Test 3: Lymphatic and Respiratory System

Dalton's Law

the total atmospheric pressure is the sum of the contributions of the individual gases -Partial pressure: seperate contributions of each gas in a mixture (1atm=760 mmhg)

What are the types of hypoxia?

1. Hypoxic Hypoxia: don;t have enough O2 in blood. Could happen due to high altitude 2. Anemic Hypoxia: Not enough hemoglobin. Due to hemorrhage 3. Ischemic Hypoxia: Reduced blood flow 4. Histotoxic Hypoxia: O2 is delivered to tissue but isn;t being used as it should be at tissue level because of this poision

What is the functions of the nasal structures?

*Olfactory epithelium for sense of smell *Pseudostratified ciliated columnar with goblet cells lines nasal cavity -warms air - due to high vascularity -mucus - moistens air & traps dust -cilia - move mucus towards pharynx *Paranasal sinuses open into nasal cavity -found in ethmoid, sphenoid, frontal & maxillary -lighten skull & resonate voice

Antibody Action -how do they react with pathogens

- Neutralization of antigen by blocking effects of toxins or preventing its attachment to body cells -Immobilize bacteria by attacking cilia/flagella -Agglutinate & precipitate antigens by cross-linking them causing clumping & precipitation -Complement activation which leads to inflammation, phagocytosis, immune clearance, or cytolysis -Enhancing phagocytosis through precipitation, complement activation or opsonization (coating with special substance)

Spleen

-5 inch organ (largest) in adults between stomach & diaphragm -Hilus contains blood & lymphatic vessels -Stroma consists of capsule, trabeculae, fibers & fibroblasts -Parenchyma consists of white pulp and red pulp. -Blood reservoir -"Erythrocyte graveyard": RBC disposal -White pulp monitors blood for foreign antigens

Antigen Processing

-APC encounters antigen -Internalizes it by endocytosis -Digests it into molecular fragments -Displays relevant fragments (epitopes) in the grooves of the MHC protein

What is the anatomy for the internal and external intercostal muscles during breathing?

-Between ribs -Prevent thoracic cage from caving inward when diaphragm drops enlarges and contracts thoracic cage -Add about one-third of the air that ventilates the lungs

Reticular Cells

-Branched stationary cells that contribute to the stroma of a lymphatic organ -Act as APCs in the thymus

Dedritic Cells

-Branched, mobile APCs found in epidermis, mucous membranes, and lymphatic organs -Alert immune system to pathogens that have breached their surface

What are the role of receptors?

-Central chemoreceptors in medulla-> respond to changes in H+ and pCO2->hypercapnia = slight increase in pCO2 is noticed -Peripheral chemoreceptors->respond to changes in H+, pO2 and pCO2->aortic body - in wall of aorta->carotid bodies - in walls of common carotid arteries

Lymphatic nodules

-Concentrations of lymphatic tissue not surrounded by a capsule scattered throughout connective tissue of mucous membranes -Peyer's patches in the ileum of the small intestine -Appendix -Tonsils form ring at top of throat->Adenoids: Paryngeal tonsil-> Palatine tonsils: on each side wall -> Lingual Tonsil: in the back of the tongue

What is anatomy of the nose?

-External Structure: Skin, nasal bones, and cartilage lined with mucous membrane -Openings called external nares or nostrils -Internal structures: Roof in made up of ethmoid bone and floor is hard palate,Nasal septum is composed of bone and cartilage, Extens from nostrils to a pair of posterior opening called posterior nasal aperatures

Air composition in atmosphere vs. lungs. vs. exhaled and why there are different

-If pressue falls below atmospheric pressue, air moves into lungs -If pressue is above atmospheric pressuem air moves out of lungs

What are the non-specific internal defenses?

-Interferons:Produced by infect lymphocytes and macrophages. Induce Synthesis of anti-viral proteins - Complement proteins: Inactive proteins in the blood plama. When activated enhaces immune, allergic, and inflmmatory reactions -Transferrins: Iron-bindingn proteins inhibit bacterial growth by reducing avalible iron

Natural Killers Cells

-Large lymphocyte that attack and destroy bacteria, transplanted tissue, host cells infected with viruses or have turned cancerous -Responsible for immune survelliance

What is the bronchial tree?

-Main bronchi- support by c shapted hylaine cartilage rings -Lobar Bronchi lobar bronchi: superior middle and inferior, two IT. lobar bronchi: superior and inferior -Segmental bronchi: Bronchopulmonart segment: functionally independent unilt of the lung. -Respiratort Bronchioles: beginning of respieratory division.end in alceolar sacs, grape like clusters of alveoli arrganges around atrium

What is the anatomy of the pharynx?

-Muscular tube (5 inch long) hanging from skull skeletal muscle & mucous membrane -Extends from internal nares to cricoid cartilage

Smokers

-Nicotine constricts terminal bronchioles. Carbon monoxide in smoke binds to HB. Irritant in smoke cause excess mucus secretion. Irriatant inhibit movement of cilli. -In time destoryes elastic fibers in lungs and leads to emphysema

MHC-I Proteins

-Occurs on every nucleated cell in the body - Constantly produced by our cellsm trasnported to, and inserted on plasma membrane -Normal self-antigens that do not elicit a T cell respone -Viral proteins or abnormal cancer antigens do elicit a T cell response -Infectors or malignant cells are the destoryed before they can do further harm to the body **TC cells respond only to MHC-I proteins

MHC-II Proteins )human leukocytes antigens, HLAs)

-Occurs only on APCs and display only foreign material ** TH cells respond only to MHC-II proteins

What is the function of the pharynx?

-Passageway for food and air -Resonating chamber for speech production -Tonsil (lymphatic tissue) in the walls protects entryway into body

What is the anatomy of the diaphragm during breathing?

-Prime mover of respiration -Contraction flattens diaphragm, enlarging thoracic cavity and pulling air into lungs -Relaxation allows diaphragm to bulge upward again, compressing the lungs and expelling air -Accounts for two-thirds of airflow

What is the anatomy of the scalenes during breathing?

-Synergist to diaphragm -Quiet respiration holds ribs 1 and 2 stationary

What are antigen presenting cells?

-T cells cannot recognize their antigens on their own -Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are required to help -Dendritic cells, macrophages, reticular cells, and B cells function as APCs Function of APCs depends on major histocompatibility (MHC) complex proteins -Act as cell "identification tags" that label every cell of your body as belonging to you -Structurally unique for each individual, except for identical twins

What does complement proteins result in?

1. Inflammation: Most cells and basophilas secrete histamine and other inflammatory chemicals 2. Immune clearance: RBCs carry AG-AB complexes to liver and spleenn and here macrophages strip them and destory them. 3.Phagocytosis: Coated micoorganisms internalized by neutrophils and macophages 4. Cytolysis: Forms an hole in the membrane of target cell so can no longer maintain homeostasis

What are the three tyes of tonsils?

1. Lingual: tongue and anchored to hyoid bone 2. Palatine: Back of mouth and side of tongue which helps against infection 3. Pharyngeal: Protects walls of pharynx above the borderof soft tissue

What are the different pleural membranes?

-Visceral pleura covers lungs - parietal pleura lines ribcage & covers upper surface of diaphragm -Serous fluid fills the space between both pleura -Pleural cavity is potential space between ribs & lungs

Antigen Presenting

-Wandering T cells inspect APCs for displayed antigens -If APC only displays a self-antigen, the T cell disregards it - If APC displays a nonself-antigen, the T cell initiates an immune attack -APCs alert the immune system to the presence of foreign antigen -Key to successful defense is to quickly mobilize immune cells against the antigen -With so many cell types involved in immunity, they require chemical messengers to coordinate their activities—interleukins

What is the anatomy of the trachea?

-Windpipe -Supported by 16 to 20 c-shaped rings of hylaine cartilage -Reinforces trachea and keeps it from colla[psing when you inhale -Hao in C allows the esophagus to expand. -Relaxed to adjust airflow

What are the three factors that give resistance to air flow?

1. Diameter of the bronchioles: Brochiodilation and Bronchioconstriction 2. Pulmonary Compliance: Ease of lungs to expand 3.Surface tension ofo the alveoli and distal bronchiole-surfactant:redudes surface tensions of water

Three Lines of Defense Against Disease

1. First Line of Defense: External barriers -External mechanical (skin, mucous membrane,washing action of tears, urine, salivia) and chemical barriers ( Sebum, prespiration, acid pH of gastric juice and vaginal secretions 2.Second Line of Defense: Several non specific mechanisms against pathogens that break through first line of defense 3.Third Line of Defense: The immune system - specific defense

Three factors influencing airway resistance

1. diameter of bronchioles -Bronchondilation - Bronchoconstriction 2. pulmonary compliance: ease with which the lungs can expand 3. surface tension of alveoli and distal bronchioles

MRV

Minute ventilation is amount of air moved in a minute

What is the function of surfcrant?

Mixture of phsopholipids and prpoteins that coasts and prevents them from collapsing during exhalation

What is the lymphatic system?

Organs, vessels, and fluid called lymph -Recycles interstitial fluid

Reserve Volume

Amount you can breathe either in or out above that amount of tidal volume

What is the nine cartilages of the larynx?

1.Epiglottic cartilage: spoon-shaped supportive plate in epiglottis; most superior one 2.Thyroid cartilage: largest, laryngeal prominence (Adam's apple); shield-shaped -Testosterone stimulates growth, larger in males 3.Cricoid cartilage: connects larynx to trachea, ringlike 4.Arytenoid cartilages (2): posterior to thyroid cartilage 5.Corniculate cartilages (2): attached to arytenoid cartilages like a pair of little horns 6.Cuneiform cartilages (2): support soft tissue between arytenoids and epiglottis

Residual Volume

1200ml permenently trapped air in system

Autoimmunity

Abnormal reactions to one's own tissues

B lymphocytes (B cells)

Activation causes proliferation and differennce into plasma cells that produce antibodies

Tidal Volume

Amount of air moved during quiet (normal) breathing

Pneumonia

As WBCs try to enter into air sacs to kill invases, fluid fkows which causeing a build up of fluid bacterial infection

Henry's Law

At the air water interface for a given temperature the amount of gas that dissovles in the water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in air. -The greater the PO2 in alveolar air, the more o2 the blood picks up. Since blood arriving at an alveolus has a higher PCO2 than air, it releases CO2 into the air.

What is lymph?

Attacks bacteria in blood, fluid

Tuberculosis

Bacterial infection. Spreads though air. Affects upper lungs

Lymph Nodes

Bean-shaped filters that cluster along the lymphatic vessels of the body. They function as a cleanser of lymph as wells as a site of T and B cell activation. Strome ia the capsule ,trabeculae and reticular fibers.

Pulmonnary Edema

Build up of fluid around lungs caused by trauma or infection

What is the anatomy of the larynx (voice box)?

Cartilaginous chamber ablout 4 cm long

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)

Cause by infection with the human innunodeficiency virus (HIV)

What is carbon monoxide poisioning?

Competes for the O2 binding sites on hemoglobin molecules.Colorless, odorless gas in cigarette smoke, engine exhaust, fumes from furnances and space heaters. -Binds 210x tighter to O2 to a hemoglobin in molecule -In smokrs 10% of carbon monoxide is present on hemoglobin molecules compared to nonsmokers who has 1.5%.

Middle Trachea layer

Connective tissue beneath the tracheal epithelium; contains lymphatic nodules, mucous and serous glands, and the tracheal cartilages

The parenchyma is divided into 2 regions (lymph nodes)

Cortex: Lymphatic nodules with germinal centers containing dendritiic cells -Antigen presenting cells and macropahges-B cells profilerate into anitbody secreting plasma cells Medulla: contains B cells and plasma cells in medullary cords

What is pus?

Dead phagocytes, damaged tissue cells and fluid

How is CO2 transported?

Dissovled directly into plasma Someof it binds to hemoglobin mlecule Part arrives in bicarbonate ions

What are the main functions of the lymphatic system?

Draining: excess interstitial fluid and plasma proteins from tissue spaces Transporting: Dietary lipids and vitamans from GI tract to the blood. Facilitating: immune responses

What are the different breathing patters?

Eupnea: normal quiet breathing ApnreaL Temporary cessation of breathing Dyspnea: difficulty breating Tachypnea: rapid breathing

Autoimmune diseases

Failures of self-tolerance

cystic fibrosis

Genetic disorder. Dysfunctional chloride ions which causes mucous to be thicker than should be which causes glands to plug.

How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported and exchanged?

Happens in the aveloi sacs. Needs O2 from sac to the bloods and CO2 from blood into the sacs so we can exhale it. Have to get gases to pass through respiratory membrane down its concentration gradients. CO2 diffuses past layer of water down concentration gradient.

What are the 5 classes of Immunoglobins?

IgG - most common structural class, provide passively acquired immunity to the fetus in utero IgA - in sweat, tears, saliva, mucus, breast milk IgM - largest (pentamer), in blood and lymph IgD - mainly on the surface of B-cells IgE - circulate in interstitial spaces and blood-stream attached to mast cells & basophils, and protects against parasites, allergy and hypersensitivity

The anatomy/physiology of sound production/vocal cords - men vs. women

Intrinsic muscles control the vocal cords. Muscles pull on the corniculate and arytenoid cartilagesc ausing the cartilages to pivot. Air forced between adducted vocal cords vibrates them. Producing high-pitched sound when cords are taut Produce lower-pitched sound when cords are more slack. Adult male vocal cords Usually longer and thicker Vibrate more slowly. Produce lower-pitched sound Loudness: determined by the force of air passing between the vocal cords Vocal cords produce crude sounds that are formed into words by actions of pharynx, oral cavity, tongue, and lips

What parts of the body drain via the left lymohatic duct?

Left side of body, the remaining portions of the body drain into large thoracic duct which drains into the left subclavian duct

What is the Lymph Flow?

Lymphatic capillaries pick up excess fluid from sustemic blood capillaies-> Lymph node-> Lymphatic vessel-> lymphatic duct-> Subclavian veins -> superior vena cava-> Blood strean

How are Lymphatic vessels similar and different from veins?

Lymphatic vessels resebmle veins with the thin walls ,but LV has more valves.

What is the difference in airm composition in the atmosphere vs. lungs.vs. exhales and why the difference?

Pressure falls below AP air moves into lungs, above AP air moves out of lungs

What is the function of the larynx (voice box)?

Primary function is to keep food and drink out of the airway -It has evolved an additional role: phonation- the production of sound

Allergies

Reactions to enviromental anitgens

What organs are invovled in the lymphatic system?

Red bone marrow Thymus Spleen Lymph nodes Tonsils Diffuse Lymphatic tissue

What parts of the body drain via the right lymphatic duct?

Right side of the body, Right Side of head, thorax, and right upper limb drains lymph fluid into right upper limb when then drains the lymph fluid into right subclavian vein via right lymphatic duct.

What is function of type II aveolar cells?

Round to cubodial cells that cover the remaining 5% of alveolar surface. -Repairs the alveolar epithelium when squamous (Type I) cells are damaged-secretd oulmonary surfactant (reduce surface area, allows lungs to inflate easily)

What is colonal deletion?

Self reactive, cells die and macropages phagocytize them

What organs filter blood as part of the blood system?

Spleen and Thymus

upper respiratory tract vs.lower

Upper: above vocal cords Lower: below vocal cords

What important role does pleural membranes have in lung expansion?

When you inhale, diaphragm glattens andd intercoastal muscles pulls ribs up and out and because the membrane is stuck to the rubsm it also pulls out and the lungs are stretch.Flexible so they also get pulled out and expanded. As lungs expand the volume is increases and the oariteal pressure inside them decreases. When you exhale, intercoastals relax, and diaphragm relaxes and bounces back up. The ribs and lungs shrink back to regular size because of elasticity.Thw lungs are now a smaller volume and the ressure inside the lungs now gets higher than the atmospheric pressue so air is pushed out of the lungs.

Kaposi Sarcome

a cancer that lesions on soft tissue

What is the epiglottis?

a flat of tissue that gaurds the superior opening of the larynx (opening called glottis) -at rest stands almost vertically -closes airway adn directs food to esp=ophagus behind it

Alloimmunity

abnormal reaction transplanted tissue from another person

What is abscess?

accumulation of pus in confined space not open to the outside: Pimples and boils

Hypersensitivity

an excessive immune reaction against antigen that most people tolerate

Boyle's Law

at a constant temperature, the pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume. -If a long volume increases, the internal pressue will fall (Pressure falls below atmospheric pressure air moves into the lungs) -If coume decreases, intrepulmonary pressure rises(Pressure rises above atmospheric pressure it moves out of lungs)

Inner lining of trachea

ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium -Composed mainly of muscus-secrecting cells, ciliated cells, and stem cells -Mucocilary escalator: Mechanisms for debris removal

Asthma

inflmmation of bronchioles. Muscle spasms around bronchiles cause constritction

Thymus Gland

large in infants until 12 but atrophers as adult 2 lobed organ. Capsule trabeculae divide into lobules. Each has a cortex and medulla -Cortex: tightly packed T cells and macrophages 0medulla: reticular epthelial cells produce thymic homrones

What organ filters lymph?

lymph nodes

T lymphocytes (T cells)

mature in thymus

Primary Lymphatic Organs

provide environment for stem cells to divide & mature into B- and T-lymphocytes -red bone marrow gives rise to mature B cells -thymus is site where pre-T cells from red marrow mature

What is anergy?

self-reactive T cells remain alive but unresponsive (Negative Selection)

Secondary Lymphatic organs and tissues

site where most immune responses occur -lymph nodes, spleen & lymphatic nodules