Test 2 MGMT 330

Perception

the process of selecting, organizing, storing, and retrieving information about the environment o These can be useful, but it can often lead to distorted versions of reality

boundary conditions explanation

"Does adding or increasing the five job characteristics work for everyone?" "Should we give everyone more variety, autonomy, etc. in their jobs?" *No*....in general, before investing in increasing and/or adding the five job characteristics, we need to ask ourselves a few questions...

Integrity

"Does this person adhere to a set of values and principles (such as integrity and honesty) that I find acceptable?"

Benevolence

"Does this person want to do good for me, apart from any selfish or profit-centered motives?"

Valence

"How much do I value the outcome?"

Time Pressure

"I have a tight deadline that I need to meet" Ex: You are assigned a project at work by your boss that you are excited about, it it also has a deadline that cannot be missed.

Expectancy

"If I exert the effort, what are the chances I will reach a performance goal?"

Instrumentality

"If I reach a performance goal, what are the chances I will receive an outcome?"

Work Responsibility

"Many people depend on me" Ex: You are given the role of a trainer at work. It's your job to train all new employees on the company policies and procedures.

Self-serving bias

"The tendency to attribute ones' own failures to external factors and successes to internal factors" In the group project, you are approaching the deadline to complete your portion of the paper, but you are unable to complete it in time because the professor didn't give you enough information and guidelines to do your portion (you blame the failure on something or someone else--external factor).

Work Complexity

"The work that I'm doing really challenges me in terms of the knowledge, skills, or abilities required" o Ex: You are assigned a task at work that stretches your skill set.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

(unconscious) a theory that explains changes in the body as it adapts to stressors o This theory is focused on what is going on in our body as we experience stress

Consensus

Did others act the same way under similar situations? Low= Internal Attribution High= External Attribution

three characteristics of effort

Direction Intensity Persistence

three levels of trust

Disposition-Based Trust Cognition-Based Trust Affect-Based Trust

Imagine you are at a meeting for work and your co-worker, this is very unlike Suzy because *not only is she never late for meetings, but she is always on time to work, she's the first one back from break, and she never misses a deadline*, so it must be an issue with..... _________ __________ (high/low) (Attribution type)

High Distinctiveness

Every hour, on the hour, your supervisor monitors your calls for 10 Minutes. Schedule of Reinforcement is...?

Fixed Interval

You go to work and every two weeks you are rewarded with a paycheck Schedule of Reinforcement is...?

Fixed Interval every= fixed two weeks= interval/time

Which reinforcement schedules have fixed schedules?

Fixed Interval Fixed Ratio

Which reinforcement schedules are based on time?

Fixed Interval Variable Interval *remember interval = TIME*

Your supervisor monitors every third call you make Schedule of Reinforcement is...?

Fixed Ratio

You are getting paid for taking online surveys. You get paid after every 10 surveys you take, no matter how long it takes you to complete them Schedule of Reinforcement is...?

Fixed Ratio Fixed #= 10 surveys Behavior= taking the survery *no matter how long it takes to complete them*

Which reinforcement schedules are based on behaviors?

Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio *remember ratio = BEHAVIOR*

Imagine you are at a meeting for work and your co-worker, Suzy and 5 others are late, so it must be an issue with..... _________ __________ (high/low) (Attribution type)

High Consensus

Imagine you are at a meeting for work and your co-worker, Suzy is always late to work meetings, so it must be an issue with..... _________ __________ (high/low) (Attribution type)

High Consistency

Trustworthiness

characteristics or attributes of a person that inspire trust

Identity

completing a whole, identifiable piece of work

Knowledge and Skills

components necessary to do their job

three components of expectancy

expectancy instrumentality valence

Explicit Knowledge

knowledge that is easily communicated and available to everyone

that individuals who are not very "morally developed" are

less likely to identify the morally "right" course of action

Negative Life Events

life events that tend to be appraised as a hindrance o Events such as the death of a close friend or family member, a divorce or ending of a relationship, etc. can all fall into this category.

Secondary Prevention

manage reactions to stressors o Raise stress awareness. Ex: hold training classes on types of stressors, o Help individuals learn effective coping strategies o Give individuals social support

Co-workers correlation with overall job satisfaction (ranking)

moderately important, ranked 3rd out of 5 components

Work Itself correlation with overall job satisfaction (ranking)

most/very important, ranked 1st out of 5 components

Which reinforcement contingencies involve removing an outcome?

negative reinforcement (*remove* a negative *outcome*) extinction (*remove* a positive *outcome*)

Which reinforcement contingencies *involve* negative outcomes?

negative reinforcement (remove a *negative* outcome) punishment (receive a *negative* outcome)

Promotion correlation with overall job satisfaction (ranking)

not as important, ranked 4th out of 5 components

To Increase Valence

o Choose rewards that employees desire--ask them what they want and do what is reasonable o Make sure rewards are considered fair--don't give one employee a $5 gift card and then give another a free week of vacation for reaching the same performance goal! o Give employees choice over rewards--have a few options, this way you are more likely to have an option an employee values

Positive Affective Reactions

o Employees are more likely to engage in spontaneous citizenship behaviors and less likely to engage in spontaneous counterproductive behaviors. o Employees are more likely to experience "flow" (a state in which employees feel a total immersion in the task at hand, sometimes losing track of how much time has passed).

To Increase Expectancy

o Make sure employees have proper skills, abilities, and knowledge--if they don't have it, either train them or assign the task to another employee that does! o Remove obstacles to performance--uncover any tangible barriers to success and try to remove them! o Provide encouragement to make people believe that their efforts matter--focus on their self-efficacy

Which reinforcement contingencies attempt to decrease undesired behaviors?

punishment extinction

Moral Judgment

the ability to accurately identify the morally "right" course of action

Self-Efficacy

the belief that a person has the capabilities needed to execute the behaviors required for task success.

Moral Intent

the degree of commitment to the moral course of action

Ethics

the degree to which the behaviors of an authority are in accordance with generally accepted moral norms

stressor

the demands that cause people to experience stress

If equity ratio is not balanced

the employee will experience internal tension and will direct effort towards alleviating tension by restoring balance

If equity ratio is balanced

the employee will feel a sense of equity and maintain his/her direction, intensity, and persistence of effort.

Social Support

the help people receive when they are confronted with stressful demands *can be physical and emotional

Emotional Labor

the need to manage emotions to complete job duties successfully Ex: Think about that call center worker. They were yelled at over the phone by a customer. It can be emotionally exhausting having to be friendly and professional while being yelled at.

strain

the negative consequences of the stress response

Justice

the perceived fairness of an authority's decision making "are you being fair"

Distributive Justice

the perceived fairness of decision-making *outcomes*; are the decision *outcomes* (pay, rewards, evaluations, promotions, work assignments, grades, etc) fair?

Informational Justice

the perceived fairness of the *communications* provided to employees from authorities (employer, manager, etc.)

Procedural Justice

the perceived fairness of the decision-making process

Interpersonal Justice

the perceived fairness of the treatment received by employees from authorities (employers, managers, someone in a position above them, etc.) how employees feel they were treated

Alarm Reaction

we are temporarily susceptible to stress. Our body responds by releasing chemical compounds that increase our blood pressure and heart rate.

Goal Setting Theory

what aspects of the goal (target) impact an individual's motivation and performance

Is learning a good predictor of organizational commitment?

yes

Role Conflict

you are asked to do two competing things, which causes conflict since you don't know which one to do. ex: On the one hand, my boss want me to do 'x task'. On the other hand, my boss wants me to do 'y task'. I can't do both at the same time so either way, my boss is unhappy".

Learning Orientation

you are focused on Building Competence - increasing your knowledge, ability, and skills. this type of orientation would enjoy trying something new. aren't concerned with failing, are focused on learning new things. don't view failure negatively, they view it as a way to increase their knowledge and skills.

Fixed Interval

you are rewarded after a *Fixed* (always the same) Amount of *Time*

Fixed Ratio

you are rewarded after a *Fixed* (always the same) Number of *Behaviors*

Variable Interval

you are rewarded after a *Variable* Amount of *Time*

Variable Ratio

you are rewarded after a *Variable* Number of *Behaviors*

To Increase your Outcomes

you could demand a raise from your supervisor -or- engage in counterproductive behaviors like stealing from your employer. Maybe someone asked their boss for more money, they were told no, so they decided to take some money/merchandise/equipment/etc from their employer to "even out" the ratio.

Secondary Appraisal

you determine what you can do to alleviate the stress

Primary Appraisal

you experience a demand and determine whether it is a stressor

cognitive approach

you mentally did something when faced with stress

behavioral approach

you physically did some sort of action/behavior when faced with stress

For informational justice, what are the steps one can take to ensure that people feel the communications they receive are fair?

*Justification* (were the outcomes and procedures explained in a comprehensive and reasonable manner?) *Truthfulness* (were the communications honest and candid?)

For interpersonal justice, what are the steps one can take to ensure people feel they are treated fairly?

*Respect* *Propriety* (did the authority (employer, manager, etc) avoid making improper or offensive remarks?)

how do you increase Procedural Justice?

*Voice* (allow those who were being evaluated or impacted to have chance to provide input) *Correctability* (are there ways to correct or appeal decisions?) *Consistency* (are procedures and evaluations consistent across people and time?) *Bias Suppression* (are procedures and evaluations neutral and unbiased?) *Representativeness* (are procedures for evaluations fair to all groups represented? Ex: You have a generic performance evaluation at work. All employees are rated on their skills at selling. The payroll department is not involved in the selling process, but they are still being rated on tasks that are not part of their job (i.e. sales).) *Accuracy* (are procedures and evaluations based on accurate information)

Intensity

*how much effort* are you applying? The more motivated you are to accomplish a target, the more effort you are going to direct towards that target.

What are the phases of GAS?

1. Alarm Reaction 2. Stage of Resistance 3. Stage of Exhaustion

Some things an individual can do to get back to an equitable relationship/restore equity:

1. Change behavior (increase or decrease inputs or outcomes) 2. Change cognitions 3. Change the comparison other 4. Leave the situation

the four dimensions of justice

1. Distributive Justice 2. Procedural Justice 3. Interpersonal Justice 4. Informational Justice

Job Characteristics Theory states that satisfying jobs create three critical psychological states:

1. Meaningfulness of Work 2. Responsibility for Outcomes 3. Knowledge of Results

Four steps of the Model of Ethical Decision Making

1. Moral Awareness 2. Moral Judgement 3. Moral intent 4. Ethical Behavior

different types of strains

1. Physiological Strains 2. Psychological Strain 3. Behavioral Strains

conscious phases to dealing with stress

1. Primary Appraisal 2. Secondary Appraisal

following job characteristics are associated with high levels of the three psychological states:

1. Variety 2. Identity 3. Significance 4. Autonomy 5. Feedback

Under which condition of inequity is a person most likely to increase inputs? A. overreward B. underreward

A. Overreward

Under which condition of inequity is a person most likely to decrease outcomes? A. overreward B. underreward

A. overreward

three key attributes that you are evaluating with Cognition-Based Trust to determine an individual's Trustworthiness:

Ability Integrity Benevolence

How do we rely on the different factors of trust to a different degree over time/what guides our willingness to trust someone: when we know the person well enough to know what kind of person they are

After you got to know them over time, you were able to cognitively evaluate their Trustworthiness, which led to Cognition-Based Trust

Faulty Attributions

Attributions refer to how we explain actions and events that occur around us

Under which condition of inequity is a person most likely to decrease inputs? A. overreward B. underreward

B. underreward

Under which condition of inequity is a person most likely to increase outcomes? A. overreward B. underreward

B. underreward

Why is it important to understand the type of stressor?

Both Challenge and Hindrance Stressors are positively associated with strain--they both cause stress and stress leads to strains

What factors influence Moral Awareness?

Characteristics of the Individual Characteristics of the Situation

What factors influence Moral Judgment? (whether an individual will identify the morally right thing to do?)

Characteristics of the Individual - this is based on your "Cognitive Moral Development" ^This is based on Kohlberg's theory that as people age and mature, they move through various stages of moral development--each phase is more mature and sophisticated than the prior one. It states that those who are in the higher phases of Cognitive Moral Development should have better Moral Judgment.

the three types of information that can be used to determine whether someone else's behavior should be attributed to internal factors or external factors

Consensus Distinctiveness Consistency

Bounded Rationality

Decision makers do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and alternatives to make an optimal decision

Consistency

Does this person always do this when performing this task? High= Internal Attribution Low= External Attribution

Ability

Does this person have the skills, abilities, and areas of expertise that enable him/her to be successful in this situation

Distinctiveness

Does this person tend to act differently in other circumstances? Low= Internal Attribution High= External Attribution

What does Affective Events Theory mean for employers?

Employees will have Fluctuations in Satisfaction throughout the workday

For distributive justice, what are the norms people commonly use to evaluate whether an outcome is fair?

Equity Norms Equality Norms Need Norms

Every time Sally gets a table wrong, you ignore her for a few minutes reinforcement contingency is...?

Extinction

o Antecedent - When my boss is at the office o Behavior - I slack off and avoid work o Consequence - My boss stops praising me reinforcement contingency is...?

Extinction

T/F Challenge Stressors have a linear relationship with many important outcomes (Job Satisfaction, Job Performance, Organizational Commitment).

False, an inverted-U shaped relationship

Difficult and specific goals have no impact in individuals being more likely to pay attention to the task at hand and create strategies to accomplish the task

False, they do result in individuals being more likely to do these things

How do we rely on the different factors of trust to a different degree over time/what guides our willingness to trust someone: when we know the person very well

Finally, you love that person and now your level of trust has moved to Affect-Based Trust

What is the relationship between the *Challenge* Stressors and Job Satisfaction, Job Performance, and Organizational Commitment?

If there are no or few challenge stressors present, your Job Satisfaction, Job Performance, and Organizational Commitment is low. If there are too many challenge stressors (bottom right part of "U" in graph), your Job Satisfaction, Job Performance, and Organizational Commitment is low. What you need to find is that happy place in the middle for challenge stressors. With medium or moderate levels of Challenge Stressors (top part of the "U" in graph), you find high levels of Job Satisfaction, Job Performance, and Organizational Commitment

Role Overload

In this case, you have too much on your plate "There is so much work to do; there's no way I'll be able to do it all"

Role Ambiguity

In this situation, you aren't given clear directions, expectations, and/or goals. "I'm not sure what I'm supposed to be doing"

How do we influence Goal Commitment?

Increase the attractiveness of goal attainment Increase expectancy of goal attainment

Goal Commitment

Individuals are committed to trying to accomplish the goal

boundary conditions

Knowledge and Skills Growth-Need Strength

three types of Goal Orientations/predisposition

Learning Orientation Performance-Prove Orientation Performance-Avoid Orientation

Pay correlation with overall job satisfaction (ranking)

Least important, ranked 5th out of 5 components

Imagine you are at a meeting for work and your co-worker, Suzy is never late to work meetings, so it must be an issue with..... _________ __________ (high/low) (Attribution type)

Low Consistency

Imagine you are at a meeting for work and your co-worker, Suzy is always late for *everything—work meetings, deadlines at work, comes into work late, takes long lunches, etc.*, so it must be an issue with..... _________ __________ (high/low) (Attribution type)

Low Distinctiveness

Model of Ethical Decision Making Summary

Moral Awareness is about knowing an ethical issue exists, Moral Judgment is how you determine the right thing to do in the situation, and Moral Intent is knowing what the right thing to do is and actually doing it.

Equity Theory

Motivation is maximized when an employee's ratio of outcomes to inputs matches those of some comparison other deals with perceptions We are constantly comparing ourselves to others

intrinsic motivation

Motivation originates from inside you there isn't a tangible reward you will receive

Every time Sally gets a table right, she doesn't have to clean the bathroom reinforcement contingency is...?

Negative Reinforcement

o Antecedent - When my boss is at the office o Behavior - I work hard and stay on task o Consequence - My boss tells me I don't have to stay late at work today reinforcement contingency is...?

Negative Reinforcement

Equity Norms

Outcomes are allocated based on inputs o Ex: A pay for performance system is a good example of this. If a company pays employees based on Equity Norms, the higher an employee's work performance, the higher their pay is. Those who put in the most inputs (effort, performance, etc.) get more outcomes (money, recognition, awards, etc.).

Need Norms

Outcomes are allocated based on needs o Ex: Financial Aid (scholarships and grants) are awarded to students based on financial need.

Equality Norms

Outcomes are allocated equally to all o Ex: All students at ODU have access to the Student Rec Center. This is an outcome that is distributed equally to ALL students, regardless of income, grades, class standing, etc.

What factors influence an individual's self-efficacy?

Personal Experiences Vicarious Experiences Social Persuasion Moods & Emotions Physiological Factors

Reward Sally with a free drink every time she gets the tables right reinforcement contingency is...?

Positive Reinforcement

o Antecedent - When my boss is at the office o Behavior - I work hard and stay on task o Consequence - My boss gives me a raise reinforcement contingency is...?

Positive Reinforcement

Which reinforcement contingencies attempt to increase desired behaviors?

Positive reinforcement negative reinforcement

In terms of reinforcement, what are the different reinforcement contingencies?

Positive reinforcement negative reinforcement punishment extinction

Which reinforcement contingencies involve receiving an outcome?

Positive reinforcement (*receive* a positive *outcome*) punishment (*receive* a negative *outcome*)

Which reinforcement contingencies involve positive outcomes?

Positive reinforcement (receiving a *positive* outcome) Extinction (Remove *positive* outcomes)

How does Type A moderate the Stressor→Stress→Strain relationship?

Primary Appraisal phase: individuals are more likely to take on more demands and they are more likely to view those demands as Stressors. They may also be prone to more interpersonal conflict due to their aggressive and highly competitive behavior Secondary Appraisal phase: Individuals are more likely to view demands as Stressors which causes them to experience more Stress. Type A Behavior Patterns experience more strains as a result of the high levels of stress they experience

What can organizations do to combat stress at work?

Primary Prevention; Manage the stressors in the Primary Appraisal phase Secondary Prevention; Manage the Stress in the Secondary Appraisal phase

Every time Sally gets a table wrong, she has to clean the bathroom reinforcement contingency is...?

Punishment

o Antecedent - When my boss is at the office o Behavior - I slack off and avoid work o Consequence - My boss yells at me reinforcement contingency is...?

Punishment

Types of Hindrance Stressors

Role Conflict Role Ambiguity Role Overload Daily Hassles Work-Family Conflict Negative Life Events

Work-Family Conflict

Role conflict in which the demands of a work role hinder the fulfillment of the demands in a family role. We can see this as "work-to-family conflict" or as "family-to-work conflict" o Ex: You have a deadline at work and need to stay late to finish a project, but you also told your mom that you would meet her for dinner. This causes a conflict between your work and family responsibilities.

How does social support moderate the Stressor→Stress→Strain relationship?

Social Support can help in the Primary Appraisal phase if you have others that can take on some of the demands that you have (either at home, work, or school), so that all the demands don't turn into Stressors

Moral Awareness

The ability to recognize that a moral issue exists in a situation or than an ethical standard is relevant being able to see that some ethical dilemma or ethical issue exists

Classic justice study where a manufacturing company was forced to reduce its payroll by temporarily cutting employee wages in two separate plants: What was the outcome of the study?

The employees in Plant A (red line) that heard the speech with low Interpersonal and low Informational Justice engaged in significantly higher %'s of employee theft (a counterproductive behavior) during the temporary wage cuts. The employees in Plant B (green line) that heard the speech with high Interpersonal and high Informational Justice did see an increase in employee theft (a counterproductive behavior), but it was a much lower % than at Plant A. This shows that the difference in the speeches from Plant A to Plant B had an impact how the employees behaved at work. Plant C did not apply since no speech was done as they didnt experience cuts.

Is trust a good predictor of task performance?

The more an employee trusts their organization, supervisor, etc, they will tend to have higher levels of Task Performance

Direction

The more motivated you are to accomplish a target, the more you are going to direct effort towards that target *and away from other targets*

How do the components combine to impact overall motivation?

The relationship is Multiplicative. In order for motivation to be high, all three of those components must be high. If either component is low, motivation is low. To remember this, think about what happens when you multiply anything by 0.

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to judge others' behaviors as due to internal factors" o Ex: in a group project one of your group members didn't turn in their portion on time, you would say that the group member didn't turn the paper in because they were lazy and not prepared

Trust

The willingness to be vulnerable to an authority based on positive expectations about the authority's actions and intentions.

Types of Challenge Stressors

Time Pressure Work Complexity Work Responsibility Family Time Demands Personal Development Positive Life Events

T/F Difficult and specific goals result in individuals being more likely to exert more intensity and persistence to accomplish the task

True

T/F Your immune System has a decreased ability to ward off illness and infection when strained.

True

T/F strains increase as both types of Stressors--Hindrance & Challenge--increase

True

T/F Positive Reinforcement and Extinction are often better because they don't create feelings of animosity or conflict

True • With Negative Reinforcement, you take away something bad, so there has to be something bad present for you to take away. • With Punishment, you are delivering something bad.

Is trust a good predictor of organizational commitment?

Trust has a strong positive relationship with Organizational Commitment. Employees with high levels of trust for their organization, supervisor, etc, tend to have higher levels of Affective Commitment and higher levels of Normative Commitment. Trust has no impact on Continuance Commitment.

Every once in a while, your supervisor monitors your calls for 10 minutes. You never know which 10 minutes you are being monitored. Schedule of Reinforcement is...?

Variable Interval

You set up your fishing pole and wait. After some amount of time (hopefully), you are rewarded with a fish biting on your line. The amount of time between fish bites is not the same Schedule of Reinforcement is...?

Variable Interval The amount of *time* is not the same, it *varies*

Which reinforcement schedules have variable schedules?

Variable Interval Variable Ratio

Your supervisor occasionally monitors your calls, but you never know which call they are monitoring.

Variable Ratio

When I put coins in the slot machine, I might win two times in a row or I might lose ten times in a row.... Schedule of Reinforcement is...?

Variable Ratio putting slots in a machine= Ratio/ Behavior I might lose... i might win...= varies

Variable

Varies

anchoring and adjustment heuristic

We are heavily influenced by an initial number "Anchor" and we often don't deviate "Adjust" too far from the point Ex: You ask your administrative assistant (who knows very little about the profession or industry) to estimate the starting annual salary for a medical laser engineer and your assistant guesses $45,000 What if the administrative assistant said $145,000? •Its found that when students were given $45,000 as the salary, the average salary they gave was about $60,000. When given $145,000, the average salary was $120,000.

What is the Representativeness Heuristic?

When one makes a judgment of the likelihood that a person or an object is a member of a specific category based on feature similarity. Ex: "Steve is very shy and withdrawn, invariably helpful, but with little interest in people, or the world of reality. A meek and tidy soul, he has a need for order and structure, and a passion for detail." Steve is most likely a _______. 1. Librarian 2. Salesman 3. Pilot 4. Physician most would choose librarians without looking at the facts Per US Bureau of Labor Statistics, there are 126,800 librarians employed in the US. • Let's guess that 99% of librarians match that description. So, if we take 126,800 x 0.99 = 125,532 librarians • According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, there are 14,522,580 salespeople employed in the US. • Let's guess only 1% match that description. Most of the time we think of salespeople as outgoing, but we can guess at least 1% are like Steve. So, if we take 14,522,580 x 0.01 = 145,226. That's still more than the total number of librarians employed in the US. This shows that based on the Representativeness Heuristic, we would assume Steve is a librarian, when he is actually more likely to be a Salesman!

likelihood of overcoming stressors

When we first experience a stressor in the Alarm Reaction stage, our likelihood of overcoming the stressor dips down at first until our body starts working to prepare itself. As we experience prolonged stressors in the Stage of Exhaustion, we are tired and begin to experience strains

According to the "Stress in America" survey, what are the major factors contributing to stress?

Work (74%) Money (which you get from working 73%) Workload (66%)

Is learning a good predictor of task performance?

Yes

Is trust a good predictor of citizenship behaviors?

Yes, The more an employee trusts their organization, supervisor, etc, they will tend to have higher levels of Citizenship Behaviors

Is job satisfaction a good predictor of task performance?

Yes, because there is a moderate positive relationship between Job Satisfaction with Task Performance This means that employees that are happy with their job have higher levels of Task Performance

Is motivation a good predictor of task performance?

Yes, multiple factors contribute to this as the difficulty of a goal increases from "easy" to "difficult", task performance also increases. The best task performance is achieved when goals are difficult If your boss takes the time to check in on your progress and regularly lets you know how you are doing, the higher your task performance will be!

Changing Comparison Others

You decide to compare yourself to someone else that doesn't make you feel either over- or under-rewarded o Ex: You were feeling over-rewarded. Your comparison other was a new employee, so you decided to change to a comparison other that started working at the organization at the same time you did

What happens when you feel under-rewarded?

You would experience negative emotions (anger or envy) Instead of being focused on work, you would instead be focused on why your co-worker is making more money than you. You would attempt to restore equity (your goal is to have a balanced ratio).

What happens when you feel over-rewarded?

You would experience negative emotions (guilt or anxiety) you may be wondering if someone will find out and decrease your pay (anxiety) or feel bad because you know you are doing less than your co-worker but that you are both paid the same (guilty).

Trust Propensity

a general expectation that the words, promises, and statements of individuals and groups can be relied upon your overall "faith in human nature". How trusting are you

Value-Percept Theory formula

a job is dissatisfying if there is a discrepancy (difference) between some value (pay, coworkers, supervisor, promotional opportunities, etc) you want compared to (in the formula it takes what you want minus what you have) what you have (are getting from your job) AND that value is something that is very important to you.

Value-Percept Theory

a job is satisfying if it supplies what you value. This also means that a job is dissatisfying if it doesn't supply something that you value

Growth-Need Strength

a need for personal accomplishment and developing oneself beyond where one currently is

stress

a psychological response to demands for which there is something at stake for the individual and where coping with these demands taxes or exceeds a person's capacity or resources o Stress is a "psychological experience"

Motivation

a set of energetic forces that originate within and outside the employee and that initiates work-related effort and determines its direction, intensity and persistence

Cognitive Distortion

a way to distort your perception of inputs or outcomes o Ex: You are feeling under-rewarded as your co-worker is making more money than you. You initially felt that your inputs were the same. After thinking about the situation, the reason your co-worker's outcomes are greater is due to your co-worker's level of experience. Your co-worker's inputs are actually greater than yours.

Expectancy Theory

aims to answer the question: "what determines how motivated an individual will be to pursue a particular target?".

Fixed

always the same

What is the availability heuristic?

an assessment of the frequency or probability of an event based on the ease with which instances or occurrences can be brought to mind occurrences *available* to your mind The heuristic: The more readily information comes to mind, the more weight it receives in our decision making The problem: Certain factors make it easier to think of examples and may or may not be good indicators of the true frequency of class A or probability of event A

What is the relationship between the *Hindrance* Stressors and Job Satisfaction, Job Performance, and Organizational Commitment?

as Hindrance Stressors increase, outcomes like Job Satisfaction, Job Performance, and Organizational Commitment decrease and vice versa

Decrease your Outcomes

ask for a pay reduction volunteering time at the organization, reducing outcomes gained through counterproductive behaviors (maybe you were stealing from your employer, but then you found out you were being paid more than your comparison other, so you decided to stop stealing)

What is Job Satisfaction?

based on both cognition (what you think about your job) and affect (how you feel about your job).

Coping

behaviors and thoughts used to manage stressful demands and the emotions associated with those demands

Stressor→Stress→Strain relationship is helpful because:

by differentiating between these three constructs, we can understand how individual difference factors (like personality) and organizational interventions (like ODU's comfort chairs) impact individuals' experiences with stress and their ability to cope with stress

Cognition-Based Trust

can only happen once you have known someone long enough to cognitively evaluate their Trustworthiness

Decrease your Inputs

decrease your task performance ("if I'm getting paid less, I'm going to put in less effort") or decrease citizenship behaviors ("if I'm getting paid less, I'm not going to help out the organization or anyone else in it")

Job Characteristics Theory

describes the central characteristics of intrinsically satisfying jobs (jobs that are naturally satisfying just by doing them vs some external reward)

extrinsic motivation

due to some external reward

Primary Prevention

eliminate hindrance stressors and create optimal levels (medium/moderate amounts) of challenge stressors. ex: o Create Role Clarity to eliminate Role Conflict o Make work challenging, but not impossible o Improve communication o Hire the right employees o Train employees appropriately

Increase your Inputs

engage in higher levels of task performance or citizenship behaviors

External Attribution

environmental factors are to blame

Positive Life Events

events that tend to be appraised as a challenge o Ex: Getting engaged is a positive life event, but planning a wedding can cause A LOT of stress!

Persistence

for *how long* are you willing to apply effort? The more motivated you are to accomplish a target, the longer you will persist at applying effort towards that target.

punishment

goal is to decrease an undesired behavior Receive negative outcome

extinction

goal is to decrease an undesired behavior Remove positive outcome

Positive reinforcement

goal is to increase a desired behavior receives positive outcome

negative reinforcement

goal is to increase a desired behavior remove negative outcome

emotion-focused approach

goal was targeted at changing your emotions from negative ones to positive ones

problem-focused approach

goal was to fix the problem, so you chose a strategy that would help prepare you

Disposition-Based Trust

has everything to do with YOU and nothing to do with the person you are trying to determine whether or not to trust (or the scenario). deals with your Trust Propensity.

Value-Percept Theory explains how two people could have the same job and how one of them could...

hate the job and the other could love it

Significance

having a substantial impact on others

Feedback

having clear information about how well work is done

Autonomy

having freedom, independence, and discretion

physiological factors

how comfortable the environment is

What is the relationship between Distributive & Procedural Justice?

how employees feel, or react, toward their employer when Distributive Justice is low depends on Procedural Justice. If an employee perceives that Procedural Justice was high--the decision-making process was fair--they won't be mad or upset with their employer. If an employee perceives that Procedural Justice was low--the decision-making process was not fair--they will be mad and upset with their employer.

Personal Experiences

if someone has experienced success with completing a task in the past, they are more likely to believe they can be successful with it again

Vicarious Experiences

if someone knows someone or has heard of someone that successfully completed a task, they are more likely to believe they can be successful with it

Supervisor correlation with overall job satisfaction (ranking)

important, ranked 2nd out of 5 components

Stage of Resistance

increased arousal (due to increased blood pressure and heart rate). This helps individuals physically and mentally adapt to stress.

Internal Attribution

individual factors such as ability, motivation, or attitude

difficult and specific goals more are more effective when...

individuals receive feedback along the way when tasks are simple but the goals are difficult when individuals are committed to the goals

Ratio

instances of behavior

Performance-Prove Orientation

is focused on demonstrating competence so that others will think favorably about you

Performance-Avoid Orientation

is focused on demonstrating so that others will not think poorly of you.

Is job satisfaction a good predictor of organizational commitment?

it has been found that Job Satisfaction has a strong positive relationship with both Affective Commitment and Normative Commitment. There is a weak relationship between Job Satisfaction and Continuance Commitment

The Impact of Goal Difficulty on Performance

it's important to note that the difficulty of the goal matters. In order to increase an individual's task performance, you want the goal to be difficult but not impossible

Tacit Knowledge

knowledge that is difficult (if not impossible) to communicate and is generally learned through experience

To Increase Instrumentality

o Reward employees for performance (and not things that are unrelated to performance)--you want them to see a clear connection between reaching a performance goal and some sort of outcome o Inform people about rewards in advance--let them know what they are working for and make sure you give the reward in a timely manner (not 2 months after the goal was achieved)

Personal Development

participating in activities outside of work that foster growth and learning Ex: You are part of a student organization on campus and you have to plan out time in your schedule so that you can attend meetings and events.

Intervals

passage of time

Emotional Contagion

people can "catch" or be "infected by" the emotions of other people The more positive attitudes in the workplace, the more likely those positive attitudes will spread and vice versa for negative attitudes

variety

performing different activities requiring different skills

Goal Orientation

predisposition or attitudes toward learning and performance influence how you learn

Stage of Exhaustion

repeated or prolonged exposure to stressors lead to strains.

Heuristics

simple, efficient rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more easily Which value is Larger? A) 951 + 764 *B) 951 x 764 simple, efficient* • Advantage: Simple, rules of thumb allow us to make decisions quickly and easily • Disadvantage: Heuristics can bias us towards inaccurate decisions

Characteristics of the Individual

someone's "Moral Attentiveness" can influence their Moral Awareness o Moral Attentiveness captures the degree to which people chronically perceive and consider issues of morality during their experiences

Mood

states of feeling that are often mild in intensity, last for an extended period of time, and are not explicitly directed at or caused by anything • Ex: You woke up this morning and you were just feeling "blue". It wasn't caused by anything you can identify, but that feeling stated with you all day.

Emotions

states of feelings that are often intense, last only a few minutes, and are clearly directed at (and caused by) someone or some circumstance • Ex: You work at a call center and just got yelled at over the phone by a customer for something you didn't do. After this call, you are angry and upset.

Hindrance Stressors

stressful demands that are perceived as hindering progress toward personal accomplishment or goal attainment o These hindrance stressors may trigger negative emotions, such as anger and anxiety

Challenge Stressors

stressful demands that are perceived as opportunities for learning, growth, and achievement `This type of stressor may trigger positive emotions, such as pride and enthusiasm

How do we rely on the different factors of trust to a different degree over time/what guides our willingness to trust someone: when we barely know the person

the relationship starts out with Disposition-Based Trust in the beginning based on your Trust Propensity

What is hindsight bias?

the tendency to alter one's perception of the inevitability of an event *once they know the outcome*

Family Time Demands

the time that a person commits to fulfilling family responsibilities Ex: I have to pick up my kids from daycare before it closes at 5:30PM. I plan out my schedule to make sure I can be there on time to pick them up.

Is job satisfaction a good predictor of citizenship behaviors?

there is a moderate positive relationship between Job Satisfaction with Citizenship Behaviors

• Programmed Decisions

these are familiar because you have made these decisions before, so how you react will occur automatically and it will require very few cognitive resources

Nonprogrammed Decisions

these are new, important, and require a heavy investment in cognitive resources since they are decisions you haven't made before

Daily Hassles

these are relatively minor day-to-day demands that interfere with work accomplishment Examples of this can be traffic, having to travel a long distance to work, the elevator not working one day so you have to climb the stairs to your work that's on the 8th floor, etc

Physiological Strains

these types of strains impact your body

Psychological Strain

these types of strains impact your mental health o Some examples of this are: depression, anxiety, anger, hostility, reduced self-confidence, irritability, inability to think clearly, forgetfulness, lack of creativity, memory loss, and a loss of your sense of humor

Characteristics of the Situation

this deals with "Moral Intensity"; Moral Intensity looks at two dimensions: o Potential for Harm o social pressure

Changing Cognitions

this deals with how we think about the situation

Deep Acting

this deals with modifying your feelings in order to display the appropriate emotions. In this case, the employee genuinely feels the emotions. Ex: Instead of putting on an "emotional mask" the employee puts themselves in the customer's situation so that they can empathize with the customer.

Surface Acting

this deals with suppressing your felt emotions and faking the desired emotions. You are putting on an "emotional mask"

Behavioral Strains

this is a change in your actions and behaviors as a result of stress Some examples of behavioral manifestations of stress: o Drinking alcohol or smoking o Overeating o Counterproductive Behaviors o Quitting an Organization

Schedules of Reinforcement

this is controlling when you receive reinforcement (either a reward or negative consequence) for your behavior the types are: 1. Fixed Interval 2. Fixed Ratio 3. Variable Interval 4. Variable Ratio

Affect-Based Trust

trust is based on emotional fondness more emotional than rational. "You trust someone "because you like them"

What factors influence whether an individual will intend to act morally?

• Characteristics of the Individual - your "Moral Identity"; this is the degree to which you self-identify as a moral person • Characteristics of the Situation - things like: on-the-job pressure, role conflict (we learned about this as a type of Hindrance Stressor in Unit 5 - Stress), rewards and incentives, etc.

What are common reasons for making bad decisions?

• Limited Information • Faulty Perceptions • Intuition - Reliance on Heuristics • Faulty Attributions • Escalation of Commitment

Imagine you are at a meeting for work and your co-worker, Suzy, is late only Suzy is late, so it must be an issue with..... _________ __________ (high/low) (Attribution type)

• Low consensus

Increase visibility of the goal

• Make the goal public • Provide feedback along the way

Components of Job Satisfaction

• Pay • Promotions • Supervision • Coworkers • The Work Itself

Increase expectancy of goal attainment

• Provide support and resources for goal achievement--remove any tangible barriers to success and increase self-efficacy • Allow individuals to participate in setting the goals--if someone helps set the goal, they are more likely to feel it is a reasonable goal and want to achieve it.

What are some common decision making biases?

• Representativeness • Availability • Anchoring and Adjustment • Hindsight Bias

Increase the attractiveness of goal attainment

• Show the value of the goal--what will someone get for reaching this goal? • Make rewards contingent on achieving the goal--don't give prizes for participation, only reward goal achievement!

When you are faced with a Nonprogrammed Decision, the best way to figure out what to do would be to follow the Rational Decision-Making Model

• Step 1: Determine appropriate criteria for making a decision • Step 2: Generate a list of available alternatives • Step 3: Evaluate the alternatives against criteria • Step 4: Choose the solution that maximized value • Step 5: Implement appropriate solution

Affective Events Theory

• Workplace events can generate affective reactions--reactions that then can go on to influence work attitudes and behaviors. • Satisfaction levels wax and wane as a function of mood and emotions