Test 2 (Chapters 3 & 4)

Describe the structures in the endocrine system and explain their functions.

- Hypothalamus: control the pituitary gland - Pituitary: regulates growth, controls the thyroid, ovaries or testes, pancreas, and adrenal cortex; regulates water and salt metabolism - Thyroid: controls the metabolic rate - Adrenal Cortex: regulates carbohydrate and salt metabolism - Adrenal Medulla: prepares the body for action - Pancreas: controls levels of insulin and glucagon; regulates sugar metabolism - Ovaries (female): affect physical development, reproductive organs, and sexual behavior - Testes (male): affect physical development, reproductive organs, and sexual behavior

Describe the common visual problems.

- Myopia (nearsightedness): people have difficulty focusing on distant objects (usual cause eye is too long, in U.S. about 1 in 5). - Hyperopia (farsightedness): people have difficulty focusing on near objects (caused by the eye is too short). - Presbyopia: is caused by a gradual loss of flexibility in the natural lens of the eye (most people will develop presbyopia during middle age, results in difficulty focusing on near objects) - Astigmatism: is a defect in the curvature of cornea or lens causing zones of blurriness.

Describe the functions of the following parts of the eye: 1) Pupil 2) Iris 3) Cornea 4) Lens 5) Sclera 6) Retina 7) Fovea 8) Optic Nerve 9) Aqueous Humor 10) Vitreous Humor 11) Rods 12) Cones

1) An opening in the eye just behind the cornea through which light passes. 2) The part of the eye that gives it its color and adjusts the amount of light entering it. 3) The curved, transparent, protective layer through which light rays enter the eye. 4) The part of the eye directly behind the pupil. 5) The tough, white, fibrous tissue that covers all of the eyeball except the cornea. 6) The surface at back of the eye onto which the lens focuses light rays. 7) A region in the center of the retina. 8) A bundle of fibers that carries visual information to the brain. 9) The watery fluid between the cornea and the lens of the eye. 10) A jellylike substance in the eyeball, between the lens and the retina. 11) Photoreceptors in the retina that allow sight even in dim light but that cannot distinguish colors. 12) Photoreceptors in the retina that are less light sensitive than rods but that can distinguish colors.

Describe the following: 1) Glial Cell 2) Neuromodulator 3) Neurotransmitter 4) All-or-None Law 5) Action Potential 6) Agonist 7) Antagonist 8) Resting Potential 9) Reuptake 10) Brain Circuit 11) Refractory Period of Neuron

1) Cells in the nervous system that hold neurons together and help them communicate with each other. 2) A chemical substance or medical device that affects synaptic transmission in nerve cells. 3) Chemicals that assist in the transfer of signals from one neuron to another. 4) Firing depends on which messages predominate pushing neuron to its firing threshold. 5) An abrupt wave of electrochemical changes traveling down an axon when a neuron becomes depolarized. 6) Binds to receptor site and causes increased firing (mimics neurotransmitter). 7) Binds to receptor site and blocks receptor action (blocks neurotransmitter). 8) More positively charged ions outside than inside. 9) Reabsorption of a previously secreted substance. 10) A set of neurons affect one another. 11) A short rest period between action potentials.

Discuss the following techniques used to study the brain's structure and function and to assess brain functioning: 1) Electroencephalograph (EEG) 2) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI) 3) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 4) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 5) TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation)

1) Electrodes are pasted to the outside of the head. 2) A form of magnetic resonance imaging of the brain that registers blood flow to functioning areas of the brain. 3) A magnetic field measure radio frequency waves in the brain. 4) Radioactive substances injected into the bloodstream, indicate activity in the brain. 5) Temporarily affects electrical activity if a small region of brain by exposing it to an intense magnetic field.

Describe the roles of the following in psychological functions: 1) Acetylcholine 2) Dopamine 3) Serotonin 4) Endorphins

1) Memory, movement (Alzheimer's Disease) 2) Movement, reward (Parkinson's Disease, Schizophrenia) 3) Mood, appetite, impulsivity (Depression) 4) Pain control (No established disorder)

Describe the following Structures of the Neuron: 1) Cell Body or Soma 2) Cell Nucleus 3) Cell Membrane 4) Axon 5) Dendrite 6) Synapse 7) Synaptic Cleft 8) Terminal Button 9) Synaptic Vesicles 10) Axon Terminal 11) Nodes of Ranvier 12) Myelin Sheath

1) The compact area of a nerve cell that constitutes the nucleus and surrounding cytoplasm, excluding the axons and dendrites. 2) A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction 3) The thin membrane that forms the outer surface of the protoplasm of a cell and regulates the passage of materials in and out of the cell. 4) Fibers that carry signals from the body of a neuron out to where communication occurs with other neurons. 5) Neuron fibers that receive signals from the axons of other neurons and carry those signals to the cell body. 6) The tiny gaps between neurons across which they communicate. 7) The gap between axon and next neuron. 8) Tiny bulblike structures at the end of the dendrites, which contain neurotransmitters that carry the neuron's message into the synapse. 9) Pockets of neurotransmitters. 10) The ending of an axon which releases neurotransmitters onto a synaptic space near another neurones, muscle cell or gland. 11) Short intervals in the myelin sheaths of nerve fibers. 12) Acts as an insulator and allows signal to travel more efficiently (MS is the result of deteriorated Myelin).

Describe the functions of the following parts of the ear: 1) Pinna 2) Auditory Canal 3) Tympanic Membrane 4) Hammer 5) Anvil 6) Stirrup 7) Cochlea 8) Basilar Membrane 9) Hair Cells

1) The crumpled part of the outer ear that collects sound waves. 2) Either of the passages in the outer ear from the auricle to the tympanic membrane. 3) A tightly stretched membrane in the middle ear that generates vibrations that match the sound waves striking it. 4) The outermost and largest of the three ossicles of the ear. 5) The middle of the three ossicles of the ear 6) Attached to the oval window, which is the boundary between the middle ear and the inner ear. 7) A fluid-filled spiral structure in the inner ear in which auditory transduction occurs. 8) The floor of the fluid-filled duct that runs through the cochlea. 9) Sensory receptors in the inner ear that transform sound vibrations into messages that travel to the brain.

Describe the functions of the following structural parts of the brain: 1) Cerebellum 2) Cerebbral Cortex 3) Sulcus 4) Gyrus 5) Corpus Callosum 6) Hippocampus 7) Medulla 8) Somatosensory Cortex 9) Motor Cortex 10) Frontal Lobe 11) Occipital Lobe 12) Parietal Lobe 13) Temporal Lobe 14) Pituitary Gland 15) Thalamus

1) The part of the hindbrain whose main functions include controlling finely coordinated movements and storing memories about movement but which may also be involved in impulse control, emotion, and language. 2) The outer surface of the brain. 3) A groove or furrow; used in anatomic nomenclature to designate a linear depression, especially one of the cerebral sulci. 4) One of the many convolutions of the surface of the cerebral hemispheres caused by infolding of the cortex, separated by fissures or sulci. 5) A massive bundle of axons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres and allows them to communicate with each other. 6) A structure in the forebrain associated with the formation of new memories. 7) An area in the hindbrain that controls blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, and other vital functions. 8) Is located in the postcentral gyrus and receives all sensory input from the body. 9) The part of the cerebral cortex whose neurons control voluntary in specific parts of the body. 10) Front of the brain. Functions include language, planning, memory search, motor processing, and reasoning (prefrontal lobotomy, Phineas Gage). 11) At the back of the head. Functions include visual processing (seeing stars). 12) Top, rear of the brain. Functions include attention, spatial location, somatosensory processing (unilateral visual neglect). 13) Behind the ears. Functions include language comprehension, sound processing, entering new information in memory, and storing visual memories. 14) A gland at the base of the brain in vertebrate animals that regulates the function of most of the body's hormone-producing glands and organs, including the thyroid and adrenal glands. 15) A forebrain structure that relays signals from sense organs to higher levels in the brain and plays an important role in processing and making sense out of this information.

Describe the functions of the following major nervous systems and their key substuctures: 1) Central Nervous System (CNS) 2) Spinal Cord 3) Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 4) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 5) Sympathetic Nervous System 6) Parasympathetic Nervous System 7) Sensory-Somatic Nervous System (SSNS)

1) The parts of the nervous system encased in bone; specifically, the brain and the spinal cord. 2) The part of the central nervous system within the spinal column that relays signals from peripheral senses to the brain and conveys messages from the brain to the rest of the body. 3) A subsystem of the nervous of the peripheral nervous system that carries messages between the central nervous system and the heart, lungs, and other organs and glands. 4) The parts of the nervous system not housed in bone. 5) The subsystem of the autonomic nervous system that readies the body for vigorous activity. 6) The subsystem of the autonomic nervous system that typically influences activity related to the protection, nourishment, and growth of the body. 7) The subsystem of the peripheral nervous system that transmits information from the senses to the CNS and carries signals from the central nervous system

Describe the cues to depth provided by accommodation, convergence, and retinal disparity.

Accommodation - Accommodation occurs when the lens of the eye changes shape, by work of the ciliary muscle, to change its focus. Convergence - Convergence occurs when the eyes rotate inward to focus on a point closer than they were previously looking. Retinal Disparity - This slight difference or disparity in retinal images serves as a binocular cue for the perception of depth.

Compare and contrast the various theories of color vision and summarize the evidence for each theory: Trichromatic, opponent-process, and Retinex theory of color perception.

A theory of color vision stating that information from three types of visual elements combines to produce the sensation of color. Support comes from research on cones in the retina and receptors from red, green, and blue---color mixing. A theory of color vision stating that the visual elements that are sensitive to color are grouped into red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white pairs. Supported by types of color blindness, afterimage, and opponent cells.

Describe the volley theory and place theories of pitch perception. Explain why both theories are correct.

A theory of hearing that states that the firing rate of an acoustic nerve matches a sound waves frequency. Also called frequency matching theory. A theory of hearing that states that hair cells at a particular place on the basilar membrane respond most to a particular frequency of sound. The nervous system apparently uses more than one way to encode the range of audible frequencies.

What is the nature and importance of the myelin sheath? Which disorder results from inadequate myelinization?

Acts as an insulator and allows signal to travel more efficiently. Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Define perceptual constancy. Give examples of size, shape, and brightness constancy.

Allow us to recognize familiar stimuli under varying conditions. - Size Constancy: the size of the object remains relatively constant even though images on our retina change in size with variations in distance. - Shape Constancy: allows us to recognize people and other objects from many different angles. - Brightness Constancy: relative brightness of objects remains the same under different conditions of illumination.

Describe the components of light waves. What physical property of light do we see as Hue, Brightness and Saturation?

Amplitude (height) is the distance between the peak and the baseline of a wave. Wavelength (frequency) is the number of complete waves, or cycles, that pass a given point per unit of time. Purity (of sign wave) is the judgment to be made of the proportion of pure chromatic colour in the total sensation. Wavelength or frequency, amplitude, and purity of wave.

What are the three physical characteristics of sound waves, and which sensory qualities do these characterisitics produce?

Amplitude, frequency, and purity. Loudness, pitch, and timber.

Summarize the findings of split-brain research, and compare and contrast the abilities of the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

An apparatus for studying split-brain patients, in which an image is presented to a selected visual field. In left visual field, one cannot describe object in words and can pick object up with left hand.(Differences - spatial, artistic, musical, and facial recognition abilities) In right visual field, one can name the object and can pick object up with right hand. (Differences - logical and language abilities)

Compare and contrast bottom-up processing and top-down processing. (see Recognizing the Perceptual World)

Aspects of recognition that depend first on information about stimuli that come up to the brain from the sensory systems. Aspects of recognition guided by higher-level cognitive processes and by psychological factors such as expectations.

Describe the two basic types of hearing loss.

Conduction Deafness - problems with the mechanical system that transmits sound waves to the cochlea (can be helped with hearing aids). Nerve Deafness - caused by damaged receptors within the inner ear or damage to the auditory nerve itself (does not respond to hearing aids; caused by aging, disease, loud sounds).

How do Excitatory postsynaptic potentials differ from Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials?

Encourage firing and have a positive voltage shift, versus discourage firing and have a negative voltage shift.

Define subliminal and supraliminal stimuli.

Energy too weak to consistently detect. Energy we can consistently detect.

Describe the role of attention in perception. Describe the influences that determine the ease of directing or dividing our attention. Explain parallel processing, multitasking and effects on driving.

Inattentional (Change) Blindness is the failure of unattended stimuli to register in consciousness. Intensity, novelty, movement, contrast, repetition, motives, interests, and threats to well-being. The ability to search for targets rapidly and automatically. If two tasks require the same kind of attention, then performance on both tasks will suffer (i.e. texting and driving).

Describe the role of attention of the vestibular system in the sense of kinesthesis.

It provides the sense of body orientation or equilibrium which helps to provide feedback about our muscles' and joints' positions and movements.

Compare and contrast perception and sensation.

Organizing and interpreting our sensations into meaningful information, versus the stimulus-detection process by which our sense organs respond to and translate environmental stimuli into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain.

Describe the two basic principles of perceptual organization: figure-ground organized and grouping. Know examples of proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and common region.

Our tendency to organize stimuli into a central or foreground figure and background. Argues that the whole is more than (and different from) the sum of its parts. - Proximity: elements that are near each other are likely to be perceived as part of the same configuration. - Similarity: similar elements will be perceived as belonging together. - Continuity: People link individual elements together to form a pattern that makes sense. - Closure: People tend to fill in gaps in incomplete figures. - Common Region: Objects that share a common region are perceived as the same group.

How do glial cells differ from neurons? What are some of the functions glial cells have in the nervous system?

Primary supporting cells of the CNS, versus primary functioning cells of the CNS and information processing and communication. - Ten times more cells than neurons - Fills the gap between neurons - Supports and feeds neurons - Cleans up dead neurons and extra neurotransmitters - Alters how much neurotransmitter is released - Prods neurons to form new synapses - Involved in the perception of pain

Explain how the sense of taste works, and discuss how taste is connected to smell.

Results from complex patterns of neural activity produced by taste buds with mixed odors. The senses of smell and taste are directly related because they both use the same types of receptors. If one's sense of smell is not functional, then the sense of taste will also not function because of the relationship of the receptors.

Define difference threshold or just-noticeable difference (JND). What is Weber's law?

Smallest difference between two stimuli that people can perceive 50% of the time. The difference threshold is directly proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus with which the comparison is being made.

What does neural plasticity mean and how might we see repair from brain damage?

The ability to create new synapses and to change the strength of synapses. One approach has been to transplant, or graft, tissue from the still-developing brain of a fetus (or other species) into the brain of an adult animal.

Describe how sensitivity to stimuli and response criterion factor into signal-detection theory. Describe how information can change a person's response criterion.

The ability to detect a stimulus and the willingness to respond to stimulus influenced by motivation and expectancies, factor into the mathematical model of what determines a person' report of a near-threshold stimulus because it is dependent on that combination. A person's motivations as well as expectations affect response bias, such as expecting a faint stimulus to occur lowers the response criterion.

Define and describe depth perception. Describe the stimulus cues that influence depth perception. (Your answer should include interposition, relative size, texture gradients, linear perspective, and motion parallax.)

The ability to see objects in three dimensions and allow us to judge distance. - Interposition: closer object blocks distant object. - Relative Size: smaller image is more distant. - Texture Gradients: as distance increases a texture gradually become denser and less distant. - Linear Perspective: parallel lines seem to converge. - Motion Parallax: distant objects will appear slow while compared to near objects.

Neuron (Sensory, Motor, Interneuron)

The basic unit of the nervous system. - Cells in the nervous system that provide information to the brain about the environment (receives signals from neurons or sense organs). - Cells in the nervous system that the brain uses to influence muscles and other organs to respond to the environment in some way (sends signals to other neurons, muscles, or organs). - A neuron that transmits impulses between other neurons, especially as part of a reflex arc (processes signals).

What is sensory adaptation? What is transduction?

The decreasing responsiveness to the stimulus over time. The process of converting incoming physical energy into neural impulses.

What is inattentional blindness or change blindness.

The failure of unattended stimuli to register in consciousness.

Describe the cues used to perceive motion, and the illusion called stroboscopic motion.

The primary cue is the movement of stimulus across the retina. Creates an illusion of movement with two carefully timed flashing lights. A light briefly flashes at one location, followed about a tenth of a second later by another light briefly flashing at a second location. If the time interval and distance between the two flashing lights are just right, a very compelling illusion of movement is created.

Describe the stimuli and receptors involved in gustation and olfaction. Why do these researchers sometimes refer to a common chemical sense?

The sense of taste. - Responds to only four qualities: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. - Taste buds that are the chemical receptors concentrated along the tip, edges, and back surface of the tongue. The sense of smell. - Receptors are long cells that project through the nasal cavity and into the muccous membrane. - Specific Anosmia - Olfactory Bulb: a forebrain structure immediately above the nasal cavity. These senses are so intertwined that some scientists refer to a common chemical sense.

Define psychophysics and absolute threshold.

The study of relationship between the physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experiences of that stimuli. The minimum amount of energy that can be detected 50% of the time.

How are the rods and cones distributed in the retina, and how do they contribute to brightness perception, color vision, and visual activity?

There are 90-120 million of them. Very sensitive to light, only register shades of gray, and not in fovea. There are 4.5-6 million of them. Sensitive to particular wavelengths, produce color vision, denser near fovea.

What four tactile sensation are humans sensitive to?

Touch, hot, cold, and pain.

How do postsynaptic potentials and action potentials differ?

Voltage change at receptor site which changes the probability of the postsynaptic neuron firing (NOT All-or-none law), versus "Firing" threshold exceeded and flow of ions through channels in membrane (All-or-none law).