / They're coming.

krashen - natural order hypothesis

As illustrated earlier, research shows that L2 language acquisition follows a natural pattern of progress. Just like in movement, where one first learns to crawl, stand, walk and then run, language acquisition develops through a series of sequential steps. By studying this natural progression of language acquisition, researchers have uncovered a predictable pattern in language acquisition. By following this pattern teachers can develop a series of instructions that best suit the needs of older language learners. This hypothesis coincides with Noam Chomsky's theory that humans naturally have a built-in Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Teachers need to consider the natural order hypothesis when introducing language concepts. This can be done by first introducing models that are moderately easy for learners to acquire. Instructors should scaffold difficult concepts. It's also important to note that some students may not be ready to acquire a particular linguistic form in spite of the best efforts of the teacher or the curricular goals of a course. The students might not be at the right acquisition stage to do so.

Chao is studying English to pass a large scale language test so that he can get into a good high school. Chao plans to study engineering in Beijing after high school and also would like to learn scientific vocabulary.

Chao is mainly motivated by his ought-to L2 self. Chao has high instrumental motivation.

Which of the following describe the nativist view of errors made by L2 learners?

Errors tell us about the learner's interlanguage. Errors are valuable for the language teacher.

Which of the following is true of the weak-interface position?

Explicit knowledge can influence implicit knowledge.

teachers should minimize the teaching of "correct" English

False

chomsky

In its simplest form, Chomsky's theory is that we are born with the innate ability to learn language. We develop our language skills by listening to the people who raise us. Infants and toddlers do not require someone to teach them language. As long as there is linguistic input around, they will inevitably acquire language. The process of selecting the correct pattern of words is done unconsciously. Chomsky refers to this as our universal grammar and supports this theory by pointing out that all human languages share similar patterns (for example present and past tense) and that all children, no matter the context, acquire languages. Language Acquisition Device - innate component of the human mind that makes L1 language acquisition possible.

L2 aptitude

In the 1950s, John Carrol and Stanley Sapon conducted research on aptitude in relation to language learning and created the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT). They then conducted research that showed a strong correlation between MLAT scores and performance on classroom language tests, suggesting that aptitude played an important role in L2 acquisition (VanPatten et al., 2020).

general morpheme acquisition

In the 1970s, work by Heidi Dulay, Marina Burt, Stephen Krashen and other researchers showed that there is a predictable order in how L2 English learners acquire morphological structures. They identified 4 stages: -ing, noun plural -s, copula be auxiliaries, articles irregular past regular past -ed, 3rd person singular -s, possessive 's

18th and 19th century

Industrial Revolution

Which of the following fit the nativist (Chomskyan) view of language acquisition?

Input is more important than feedback. Children can extract grammatical rules from limited input.

behaviorist view of language acquisition

Learning language is like learning to swim Parents' speech is a type of stimulus. Children learn by imitating adults.

critical theory hypothesis

Like other work in SLA, the CPH for L2 acquisition has its roots in research on L1 acquisition. Some tragic examples of children not exposed to language at an early age indicated that there is a critical period for learning an L1. Once that period passes, learning the L1 fully is not possible (see this article to read more about CPH and the tragic story of Genie). The work on L1 CPH led to numerous studies of L2 CPH.

analytic languages

Mandarin Chinese, Vietnamese, Afrikaans, English.

Which of the following statements would Vygotsky most likely agree with?

Meaningful interactions are key aspects of learning. Community plays a central role in cognitive development.

17th century

Shakespeare, King James Bible

behavioral conditioning

Skinner explains that people learn through imitation, modeling and habitual experiences; this includes how we learn language.

Which of the following is an example of the Affective Filter Hypothesis?

Some of my students look stressed when asked to speak English.

What does u-shaped development suggest?

That L2 acquisition likely uses innate linguistic abilities.

Which of the following examples are matched correctly to one of Krashen's 5 hypotheses?

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis > I teach grammar rules to my students but they can't use them correctly in their journal writing. The Natural Order Hypothesis > My students first used irregular past but now use -ed instead (e.g. eated). The Monitor Hypothesis > My student thinks a lot about grammar mistakes when speaking and speaks very slowly.

krashen - acquisition learning hypothesis

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis suggests that second language performance is a product of two separate systems that happen consciously and subconsciously.

second stage of acquisition

The Early Production Stage

krashen - monitor hypothesis

The Monitor Hypothesis is connected to the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis. It focuses on the effects of explicit language instruction. In other words, the Monitor Hypothesis is concerned with learning, not acquisition. Krashen explained in the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis that language acquisition occurs during exposure to natural communication, not through explicit learning. In essence, the language we acquire through this process is fine-tuned and edited by the monitor, which is developed through grammar and language instruction. In other words, the explicit knowledge of language monitors and corrects language output. Krashen identifies three types of monitor users: Monitor Over-users - these L2 users monitor their output all the time which results in hesitant speech, frequent self-correction, and difficulties in communication. Monitor Under-users - will likely make frequent errors but will be highly fluent and not particularly worried about accuracy Monitor Optimal-users - will use the monitor in situations when it doesn't interfere in communication (such as planned speech or writing)

fossilization

The concept of fossilization states that adult interlanguage stops developing short of native-like proficiency. In other words, adult L2 abilities can never become native-like. Selinker argued that children can acquire native-like proficiency because they can reengage their universal grammar (UG) processes in L2 learning adults rely more on general cognitive processes rather than innate UG processes and therefore fossilize phonology (pronunciation) is most effected by fossilization

vgotsky

Vygotsky developed the Zone of Proximal Development theory, which outlines the notion that a student's performance of certain tasks improves greatly when they are being guided by an adult or when working in a group of their peers. Vygotsky referred to these peers as More Knowledgeable Other(s) (MKO). The MKO is anyone who has a better understanding or more knowledge in the area of study than the learner. The MKO could be a teacher, coach, or peer

krashen - input hypothesis

We've talked about the importance of comprehensible input earlier in module 5. For Krashen, comprehensible input (i) was the most crucial element in L2 acquisition. However, he believed that more than comprehensible input was needed for acquisition to occur. Recall that comprehensible input are the messages that a language learner understands. These messages can come in the form of written text (books, signs, subtitles, etc.) or oral language (conversations, radio, etc.). The Input Hypothesis suggests that in order for language acquisition to occur, the learner must receive comprehensible input that is slightly above their level of language knowledge. This is often documented as comprehensible input (i) +1. The i+1 represents the next level in language. EFL instructors need to ensure that they are constantly taking the Input Hypothesis into consideration when creating and implementing modules. Instructors need to provide as much comprehensible input as possible, especially in the EFL class because learners are not exposed to the target language outside of the classroom setting.

Outer Circle

an official language, not primary, used in formal context India, Malaysia, Singapore, Ghana, Nigeria

It was a __________ sculpture.

beautiful, tall, round, Japanese, metal

Which of the following is more beneficial for L2 acquisition?

communicative output

Skinner

considered one of the most influential psychologists of the 20th century and a major proponent of behaviourism, Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner authored numerous papers on behaviour and social psychology. His work has been particularly influential in the field of learning. While most of Skinner's work did not focus on language acquisition, in 1957 he published Verbal Behavior, which argued that children learn language the same way as they learn anything else - through a system of rewards. In other words, there was nothing special about first language acquisition; it was just like learning any other skill. The following is a very brief outline of Skinner's theories. B.F. Skinner supports the theory that the acquisition of language is a building process that results from a person's positive and negative interactions with their environment. Skinner theorized that behavioural conditioning is the key to language learning. Language is acquired through the processes of stimulus and response, learning and reinforcement.

stephen krashen

developed the idea of comprehensible input. He argued that in order for input to result in L2 acquisition, it needed to be understood by the learner, while being slightly more advanced than the learner's current language level. Krashen's work on comprehensible input and other aspects of L2 development has has had considerable influence on SLA research and teaching methodologies. We will explore his theories in more detail in the next lesson.

A child will acquire an L2 faster than an adult.

false

English has more native speakers than Spanish

false

English has more native than non-native speakers.

false

Learners' L1 has a strong influence on the order of acquisition of their L2.

false

Most SLA researchers believe that explicit L2 knowledge becomes implicit L2 knowledge.

false

Using an L1 as little as possible is the best way to learn an L2.

false

Approximately 2.5 billion people are studying English as an additional language

false (1.5 bil)

Whether aptitude affects L2 development seems to depend on ___________.

how L2 proficiency is measured

phonetics

how individual speech sounds are produced and perceived, which includes the physical aspects of pronunciation (like what happens in our mouth when we make the speech sound th in the word this).

interaction hypothesis

input and output as key in fostering L2 acquisition. Simply put, when an L2 speaker communicates with a more proficient speaker, the negotiation of meaning is beneficial for a number of reasons (Long, 1996): The learner receives implicit feedback that lets them know if what they said (their output) was comprehensible (or 'correct'), which helps them form hypotheses about what is and isn't possible in the L2 and notice the gaps in their linguistic knowledge.implicit feedback might include confirmation checks (Is this what you meant?); clarification requests (Could you explain what you meant by....?); recasts (rephrasing non-standard/incorrect uses) The type of input a learner is likely to receive back when interacting with a more proficient speaker is modified. Therefore, the L2 learner receives more comprehensible input, which is key for L2 development.this might be in the form of simplification (using simpler words or grammatical structures, speaking more slowly, etc)this can also include elaboration, which results in even more input for the L2 learner Therefore: MORE OUTPUT = MORE INPUT = MORE ACQUISITION

syntax

knowledge of the sentence structures of a language. Some examples of syntactic rules are the order of the subject, verb, and object in a sentence, or the place of adjectives in relation to the nouns they describe

communicative output

language produced for a communicative purpose in an authentic meaning-making situation

Which of the following would result in explicit L2 linguistic knowledge?

learning L2 grammar rules

Which of the following would most likely be studied in an EAP course?

phrases for a visit to a hospital, note-taking methods, in-text citations

According to David Crystal, what is the main reason a language becomes a global language?

power

homophone

pronounced the same but have different meanings (ate, eight)

morphology

rules of word formation/internal structure of words. The smallest unit of grammatical form is known as a morpheme. For example, the word boy is composed of a single free morpheme, but the word boyish is composed of two morphemes - the free morpheme boy and the bound morpheme -ish.

orthography

set of rules for writing a language (like, spelling rules, for example). Some languages have a highly phonemic orthography, which means that letters closely correspond to how they are pronounced. However, English orthography is highly nonphonemic, which means that the same letter could be pronounced differently. For example, in the words bar, war, cat, an, the letter a is associated with four different vowel sounds.

homograph

spelled the same but have different pronunciations and meanings (bass)

output

spoken, written, or signed language produced by an L2 learner. Output as practice is the mechanical linguistic production associated with repetition, grammar exercises, prepared speeches, etc. (i.e. language class activities)

Expanding Circle

student as a FL Japan, China, Spain, Turkey, Saudi, Mexico

pragmatics

study of language in context. In other words, it is the focus on meaning in relation to the situation and the point of views of the people involved. Even language learners who have reached a reasonable proficiency in English can struggle with this aspect of language

semantics

study of the meaning of language, including both the meaning of individual words and phrases, and how meaning is created when these are combined into longer texts

Phonology

study of the patterns that speech sounds form in a language and how sounds are connected to meaning

EFL

teaching and learning English in a country where English is not the most predominant language used. Due to the global power of English, EFL is a popular area of study. Globally, there are approximately 40 thousand private language schools teaching EFL.

ESL

teaching and learning English in a country where English is widely used for everyday communication. For example Canada, The United States, and Britain are countries that offer ESL programs.

input

the language (spoken, written, signed, etc.) that the learner is exposed to in the target language associated with a communicative event where learners are engaged in actively trying to make meaning in the target language. the central importance of input in L2 acquisition has been universally acknowledged.

Nativist and usage-based theories of L2 acquisition both claim that input is key in L2 development.

true

There are 2x more EFL than ESL learners

true

more than half of the internet is in English

true

The Normans introduced Latin vocabulary to English.

true - Without the Normans, many of the English words derived from Latin and French would be absent

Bellugi's (and Brown's)

work showed consistent and predictable stages of language development largely independent of context and feedback, therefore refuting behaviourist notions of language learning.