test #3 political science

serving constituents

One of the other roles of a member of Congress is in the form of casework, whereby the representative and his or her staff address a variety of issues of concern for individuals within the district. This might involve anything from explaining the language of a bill to tracking down a missing Social Security check.

Random Sampling:

One way in which a poll may be conducted is known as random sampling. Under random sampling, each person within a group has the same chance of actually being selected for a study

The Supreme Court's Broadcast Media Ban

Part of the mystery that surrounds the Supreme Court has to do with the fact that the court has generally been reluctant to open up its proceedings to various media outlets. At the end of each term, the court will release written transcripts, as well as, audio recordings of its proceedings. As a result of the lack of timeliness concerning these releases and the absence of visuals, the press generally covers the court in a more superficial fashion than the other two branches.

The Rise in the Number of Reporters Covering Politics:

Since 1983, there has been a substantial increase from 2,300 to 4,100 print (magazine and newspaper) reporters that are assigned to the U.S. Capitol.

Similarities between the Conventions:

Since both of the conventions were spread out over a few days, it allowed the DNC and RNC to have a number of prominent individuals deliver speeches endorsing Barack Obama and John McCain respectively.

The Initiative Process in Action:

Since its adoption in 1879, the California Constitution has been amended by referendum approximately 500 times and by initiatives around 40 times. During the 1970s, less than 15 initiatives were filed each year. During the 1980s, the number of initiatives filed each year rose to nearly 30. By the 1990s, the number of initiatives filed each year rose to nearly 80. Nevertheless, the number of initiatives that actually make it onto the ballot has been far less than the number actually filed each year. Furthermore, the number of initiatives passed is even less than those that actually make it onto the ballot. For instance, in November of 2006, there were 13 proposed initiatives that were placed on the ballot. Of these, seven passed, while all five that dealt with amending the state constitution failed.

The Rise of Pundits:

Since the journalists on twenty-four-hour cable news stations are not specialized in all of the various topics of discussion, the cable news stations employ a number of experts in various disciplines, known as pundits (or "talking heads") that discuss the issues of the day.

The Mayor's Constituency

Since the mayor is elected by the people of the city as a whole, she or he is expected to represent the interests of the entire city.

The New Hampshire Primary:

The 2008 New Hampshire Primary was held on January 8, 2008. During the 2008 New Hampshire Primary, Hillary Clinton came in first for the Democratic Party, Barack Obama came in second, and John Edwards came in third. On the Republican side, John McCain came in first, Mitt Romney came in second, and Mike Huckabee came in third. In 2012, the New Hampshire Primary occurred on January 10. New Hampshire Democrats supported incumbent president Barack Obama, Amongst the Republican candidates, Mitt Romney came in first, Ron Paul second, and Jon Huntsman third.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002:

The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002, also known as McCain-Feingold: (1) banned unlimited contributions to national political parties (soft money) (2) restricted special interest groups from running ads that specifically advocated the election or defeat of a candidate 60 days before a general election (30 days before a primary election) (3) raised the level of individual contributions to a single candidate from $1,000 (the limit in 1974) to $2,000 (the limit set in 2002 that is subject to inflation)

The Length of the California Constitution:

The California Constitution is over 10 times as long as the U.S. Constitution.

Thirty-five Articles:

The California Constitution is substantially more detailed than the U.S. Constitution. With thirty-five (35) articles, the California Constitution addresses a wide range of issues from the institutions of government to medical research and labor relations.

The Justices of the California Supreme Court:

The California Supreme Court includes one chief justice and six associate justices.

The California Supreme Court:

The California Supreme Court is the highest court within the state court system. While the court is located in San Francisco, it also conducts regular sessions at its branch offices in Los Angeles and Sacramento

Literary Digest's Three Errors:

The straw poll used by Literary Digest during the 1936 presidential election had three major errors: 1) The sample was drawn from various telephone directories, as well as, lists of automobile owners, which therefore oversampled the upper middle class and wealthy 2) The questionnaires used by Literary Digest were sent out in early September, two months before the election 3) Highly motivated individuals sent back cards (roughly 22% of those surveyed actually responded)

Terms of Office under the Constitution of 1849:

The term of office of the governor, lieutenant governor, U.S. representatives, and state senators was two years. Members of the state assembly would be elected annually.

The Three Key Phases of Public Opinion Polling:

The three key phases that occur during a traditional public opinion poll are the following: 1) deciding the content and phrasing for each question 2) choosing the sample 3) contacting the respondents

The Necessary and Proper Clause

The very last clause within Article I, Section 8, the Necessary and Proper Clause, describes how Congress is empowered "to make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof." The vagueness of the Necessary and Proper Clause has served as the basis for the tremendous expansion that has occurred in congressional powers. The vagueness of the Necessary and Proper Clause has served as the basis for the tremendous expansion that has occurred in congressional powers.

The Various Counties in California:

There are 58 counties in California that range in size from Alpine County, which has a population of 1,201 residents, to Los Angeles County, which has a population of over 10,393,185 residents.

Types of Congressional Committees

There are a number of different types of congressional committees, including (1) standing committees, (2) select committees, (3) joint committees, and (4) conference committees.

The Referendum Process:

There are four different types of referenda: 1) Protest referendum 2) Compulsory referendum 3) Optional referendum 4) Advisory referendum

Superior Courts:

There are superior courts established in each of the 58 counties. Furthermore, superior courts can be found in over 451 locations throughout the state, and currently are headed by approximately 1,614 judges who deal with both criminal and civil matters. Specialized subdivisions of superior courts include traffic court, small claims court (i.e. if the amount is less than $7,500), inheritance and probate court, family court, and juvenile court.

Caucuses and Primaries:

There has been a dramatic increase in the number of states holding primary elections since 1968. In 1968, there were only 17 states that held presidential primaries. The number of states holding primaries peaked at 43 during the 2000 election and has fallen slightly to 40 by the time of the 2008 election. Interestingly, in a few states there is a primary for one party and a caucus for the other party.

The Consolidation of the Media:

There has been some consolidation in the news media in the United States in recent years, particularly in the area of newspapers.

Louisiana's Nonpartisan Blanket Primary:

There is a unique primary election in Louisiana in which all of the candidates for each office appear on the same ballot. If one of the candidates receives more than 50% of the vote, the candidate has not only won the primary election, but also the general election. If however no candidate receives more than 50% of the vote, the top two candidates, even if they are members of the same party, will face each other in a runoff election This runoff election serves as Louisiana's general election.

The Congressional Budget Process:

The Congress then goes through the budget process, which: (1) first involves authorizing funds to be made available to government agencies (authorization), and (2) later involves actually specifying in a spending bill the amount to be allocated for each agency (appropriations).

The Party-Column (or Indiana Ballot)

This form of ballot therefore encourages voting on the basis of party (or straight-ticket voting). This form of ballot therefore encourages voting on the basis of party (or straight-ticket voting).

Initiative, Referendum, and Recall:

Three other types of elections (initiative, referendum, and recall) are found in a number of states.

School Districts:

Throughout California, there are more than 1,043 school districts that provide public education for grades K-12. These school districts may be elementary or secondary districts, or may be unified districts that educate students that are in elementary, middle, and high schools. The various school districts are governed by elected boards of education, the members of which are typically elected on nonpartisan, district-wide ballots. The school board then hires a professional, known as the superintendent, who administers the various programs throughout the district and implements the board's policies.

Enumerated Powers:

Throughout most of Article I, Section 8, the enumerated powers of Congress are described in 17 different clauses (or paragraphs). These powers include the right of Congress to impose import tariffs and taxes, regulate interstate commerce, borrow funds, establish the procedures for naturalizing citizens, coin money, establish post offices and postal routes, etc.

constitutional amendments

Various amendments to the U.S. Constitution have also increased the power of the Congress.

The Role of Volunteers:

Volunteers are a critically important element within any campaign. Typically, volunteers are asked to answer phone calls, make copies of and distribute campaign literature, staff campaign booths, and engage in voter canvassing.

Voter Canvassing:

Voter canvassing involves either calling targeted voters from a computerized telephone bank of party members, or soliciting votes by going from door to door in neighborhoods.

Major Features of the California Constitution:

While California is governed as a republic, it nevertheless contains many features that are characteristic of direct democracy.

George Gallup and the 1936 Election:

While Literary Digest made serious errors in its polling, George Gallup was able to correctly predict the results of the 1936 election. Gallup, unlike Literary Digest, employed the use of scientific polling, which greatly aided in the accuracy of his election predictions. Although Gallup underpredicted Roosevelt's victory by 7%, he nevertheless was able to predict Roosevelt's victory in the election, which greatly improved his stature as a pollster.

Literary Digest and the 1936 Election:

While Literary Digest predicted that Alfred M. Landon would beat Franklin D. Roosevelt by a margin of 57% to 43%, the vote actually went the other way with Roosevelt receiving 62.5% of the vote.

Television News:

While television was first demonstrated in the U.S. during the 1939 World's Fair, it was not until the election of 1960 that television began to be used in a significant way during presidential elections.

House and Senate Differences

While the U.S. Congress consists of two co-equal chambers, there are nevertheless considerable distinctions between their structures and functions.

The Congressional Press Corps:

While the congressional press corps includes over 3,000 members, their coverage mostly focuses on the leadership in both houses of Congress. In addition to the leaders of both houses, the heads of the various committees (i.e. the committee chairs) are covered extensively when issues that relate to their particular committee happen to be in the news. It is usually left to local newspapers and broadcast stations to cover local senators and representatives.

The Ceremonial Mayor:

While the council typically elects one of its members to serve as mayor, this position is mostly a ceremonial role. Even in council-manager cities where the mayor is directly elected, the mayor lacks executive powers (i.e. the power to veto or appoint individuals).

"Minority-Majority" Districts:

While the federal government encouraged "minority-majority" districts during the early 1990s, more recent Supreme Court rulings have called this practice into question. The court has argued that redrawing districts to enhance minority representation is constitutional as long as race is not the "predominate" factor among the various traditional factors involved in redistricting, such as maintaining district compactness.

"Coattails" Effects:

While there is a commonly held view that a strong presidential candidate will generate a "coattail" effect that will sweep congressional candidates of their party into office, this has not always been the case. While there may be some truth to the "coattails" effect during presidential election years, it has generally not been the case with midterm elections. Since 1942, in all but two midterms (1998 and 2002), the president in power has seen his party lose seats in Congress.

California's Bicameral Legislature:

With the exception of Nebraska, which has a unicameral state legislature, every other state legislature in the United States is bicameral (i.e. has two chambers).

Election of Senators

With the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment, the direct election of Senators was also provided, with the members staggered every two years in order to ensure continuity within the Senate.

The Premise of the Constitution of 1849:

The Constitution of 1849 asserts that, "All political power is inherent in the people. Government is instituted for the protection, security, and benefit of the people; and they have the right to alter or reform the same, whenever the public good may require it."

Basic Features of the Constitution of 1849:

The Constitution of 1849 established a government based on separation of powers, as well as the election of the following individuals: 1) A Governor 2) A Lieutenant Governor 3) Two (2) representatives in the U.S. Congress 4) Sixteen (16) state senators 5) Thirty-six (36) members of the state assembly

The Premise of the Constitution of 1879:

The Constitution of 1879 also reaffirmed the assertion made in the Constitution of 1849. The Constitution of 1879 states that, "All political power is inherent in the people. Government is instituted for their protection, security, and benefit, and they have the right to alter or reform it when the public good may require."

The Constitution of 1879:

The Constitution of 1879 included a Declaration of Rights that is in many ways similar to the federal Bill of Rights.

The House Majority and Minority Leaders:

The House Majority Leader, who is currently Kevin McCarthy, is selected by the majority party either in caucus or conference in order to bring about party cohesion, as well as, serve as a spokesperson for the majority party. The House Minority Leader, who is currently Nancy Pelosi, is the party leader that is elected by the minority party in the House, and is primarily responsible for maintaining party cohesion.

The House Majority Whip and Minority Whip:

The House Majority Whip, who is currently Steve Scalise, assists the majority leader by: (1) Relaying information to members of the party (2) Ensuring that the members of the party show up for floor debates and cast their votes The House Minority Whip, who is currently Steny Hoyer, assists the minority leader in the same manner as the majority whip.

Oversight function:

Yet another function of Congress is in the form of providing oversight for various executive agencies. This might involve holding committee hearings and investigations in order to determine if the laws Congress has passed are being enforced and administered within a given agency.

Compromise Version voted on in House/Senate:

The House and Senate will then vote on the compromise bill, which if passed by both houses will then be sent to the president.

The characteristics of the House

The House has a sizable membership of 435 voting members, in addition to non-voting delegates from the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, American Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Guam. Members of the House of Representatives are in most cases chosen from local districts for two-year terms. Members of the House have been chosen by citizens in elections since the adoption of the Constitution. The House also has a greater number of rules and regulations than the Senate. Finally, the House has the unique responsibilities of both impeaching (indicting) federal officials, as well as, originating revenue bills.

Blogs:

The Internet has also made it possible for ordinary citizens to discuss their opinions in entries, known as blogs, which serve as web-based editorial and news outlets.

the Fall Review

The OMB then conducts a fall review, which typically involves reviewing the funding requests of agencies, cutting them back somewhat, and then submitting a final budget to the president so that it can be included in the Economic Report of the President.

The Spring Review:

The OMB then conducts a spring review, which requires each of the agencies to review their activities, goals, and programs. At the end of summer, each agency submits to the OMB its formal budget request for the next year.

The Role of the OMB:

The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) then begins outlining the upcoming budget and bargains back and forth with each of the various executive departments and agencies.

The President Pro Tempore:

The President Pro Tempore of the Senate, who is currently Orrin Hatch, fulfills a rather ceremonial role by presiding over the Senate in the absence of the vice president.

The Senate Majority and Minority Leaders:

The Senate Majority Leader, who is currently Mitch McConnell, serves as the chief spokesperson for the majority party, helps to direct the majority party's legislative program, and directs the strategy of the party. The Senate Minority Leader, who is currently Harry Reid, leads the minority party's opposition to the majority party's policies, and also directs the minority party's legislative program and party strategy.

Filibuster

The Senate also retains a unique mechanism for unlimited debate. While the House also originally possessed the filibuster, the practice of using a filibuster in the House ended in 1811. However, U.S. Senators still to this day periodically use the filibuster as a means of stalling legislation or a confirmation vote. For instance, the first use of a filibuster in the Senate occurred in 1790 when one was used to stall an effort to move the capital from New York City to Philadelphia.

The characteristics of the senate

The Senate has a much smaller membership of 100 members (two members from each state). The members of the Senate are chosen in statewide elections for six-year terms. Prior to the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, U.S. Senators were chosen by state legislatures. The Senate has fewer rules and regulations than the House. Finally, the Senate has the unique responsibility of convicting federal officials of impeachable offenses, in addition to providing advice and consent for presidential treaties and appointments.

The Speaker of the House:

The Speaker of the House of Representatives, who is currently Paul Ryan, presides over the House, is the most influential member in the House, and is always a member of the majority party.

the powers of the senate

The U.S. Senate has a number of special functions that include ratifying treaties, as well as, accepting or rejecting presidential nominations.

Eligibility for a Vice Presidential candidate:

The formal requirements of a vice presidential candidate are the following: 1) must be 35 years old 2) must be a natural-born citizen 3) must have resided (lived) in the U.S. for 14 years 4) must not be a resident of the same state as the presidential candidate

Separation of Powers:

The government of California is divided into three separate branches: 1) The legislative branch 2) The executive branch 3) The judicial branch

The Powers of the Governor:

The governor of California proposes legislation like the President of the U.S., particularly during his or her annual message, the State of the State Address. The governor can also call the legislature into special session in order to address a particular issue. The governor also has the power to veto legislation. Furthermore, the governor can exercise a line item veto in order to eliminate or reduce various items in money bills ("appropriations measures").

Initiative:

The initiative process involves a way by which citizens are able to propose legislation, collect a sufficient number of signatures, and then submit it to the state electorate (i.e. the voting public) for a popular vote.

Leadership in the House of Representatives:

The leadership in the House of Representatives is made up of the Speaker of the House, the majority leader, the minority leader, the majority whip, and the minority whip.

Leadership in the Senate:

The leadership of the Senate includes the President Pro Tempore, the majority leader, the minority leader, the majority whip, and the minority whip.

Optional Referendum:

The legislature may also choose to submit other legislation before the voters in the form of an optional referendum in which the voters determine whether the legislation should be enact

The Lieutenant Governor:

The lieutenant governor is elected mainly to serve as acting governor should the actual governor die or otherwise vacate his or her office. The lieutenant governor also presides over the state senate as president of the senate, but is rarely in attendance except when it is necessary to break a tie vote. Gavin Newsom is currently the Lieutenant Governor of the State of California.

Mass Media:

The mass media is simply the entire array of organizations (i.e. print, television, radio, movies, the Internet, etc.) in which information is collected and distributed to the public in general.

The Educational Attainment of a Voter:

The more education that an individual has received strongly correlates with their likelihood of voting. For instance, roughly 39.8% of eligible voters that did not complete high school voted in the 2004 presidential election. In contrast, approximately 84.2% of eligible individuals with advanced degrees (e.g. MA, MS, Ph.D., or post-doctoral work) voted in the 2004 presidential election. In 2008, around 39.4% of eligible voters that did not complete high school voted in the 2008 presidential election. In contrast, roughly 82.7% of eligible individuals with advanced degrees voted in the 2008 presidential election.

Lawmaking

The most important function of any legislature is lawmaking, which involves establishing the legal rules that govern a society. The most important function of any legislature is lawmaking, which involves establishing the legal rules that govern a society. Interest groups and political party organizations also develop many of the ideas that members of Congress put forward in the bills they introduce.

News Media

The news media is one component within the mass media that deals with providing the public news information concerning subjects considered to be in the public's interest

Nomination Process

The nominating process is typically governed by state laws that favor the Democratic and Republican parties. Political parties often assist nominees in obtaining petitions, paying the filing fee that states may require, and gathering the required number of signatures. For the most part, candidates of the two major parties face fewer requirements than third party candidates.

The Office-Block (or Massachusetts Ballot):

The office-block (or Massachusetts ballot) groups together the candidates running for elective office under the title for each office. In this way, voters are encouraged to make their decision based upon the office or individual candidate, rather than simply on the basis of party affiliation.

The Emergence of Direct Democracy:

After its founding, the Southern Pacific Railroad Company quickly came to dominate state politics during the 1870s and 1880s. Eventually, a group of reformers, backed by a growing middle class, sought to break the power of the railroads in California and end the corruption that had become synonymous with the railroads.

The Role of the Government Accountability Office:

After the fiscal year is complete, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) will then audit the fiscal year outlays (expenditures) on a selective basis.

The General Election:

After the party's have selected their nominees, they then run campaigns that culminate with the general election, whereby voters decide which of the candidates will actually fill the elected public office.

The Gold Rush:

After this discovery, people flooded into California from the East Coast, Latin America, China, Europe, and Australia. The Gold Rush, the name used to describe this brief influx of immigrants to California, quickly gave rise to a much larger population within California. Ultimately, the failure of the U.S. Congress in providing California with a temporary governing structure led the people of California to take matters into their own hands.

Conference Committees:

Agreement in the exact wording of a bill for both the House and Senate is critical, since a president can only sign into law a bill that has been passed with exactly the same wording in both chambers of Congress. A conference committee is a special joint committee that is formed to develop a compromise bill that irons out the differences between the Senate version and House version of a given bill. Conference committees are made up of members from the committees in both houses of Congress that originally considered the bill.

Congressional Caucuses

All members of Congress belong to at least one congressional caucus. In fact, the most important caucuses are those that the two major parties have established in both the Senate and the House. However, there are over two hundred other caucuses that senators and representatives may join as members. Some examples of these caucuses include the Democratic Study Group, the Congressional Black Caucus, the Congressional Hispanic Caucus, the Albanian Issues Caucus, the Potato Caucus, and the Sportsmen's Caucus.

Representation:

Another function that members of Congress perform is the important role of representing the views held by their constituents. In terms of representation, there are generally three different approaches that a member of Congress might take in carrying out his or her duties: (1) trustee, (2) delegate, and (3) politico.

Finance Chair:

Another important individual is the finance chair who is given the task of bringing in large contributions that will be used to fund the campaign.

Problems in Determining Intensity:

Another issue that may undermine the accuracy of a poll is the inability of the pollster to determine the intensity of emotion that an individual has for a particular issue. For instance, individuals who respond affirmatively to a series of questions may not have indicated that they consider abortion, the death penalty, or the war in Iraq as more important and pressing issues than the problems that they see with the Electoral College.

Article I:

Article I of the California Constitution contains the Declaration of Rights. The Declaration of Rights conveys the idea that the people are empowered over their government. Furthermore, the Declaration of Rights contains and expands upon many of the provisions found in the U.S. Bill of Rights.

Article II:

Article II describes not only the voting process, but also the initiative, referendum, and recall processes. Article II therefore contains the provisions for California's system of direct democracy.

Article IV:

Article IV describes the structures and the powers of the California State Assembly and California State Senate. Article IV establishes the 80-member Assembly and 40-member Senate as a professional and full-time bicameral legislature. Under Article IV, members of the California Assembly are subject to term limits that consist of three two-year terms. Article IV also establishes the term limits for the California Senate as two four-year terms.

Article V:

Article V of the California Constitution establishes the state's executive branch. Article V therefore vests executive powers in a single governor that is elected every four years. The article also details the requirements for being governor and the powers that are granted to the governor. The governor's appointment powers are limited and therefore similar to the president's appointment powers, especially in terms of the need for Senate approval in many cases. Nevertheless, the California Constitution deviates from the U.S. Constitution by providing for the separate election of the other executive offices. The drafters of the California Constitution were apparently concerned about the concentration of power in the hands of a single executive. However, by providing separate elections for the lieutenant governor, the attorney general, the controller, the secretary of state, and the treasurer, it has often been the case that the members of the executive branch have been from different political parties.

Article VI:

Article VI of the California Constitution describes the structure, powers, terms, and the method of selection used for courts of law in California. The judicial branch of California includes lower trial-level courts known as superior courts. Above the trial level courts are the state's six courts of appeals. Finally, the State Supreme Court, which is the highest court in the state, consists of one chief justice and six associate justices. The justices that serve on the various courts are elected in nonpartisan elections, which are held during the state's general elections.

Lincoln-Roosevelt League:

By 1907 a group of progressives within the Republican Party founded the Lincoln-Roosevelt League, which quickly saw electoral success when Hiram Johnson, a Progressive Republican, was elected the governor of California in 1910.

Constitutional Amendments:

By 1962, 583 amendments were proposed by the state legislature and considered by California voters. Of the amendments considered by voters, 334 were ultimately adopted thereby changing much of the original document.

Congressional Committees

Congressional committees are sometimes called "little legislatures," since they usually have the final say over whether a piece of legislation will go before the full House or full Senate. If a large number of House members want to vote on a piece of legislation that has been considered by a standing committee for 30 days, a majority of the House members (218 members) can sign a discharge petition, which will pry the bill out of the committee's hands. While more than 900 discharge petitions were attempted between 1909 and 2007, only a little more than two dozen were successful in getting the legislation to the floor of the House for a vote.

Constitutional Amendment Initiative:

Constitutional amendment initiatives, which amend the state constitution, require the collection of at least 807,615 signatures (which is 8% of the total votes cast for governor during the last gubernatorial election). There has been a dramatic increase in the number of ballot initiatives during the past few decades. Between 1956 and 1976, only 29 initiatives were placed on state ballots. In comparison, 106 initiatives were placed on state ballots between 1976 and 1996.

Super Pacs and 501(c)(4) committees:

Deemed "juridical" persons (quasi persons with limited rights) by court decisions, the recent expansion of free speech rights has enabled for profit and non-profit corporations to create Super Pacs, while unions as voluntary associations have been able to expand their free speech rights as 501(c)(4) committees.

The Professional Staff of the Candidate:

Depending on the kind of campaign, there are typically a number of individuals that are hired on as the candidate's professional staff.

Bicameralism:

Despite favoring a powerful Congress, the founders also felt that there should be checks and balances, which therefore led them to advocate a bicameral, or two chambered Congress. This decision came as a result of the Connecticut Compromise, which saw the creation of a House of Representatives based upon population and a Senate based upon equality between the states.

Recall:

The recall process involves the voters deciding whether or not an elected official (or incumbent) is to be removed from office.

Referendum:

The referendum process involves the state legislature submitting proposed legislation or a state constitutional amendment for the state electorate to vote for or against, thereby signaling their approval or disapproval.

Outlays and Obligations:

The revenues that have been appropriated will then be distributed to the various agencies throughout the fiscal year (October 1st to September 30th).

Malapportionment

During the 1960s, in a series of U.S. Supreme Court rulings, not only was the principle of "one person, one vote" to be applied to congressional districts within each state, but also to state legislative districts.

Gerrymander

During the 1960s, in a series of U.S. Supreme Court rulings, not only was the principle of "one person, one vote" to be applied to congressional districts within each state, but also to state legislative districts. Since the district in question was thought to resemble a salamander, and since the governor of Massachusetts at the time was a Jeffersonian Republican named Elbridge Gerry, the district quickly became referred to as a "Gerrymander."

Qualifications for State Legislators:

Individuals desiring to serve in either the California State Assembly or California State Senate must meet the following minimum requirements: 1) be at least 18-years-old 2) be a citizen of the U.S. and a citizen of California 3) be a resident of the legislative district they are to serve for at least one year 4) be a citizen of the U.S. and resident of California for at least three years prior to the actual election

constitutional amendments

For instance, the Congress was granted the right to levy (impose) an income tax by the Sixteenth Amendment. Furthermore, the Twentieth and Twenty-fifth Amendments provided the Congress with additional powers in determining who should act as president in the event of the incapacity or death of the president or vice president.

The Democratic National Convention:

For the 2008 election, the Democratic Party held its convention first. Meeting at the Pepsi Center in Denver, Colorado from August 25 to August 28, 2008, the Democratic National Convention held its meetings and nominated its presidential and vice presidential nominees, Barack Obama and Joe Biden respectively. In a rather unprecedented finale for the convention, Barack Obama delivered his acceptance speech at nearby Invesco Field before a crowd of ~84,000.

General Law Counties

Forty-four (44) counties within California, a majority of the counties, operate as general law counties. Among these general law counties are a number of California's less populous counties such as Kern, Kings, Madera, Mariposa, San Joaquin, Stanislaus, and Tulare. General law counties operate under what is essentially a general set of state laws that define county governance. The number and duties of the various county elected officials (i.e. the elected county sheriff, the elected district attorney, the elected assessor, and an elected governing body) are designated in these rules.

Charter Counties:

Fourteen (14) counties within California operate as charter counties. Among these charter counties are a number of California's more populous counties such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, Sacramento, San Diego, Alameda, and Fresno. Charter counties adopt their own mini-constitutions, which are known as charters. Counties and cities may adopt a charter if a majority of voters support the adoption of such a document. While charter counties possess greater autonomy than general law counties, they do not enjoy any extra authority over local regulations such as raising revenues, managing budgets, or dealing with any other governmental bodies.

Network News:

From 2000 to 2004, the overall percentage of viewers for all of the various network news programming (NBC, CBS, ABC, etc.) declined from 45% to 35%.

The Role of States in Elections:

Furthermore Article I, Section 4 describes how state legislatures have control over the "Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives." Nevertheless, the Congress still retains the power under Article I, Section 4 to pass laws that would alter the regulations of states concerning elections.

The Second Budget Resolution:

The second budget resolution, which establishes "binding" limits on taxes and spending for the upcoming fiscal year, must be passed by October 1st.

Network

Networks are associations of broadcast stations (both radio and television), which through a financial arrangement share their programming.

Blurred Roles in Practice:

Nevertheless, the distinct roles found in council-manager cities are often blurred when the city council makes administrative decisions and the city manager makes policy decisions.

Joint Committees

A joint committee consists of members from both houses of Congress who work together to address a particular issue such as the economy, taxation, or possibly even an issue dealing with printing or the Library of Congress. Joint committees can be either temporary or permanent committees.

Council-Manager Cities:

A majority of cities in California have a council-manager form of government. Council-manager city governments typically work best in smaller, homogeneous cities where the people generally agree on the role of government.

527 Organizations

A number of interest groups began setting up tax-exempt organizations to support or oppose candidates because of the BCRA's ban on soft money to national political parties.

The Federalists and Anti-Federalists:

A number of papers circulated in the various cities and towns of the American colonies prior to the American Revolution. However, during the ratification process of the U.S. Constitution, America began to see the emergence of a partisan press. Many newspapers either took the side of the Federalists, who favored the Constitution, or the Anti-Federalists who favored the Articles of Confederation.

Press Briefing:

A press briefing is a relatively restricted live engagement between a press secretary or aide and the press.

Press Conference:

A press conference is an unrestricted session in which an elected official appears before and talks at length with the members of the press.

Press Release:

A press release is a printed, e-mailed, or faxed document that offers the public official's comments or position on a particular issue.

Push Polls:

A push poll is a specific type of political poll that is generally viewed as having an ulterior motive. Most push polls involve the questioner providing to the respondent negative or even false information about the opposing candidate. This information is used as a way of pushing the person polled away from the aforementioned candidate and towards the candidate sponsoring the poll.

Wire Service:

A wire service involves the electronic distribution of news by a news service's correspondents to all of the news media organizations that are members of the wire service. Examples of wire services include the AP (Associated Press), the UPI (United Press International), and Reuters.

Affiliates

Affiliates are local television and radio stations that may choose to carry the programming of a national network.

Full House/Senate Debate and Vote on Passage:

After a period of debate, a vote is taken in whatever house the bill is being debated.

The Income Level of a Voter:

Another factor determining voter turnout is the income level of the voter. As the income level of a voter increases, there is a corresponding increase in the likelihood of voter turnout.

California, Prior to U.S. Statehood:

Alta California came under the rule of Mexico in 1822 after the people of Mexico declared their independence from Spain.

The Senate Majority Whip and Minority Whip:

Although the system is not as complex as in the House, the Senate Majority Whip, who is currently John Cornyn, assists the majority leader by: (1) Relaying information to members of the party (2) Ensuring that the members of the party show up for floor debates and cast their votes The Senate Minority Whip, who is currently Dick Durbin, assists the minority leader in the same manner as the majority whip.

Article XVIII:

Article XVIII describes the various procedures for how the California Constitution can be amended. Firstly, a two-third's vote of each house is necessary before the state legislature can do the following: 1) propose amendments or revisions to the constitution 2) amend or withdraw a proposal that the legislature has made Secondly, the state legislature may also, with a two-third's concurring vote, call for a constitutional convention to be held in order to add amendments or revisions to the constitution. Finally, the initiative process allows the voters of California to change the constitution. Regardless of however a change to the California Constitution originates, it is necessary that a majority of the electorate vote to approve the change.

Get out the vote (GOTV):

As Election Day nears, volunteers will carry out the important get out the vote (GOTV) efforts. GOTV involves: 1) having volunteers call and e-mail supporters to go out to the polls and vote 2) arrange transportation for those voters that are unable to make it to the polls.

politico

As a delegate, a representative will vote in a way that is consistent with the wishes of his or her constituents, even if those wishes are in conflict with his or her own opinions.

The Race for the Nomination:

As a result of the front loading that has occurred during the 2008 presidential campaign, the voters in 39 states cast their decisions for the Democratic and Republican nominees by the end of February. In 2004, only 19 states had similarly chosen the Democratic and Republican nominees by the end of February.

Trustee

As a trustee, a representative will listen to the opinions of his or her constituents and then make a final decision based upon his or her best judgment.

delegate

As a trustee, a representative will listen to the opinions of his or her constituents and then make a final decision based upon his or her best judgment.

The Post-Convention Bounce:

As is usually the case with national conventions, both Barack Obama and John McCain experienced a brief post-convention bounce (or increase) in the polls.

Why have a Congress?

As they drafted the Constitution, the founders chose to create a powerful Congress since they felt more comfortable in placing power in the legislature rather than an all powerful executive.

Restrictions on coordinating with campaigns

As with 527 organizations, Super Pacs and 501(c)(4) committees are barred from directly coordinating with campaigns.

The Presidential and Vice Presidential Debates:

As with many previous presidential campaigns, the Obama and McCain campaigns agreed to a series of presidential debates. Ultimately, three presidential and one vice presidential debates were held. The presidential debates were somewhat different than in the past since: 1) the candidates could interact with each other rather than simply respond to the moderator's questions during the first debate 2) the candidates were asked questions from ordinary citizens during the second debate's quasi-town hall meeting

The Structure of California's Courts:

As with the federal courts, the various state courts in California are divided between fact-finding trial courts and appellate courts that review questions of law and due process.

Associate Justice Corrigan:

Associate Justice Carol A. Corrigan, who was appointed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in 2006

Associate Justice Liu:

Associate Justice Goodwin Liu, who was appointed by Governor Jerry Brown in 2011

Associate Justice Werdegar:

Associate Justice Kathryn M. Werdegar, who was appointed by Governor Pete Wilson in 1994

Associate Justice Cuéllar:

Associate Justice Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar, who was appointed by Governor Jerry Brown in 2014

Associate Justice Baxter:

Associate Justice Marvin R. Baxter, who was appointed by Governor George Deukmejian in 1991

Associate Justice Chin:

Associate Justice Ming W. Chin, who was appointed by Governor Pete Wilson in 1996

Literary Digest:

Beginning in 1916, Literary Digest, a popular magazine during the first half of the 20th century, began mailing survey postcards in order to predict the outcome of elections. Despite using a rather non-scientific approach to sampling, Literary Digest was nevertheless able to correctly predict the outcome of presidential elections between 1920 and 1932.

What are Public Opinion Polls?:

Beginning in the 1930s, governmental officials have increasingly relied upon public opinion polls (interviews of a sample group of citizens) in order to determine what the public is thinking or prefers.

Who is elected to Congress?:

Both the members of the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate are not typical of a majority of Americans. For instance, members of Congress (particularly in the U.S. Senate) are often far richer than ordinary Americans. Furthermore, compared to the U.S. population in general, the members of Congress tend to be somewhat older, as well as, disproportionately white and male. Finally, compared to the general public, the members of Congress are more likely to be formal members of a church or a synagogue than ordinary Americans.

The Initiative Process:

California is one of the 24 states that grant citizens the right to gather signatures on petitions that later will allow the people of the state to vote either to approve or reject an initiative. After a citizen proposes an initiative and pays $200 to the office of the state attorney general, the attorney general will then prepare a title for and summary of the measure. The secretary of state then grants permission for petitions to be circulated after a deadline has been set for the submission of the required number of signatures. There are two kinds of initiatives: 1) statutory initiatives 2) constitutional amendment initiatives

Statehood for California:

California was soon admitted as the 31st state in the union on September 9, 1850.

The Courts of Appeal:

California's courts of appeal were originally established in 1904 after California voters approved a legislative amendment to the California Constitution. Today the six appellate court districts are located in San Diego, Los Angeles, San Jose, San Francisco, Fresno, and Sacramento.There are currently 105 justices who serve on the six courts of appeal in California. There are currently 105 justices who serve on the six courts of appeal in California.

Campaign Consultant:

Candidates often employ private sector professionals as campaign consultants, since these individuals may have expertise in areas such as polling, fund-raising, media relations, mass mailings, Internet outreach, speech writing, and advertising.

Chief Justice Cantil-Sakauye:

Chief Justice Tani Cantil-Sakauye, who was appointed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in 2011

Connection to Progressive Reforms:

Council-manager city governments emerged out of the Progressive reforms that were introduced during the early 20th century to breakup the power of political machines.

Voter Turnout during Presidential Elections:

During the 2004 presidential election, 123.7 million out of 221.3 million eligible voters (55.3% of eligible voters), exercised their right to vote. Two years later during the 2006 midterm elections, voter turnout dropped to approximately 40% of eligible voters. The swings in turnout between presidential and midterm elections is a recurring pattern that has been seen for well over a hundred years.

The Iowa Caucus:

During the 2008 election, the Iowa Caucus was moved forward to January 3, 2008. During the 2008 Iowa Caucus, Barack Obama came in first for the Democratic Party, John Edwards came in second, and Hillary Clinton came in third. On the Republican side, Mike Huckabee came in first, Mitt Romney came in second, and John McCain came in fourth. In 2012, the Iowa Caucus occurred on January 3. Whereas Iowa Democrats supported Barack Obama, the incumbent president, Iowa Republicans (after a recount) narrowly chose Rick Santorum over Mitt Romney, while Ron Paul followed closely behind in third place.

Muckraking

During the early 1920s, the Progressive movement gave rise to a new form of journalism known as muckraking. The term muckraking was coined by Theodore Roosevelt, since the journalists who participated in this form of journalism concentrated on exposing any misconduct that was engaged in by politicians, businesses, and the government.

Campaign Finance Reform

During the last forty years, there have been two major efforts to bring about greater regulations for candidates receiving campaign contributions. The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971, which was later amended in 1974, required the disclosure of all contributions and expenditures greater than $100, as well as, reduced the influence of labor unions and corporations (businesses) over political campaigns. The 1974 amendments to the FECA: (1) created the Federal Election Commission (FEC) (2) provided for the public financing of general elections and presidential primaries (3) limited the amount of money an individual could donate to both a number of candidates, as well as, a single candidate (4) required candidates to periodically report to the FEC the names of contributors to campaigns, the amount spent by the campaign, and descriptions of what was purchased

Yellow Journalism:

During the late 1800s and early 1900s, a number of prominent newspaper publishers lowered the journalistic standards of their papers and instead engaged in sensationalized reporting in order to increase the readership of their respective newspapers.

The Cost of Elections:

During the past two decades, campaigns have become increasingly expensive. Today, the average cost of a successful campaign for a seat in the House of Representatives is $1.1 million dollars. Today, the average cost of a successful campaign for a seat in the House of Representatives is $1.1 million dollars.

Cable News:

During the same period (2000 to 2004), the percentage of viewers for cable news channels (CNN, MSNBC, and Fox News) has risen from 34% to 38%.

House/Senate Resolution (or Bill) introduced:

Each law that ultimately is passed begins as a bill that is introduced into both chambers, either simultaneously or eventually

An Early Attempt at Polling Voters:

Efforts at predicting the outcome of an election can be seen as early as 1824 when a newspaper in Pennsylvania attempted to predict the winner of the presidential election that year.

Polling Errors during the 1948 Election:

Even Gallup's scientific approach to polling failed to predict Harry Truman's victory during the 1948 election. Gallup, along with virtually every other pollster, erred by predicting that Thomas E. Dewey would actually win the 1948 election.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo:

Eventually, California was ceded to the U.S. by Mexico under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848).

Exit polls

Exit polls are yet another type of survey of voters to determine their voting preferences. Unlike other polls, exit polls are conducted at various polling places on Election Day in order to determine the results of an election.

Media Consultant:

Finally, some campaigns employ the use of media consultants in order produce the candidate's radio, television, and print advertisements.

Recall:

Finally, the citizens of California were also provided with the power to recall elected officials prior to the end of their term in office.

Competitive Elections:

Finally, the presence of competitive elections also strongly impacts voter turnout. Voter turnout in a state with competitive elections is often substantially higher than in a non-competitive state. Finally, targeted get-out-the-vote campaigns among minority voters can also increase voter turnout.

The Age of a Voter:

Generally speaking, the likelihood that an individual will vote increases substantially with age. During the 2004 presidential election, only 46.7% of eligible voters aged 18 to 24 reportedly turned out and voted. This is far less than the 73.3% of eligible voters aged 65 to 74 that turned out and voted. During the 2008 presidential election, 48.5% of eligible voters aged 18 to 24 reportedly turned out and voted. Again, this is far less than the 72.4% of eligible voters aged 65 to 74 that turned out and voted.

FDR's "Fireside Chats":

However, under Franklin D. Roosevelt, the use of the radio as an effective tool for reaching the public was greatly perfected. Roosevelt would periodically conduct what were known as "fireside chats" in which the president initially described his New Deal programs in order to calm the fears of an apprehensive nation during the Great Depression. Roosevelt later used these chats to discuss the progress that the U.S. was making during World War II.

Continuing Resolution:

If Congress fails to pass an appropriations bill by October 1st, a temporary funding law known as a continuing resolution will be passed by Congress. The continuing resolution allows every agency of government to continue operating until the new budget is passed on the same amount of funding as the previous year.

Conference Committee Action:

If the bills passed in the House and Senate contain different language, a conference committee will be formed in order to write a compromise bill.

The Role of LAFCO:

If the citizens of an area wish to establish their own government, they can petition to have their community become a city. The petition brought by the citizens will then be considered by their county's local agency formation commission (LAFCO), which will determine whether the proposed city is in fact fiscally viable. If LAFCO approves the formation of the city, then the commission will draw up precise boundaries for the new city.

Compulsory Referendum:

If the state legislature votes to amend the California Constitution, the legislators are by law required to submit the changes they intend before the voters of California in the form of a compulsory referenda. The voters of California can then either approve or disapprove of the amendments to the California Constitution.

Raiding:

If there is an organized attempt by the voters of one party to influence the results of the other party's primary, it is known as raiding. Despite the potential for raiding, there is not a lot of evidence indicating that organized raiding has been successful.

Benjamin Day and The Sun:

In 1833, the Sun (or New York Sun) newspaper was founded by Benjamin Day. Unlike earlier papers, the Sun moved away from having a partisan affiliation and instead relied upon mass circulation and advertising to keep the paper competitive.

Initiative Process:

In 1911, shortly after a number of reform minded elected officials came to power in California, the state became the 10th in the nation to adopt the initiative process. This initiative process enabled citizens to adopt laws and constitutional amendments without the need for governmental approval and support.

The Executive Budget:

In 1922, the Congress began requiring the president to submit an executive budget each year. The Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, has helped to streamline some aspects of the budget process.

The Unconstitutional California Blanket Primary:

In 2000, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down California's blanket primary, which became law in 1996 with the passage of Proposition 198. The Supreme Court cited that the blanket primary violated the freedom of association of California's political parties. The blanket primary, as used in California, provided the names of all of the candidates running for office. It therefore allowed each voter to have the opportunity to crossover and vote for one of the candidates of the other party for a given office, while still allowing them the opportunity to vote for one of the candidates of their own party for another office.

Voter Turnout in 2008:

In 2008, the percentage of people voting rose to approximately 62%. That was up from 57% in 2004 and a low of 51% in 2000. Barack Obama carried most major demographic groups and narrowly edged out John McCain in groups that traditionally have gone the other way in elections (e.g. college grads and suburban voters).

California's New "Top Two" Open Primary System:

In 2010, California voters adopted a new primary system that provides for the top two candidates (regardless of party affiliation) in the primary to face each other in the general election. Even if a candidate receives more than 50% in the primary, the top two primary winners will face each other in the election. There is a strong probability that one or more major or minor parties may seek to challenge the new primary process in the courts.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission:

In 2010, the Supreme Court, in a narrow decision, struck down BCRA's advertisement bans preceding primary and general elections, as well as, conferred free speech rights to corporations and unions.

Congressional Apprtionment

In Article I, Section 1, the U.S. Constitution describes the process for reapportionment, which involves allocating seats in the House of Representatives to each state on the basis of the previous census. While reapportionment occurred fairly consistently throughout the nation's history, redistricting, which involves the redrawing of congressional district boundaries within each of the states, did not always take place. During the 1960s, in a series of U.S. Supreme Court rulings, not only was the principle of "one person, one vote" to be applied to congressional districts within each state, but also to state legislative districts.

Closed Primaries:

In a closed primary, only the registered voters of a party can vote for the candidates on the party's primary ballot. Closed primaries are generally thought to be helpful for maintaining the health of the party system, since they discourage crossover voting and raiding.

Runoff Primary:

In a number of states, if no candidate in the primary secures a majority of votes, then there will be a runoff primary in which the two candidates with the greatest number of votes will compete against each other.

Open Primaries:

In a number of states, primary elections are open to independents, and sometimes members of the other major party. However, voters in open primaries must choose, which ballot (e.g. Democratic or Republican) from which they can choose the nominee of the party for each office.

Special Districts:

In addition to county governments, city governments, and school district boards of education, there are also what are known as special districts. These special districts (4,776 in total) may include flood control districts, water districts, cemetery districts, hospital districts, etc. Local residents may establish a special district, but must go through the same procedures with the county local agency formation commission (LAFCO) in studying the fiscal viability of the district. The proposed district is eventually placed on the ballot, where the voters living within the geographical boundaries of the district ultimately decide whether or not the special district will be established.

Congressional Staffs

In addition to earning a yearly salary of $174,000, a member of Congress also is afforded a budget, which they use to hire their personal staff. As a result, more than 30,000 people are employed by the Congress to work on Capitol Hill. As a result, more than 30,000 people are employed by the Congress to work on Capitol Hill. Typically, a U.S. Senator will employ approximately 30 staff members, while a member of the House will employ around 15 staff members. There is some debate about whether or not staff members are more instrumental in aiding the needs of constituents and helping gain votes for a member of Congress during the next election, rather than advising their representative or senator about pending legislation.

Referendum

In addition to the initiative process, the referendum process provided the citizens of California with the right to overturn laws that had been passed by the legislature and signed by the governor.

Recalling a State Legislator:

In contrast, the number of signatures required to recall a state legislator must equal at least 20% of the total votes cast for individuals running for office in question during the most recent election. Of the 31 attempts to recall a California governor during the past century, only the recall of Governor Gray Davis in 2003 was successful.

City Governments:

In general, counties are broad geographic areas that may contain one or more cities. In comparison to counties, cities typically have a broader range of powers for carrying out self-governance, which includes the authority to raise revenues.

Walter Lippmann's "Public Opinion":

In his book, Public Opinion (1922), Walter Lippmann pointed to the fact that research on public opinion at the time was quite limited, despite the important role that such research could provide in determining the opinion of and interests held by the public.

The Role of Primary Elections:

In most European nations, unlike the United States, primary elections are not held, meaning that whoever is chosen by the party organization will be the party's nominee. While primary elections in America make the selection of a party's nominee more democratic, it also substantially increases the cost of the campaign process.

Primary Elections:

In most states, the caucus system has been replaced by primary elections. Primary elections are held in order to provide voters with the opportunity to decide which candidate will represent his or her party during the general election.

Crossover Voting:

In open primaries, it is frequently the case that voters that are not affiliated with a given party, will decide to crossover and vote in the primary of the other party.

The Nomination Campaign:

In order for a candidate to be successful, they must be appealing both to party activists and to party leaders. For instance, party activists are concerned that the nominee of the party shares their political ideology. On the other hand, party leaders are more concerned about the electability of a nominee. For any individual to make it through the nomination process, they must be able to appeal to both groups within the party.

The First Attempt at Exit Polling:

In order to predict the outcome of the 1883 election, the Boston Globe sent a number of reporters to various precincts in order to poll voters as they exited the polling places.

Recalling a Statewide Official:

In order to recall a statewide official such as a governor, proponents of a recall measure must collect a number of signatures equal to at least 12% of the total vote cast for all candidates for that position during the last election (currently in the range of 1,211,423 signatures).

Narrowcasting:

In recent years, some media outlets have begun engaging in narrowcasting, which involves tailoring their media programming to specific populations within society.

Trends in Media

In recent years, while television viewership and magazine readership have declined, there has been tremendous growth in the usage of online media outlets.

Rules Committee Action (House of Representatives only):

In the House of Representatives, the Rules Committee schedules a bill for debate on the floor of the House.

The Financial Crisis/Mortgage Crisis:

In the wake of the banking and mortgage crisis, the Obama-Biden campaign was able to take the lead in the national polls and continued to maintain that advantage to the election.

Distinct Roles in Theory:

In theory, the city council engages in the policymaking process while the city manager deals with administrative issues. Cities therefore typically hire city managers with advance degrees in public administration.

Popular Election of Judges:

Interestingly, the legacy of the Progressive movement in California can also be seen in the fact that the names of judges are submitted to voters for approval.

What causes people to run for office?:

It is often the case that a greater number of individuals will run for a higher or more prestigious office than a lower office. Those who run for office are usually divided into two groups: 1) "self-starters," and 2) recruited individuals

Communications Director:

It is the job of the communications director to blend together the free press coverage that the campaign receives but has little control over, with the campaign's paid mail, radio, and TV advertisements. The Communications Director, in conjunction with the other campaign staff members, may choose to pay for: 1) positive ads (i.e. ads highlighting the qualifications, family, and issue positions of the candidate paying for the ad) 2) negative ads (i.e. ads that attack the platform or character of the opponent) 3) contrast ads (i.e. ads that highlight the differences between the candidates, which are biased towards the candidate paying for the ad) 4) spot ads (i.e. paid advertisements supporting the candidate that are broadcast for ten seconds, thirty seconds, and sixty seconds) 5) inoculation ads (i.e. ads that attempt to counteract anticipated attacks by the opposition)

The Campaign Staff:

It would be virtually impossible for a candidate to win office without the use of their campaign staff. The campaign staff consists of: 1) paid staff 2) political consultants 3) enthusiastic and dedicated volunteers Together, the campaign staff conducts polls, organizes the candidate's busy schedule (e.g. fund-raising dinners and events), writes speeches, crafts campaign messages, and designs various types of campaign advertisements (e.g. television ads, radio spots, and direct-mail ads).

Joseph Pulitzer:

Joseph Pulitzer's paper, The World, was very popular in New York City prior to and even in the wake of Hearst's entry into the New York newspaper market.

Strong and Weak Mayor Cities:

Mayor-council cities are often divided into strong or weak mayor cities depending on the powers that have been granted to the mayor. In 1999, the voters of Los Angeles approved a new city charter that granted the mayor of Los Angeles greater powers. Other strong mayor cities include Fresno, CA, San Diego, CA, and New York City, NY.

Mayor-Council Cities:

Mayor-council city governments are typically found in large, diverse cities.

The Republican National Convention:

Meeting at the Xcel Energy Center in St. Paul, Minnesota from September 1 to September 4, 2008, the Republican National Convention held its meetings and nominated its presidential and vice presidential nominees, John McCain and Sarah Palin respectively. As a consequence of Hurricane Gustav striking the Gulf Coast during the weekend before the convention, the RNC minimized the number of events held on the first day and instead concentrated on disaster relief.

Rush Limbaugh and Talk Radio:

More recently, the radio has been revived as a means of conveying political commentary, as has been seen in the rise of radio talk show hosts such as Rush Limbaugh, Sean Hannity, and up until a few years ago, Al Franken.

The Minority Status of a Voter:

Non-Hispanic whites and African Americans have a higher voter turnout rate than their Hispanic/Latino and Asian American counterparts. For instance, during the 2004 election, eligible non-Hispanic whites voted at a rate of 67.2%, while eligible African Americans voted at a rate of 60%. During the same election, the voting rate among eligible Hispanics/Latinos was 44.2%, while that of eligible Asian Americans was 44.1%. During the 2008 election, eligible non-Hispanic whites voted at a rate of 66.1%, while eligible African Americans voted at a rate of 64.7%. For the 2008 election, the voting rate among eligible Hispanics/Latinos was 49.9%, while that of eligible Asian Americans was 47.6%.

Directly Elected Mayor:

Not only are mayors directly elected in mayor-council cities, they are also provided with executive powers such as: 1) vetoing ordinances (laws passed by the city) 2) appointing department heads and commission members 3) preparing the city budget

Advisory Referendum:

Of the aforementioned types of referenda, the advisory referenda has no legal standing, but is instead typically used at the local level by a city council in order to determine what the citizens of their community feel about a controversial item being debated.

Bill referred to House/Senate Subcommittee:

Often it is the case that a subcommittee will take up the bill next and most likely rewrite portions of the bill (the "markup" process). The markup process typically takes place in a House subcommittee, whereas in the Senate it takes place in the full committee.

logrolling

Oftentimes, members of Congress agree to support each other's bills in what is known as logrolling.

Omnibus Spending Bill:

Omnibus bills are complex legislative measures that may cover multiple subjects, sometimes requiring a bill's introduction in multiple committees.

The Electoral College:

On Election Day, the winner-take-all system ensures that all of the electors for each state (with the exception of Nebraska and Maine) will go to the candidate that receives a plurality or majority of the votes in that state. This means that a presidential candidate needs at least 270 out of the 538 electoral college votes in order to win the election. As a consequence, many candidates devote a substantial amount of time and money campaigning in "battleground states." In most elections, it is these battleground states that ultimately determine which of the candidates will become president.

James Marshall and Sutter's Mill:

On January 24, 1848, James Marshall discovered gold at Sutter's Mill on the American River.

The Constitution of 1849:

On September 1, 1849, 48 delegates at Colton Hall in Monterey, CA, drafted California's first constitution. California's first constitution was closely modeled after the constitutions of Iowa and New York, and to a lesser extent, the constitutions of Louisiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Mississippi, Texas, and the United States. Interestingly, the first constitution of California was drafted a year before California became a state.

The Council Member's Constituency:

On the other hand, council members are typically elected in separate districts within the city, which therefore often requires that they represent the interests of their district's constituents, and not necessarily the entire city.

Separation of Powers:

One of the distinct characteristics of mayor-council cities is the separation of powers that typifies this form of city governance. Just as it is with both federal and state governments, the legislative and executive powers found in mayor-council cities are separated.

C-SPAN:

One of the most unfiltered sources of news provided on cable is C-SPAN, which provides coverage of congressional proceedings, important public affairs events, and even the parliamentary proceedings and press conferences of foreign governments.

Incumbency:

Perhaps the single greatest factor that determines whether or not an individual will win an election is if they are an incumbent. There are many advantages to being in office, such as the ability to communicate through the mass media, making appearances with constituents, and mailing out newsletters. This helps explain why since 1980, the House of Representatives has seen incumbency rates from a low of 85.1% in 2010, to a high of 98.3% in 1988, 1998, and 2004. In terms of the U.S. Senate during the same period, apart from an exceptionally low incumbency rate in 1980 of 55.2%, the incumbency rates were almost as high in the Senate as they were in the House. For instance, since 1980, the next lowest incumbency rate in the Senate was 75% in 1986, while the highest rate was 96.9% in 1990.

Limited Options for the Respondent:

Polls can be rather inaccurate if the format of the various responses to questions is limited to such an extent that they do not allow the respondent to convey his or her level of support for or against a particular issue

The White House Press Secretary:

President Herbert Hoover's administration was the first to establish the post of press secretary. The press secretary performs the key role of articulating the position of the president to the press during the numerous press briefings that are held during all presidential administrations. Currently, the White House Press Secretary is Josh Earnest.

The Party Convention:

Prior to seating the delegates at the convention, both parties utilize a credentials committee, which is charged with the task of inspecting the claims of the prospective delegates to ensure that they are the legitimate representatives of their states. Traditionally, the out-of-power party holds its national party convention first.

Protest Referendum:

Protest referenda typically follow the same path as a statutory initiative by requiring citizens to collect the same amount of signatures (i.e. 5% of the votes cast for governor during the last gubernatorial election (504,760 signatures)), but in a little more than half of the time.

What is Public Opinion?

Public opinion is what the public thinks or believes about a given issue or a number of issues at a specific point in time.

Stratified Sampling:

Rather than use random sampling, a number of reputable polling organizations use a more sophisticated technique known as stratified sampling. Under stratified sampling the country is divided into four sample regions, of which a number of counties and metropolitan areas are randomly selected within each region that are in proportion to the country's total population.

The Recall Process

Recall measures require a different number of signatures depending on the state politician involved.

Campaign Manager:

Regardless of whether a campaign takes place at the state or national level, almost all campaigns have a campaign manager who accompanies the candidate and coordinates the various aspects of the campaign.

Front Loading:

Regardless of whether or not a state holds a caucus, a primary, or both, there has been a trend in recent elections for states to move their caucuses and/or primaries as early as possible.

Sampling Error (Margin of Error):

Sampling error (or margin of error) is the difference between the results found in the actual population versus the predictions based upon a sample. Typically, polls involving approximately 1,000 to 1,500 respondents provide some of the most accurate predictions since the margin of error is between +3% and -3%.

Select Comittees

Select (or special) committees are temporarily established in either house of Congress for a very specific legislative purpose, such as conducting a study or special investigation.

Self-starters:

Self-starters (or volunteers) typically engage in political activities in order to advance their careers, specifically carry out a political program, or simply address a certain event or issue. Ralph Nader is an example of a self-starter since his 2000 and 2004 campaigns were conducted for the most part to address the failure of the major parties in protecting the environment, as well as, checking the influence of corporate wealth on American politics. Howard Dean is another example of a self-starter since his 2004 campaign was based on a desire to get young people, as well as, other groups engaged in American politics. Some politicians run for higher office to advance their careers or increase their prestige among the public or their colleagues.

William Randolph Hearst:

Shortly after William Randolph Hearst purchased and changed the editorial direction of the New York Journal, Hearst's paper quickly began to compete with Joseph Pulitzer's own newspaper, The World.

Problems with the Constitution of 1849:

Shortly after its enactment, the Constitution of 1849 was found to be inadequate when faced with the challenges of providing for taxation, regulating the behavior of big business, and reigning in the excesses of the railroad companies.

The Australian Ballot:

Since 1888, every U.S. state has employed the use of the Australian ballot instead of the open or public ballot. Unlike a public ballot, the Australian ballot is a secret ballot that is developed, distributed, and tallied (counted) by government officials at the expense of the public.

Referenda in Action:

Since 1912, of 50 attempted referenda, 39 qualified for the ballot, and 25 of those actually were passed by the voters of California.

Pollster:

Some campaigns hire their own pollster to conduct public opinion surveys so that the candidate and campaign can be made aware of what the public wants in terms of policies.

Internet Team:

Some campaigns, such as Barack Obama's, have been very successful in using Web-based resources in order to raise funds, communicate with voters, mobilize volunteers, and develop campaign events.

Why is Voter Turnout so low?:

Some of the reasons that have been given for low voter turnout include the following: 1) the frequency of American elections (i.e. both primary and general elections) 2) America does not provide a holiday for voting or schedule elections on the weekend so that busy voters can exercise their right to vote 3) the voter registration process can sometimes be tedious and therefore discourages some voters from registering and voting 4) absentee ballot laws can also be burden for voters, especially in states where a citizen must apply in person for an absentee ballot 5) the U.S. does not employ the use of compulsory voting Some pundits (people viewed as political experts) argue that negative campaigning and public cynicism toward the American political process may also be to blame for low voter turnout.

Recruited candidates:

Some politicians are recruited by fellow party members or by the party-in-the-electorate to run for a specific office. In some instances this can be seen in efforts to "draft" politicians. Typically, these efforts at "drafting" politicians are only moderately successful, mainly because most politicians recognize the enormous challenges that are involved in the campaign process.

Inadequate Information:

Sometimes, the lack of information that the public has towards a complex issue (such as the federal budget) causes a pollster to exclude an individual from the sample, since that individual has not apparently given the issue much consideration. In some cases a pollster may choose to exclude up to 20% of the sample if those individuals fail the screening portion at the beginning of the survey

Standing Committees (and their Subcommittees)

Standing committees are permanent committees that are in both the House and Senate, which consider bills that fall within certain subject areas. During the 112th Congress, there were 20 standing committees in the House, and 16 standing committees in the Senate. In order to carry out their work more efficiently, many of the standing committees in both the House and Senate have developed subcommittees. During the 112th Congress, there were 104 subcommittees in the House, and 73 subcommittees in the Senate.

Compensation for State Legislators

State legislators in both houses currently receive an annual salary of $95,291 (after the 18% reduction by the California Citizens Compensation Commission from the previous $116,208). State legislators also receive a tax-free per diem (daily) allowance of $160 for each day that they actually conduct state business. The speaker of the assembly and the president pro tempore of the senate receive an annual salary of $109,584 (after the 18% reduction by the California Citizens Compensation Commission from the previous $133,639).

Statutory Initiative:

Statutory initiatives, which have the force of law, but can be overridden if they are in conflict with the state constitution, require the collection of at least 504,760 signatures (which is 5% of the total votes cast for governor during the last gubernatorial election).

501(c)(3) committees:

Tax exempt non-profits (such as religious bodies, charities, etc.) are still barred from conducting campaign activities.

Compensation for Judges:

The associate justices of the California Supreme Court receive an annual salary of $218,237, while the chief justice receives $238,011.

Bill referred to House/Senate Committee:

The bill is then referred to the standing committee that deals with issues related to the bill.

Bill reported by House/Senate Full committee:

The bill is then reported out to the full chamber where it is scheduled for debate either by the Rules Committee in the House or by the leadership in the Senate.

The Candidate:

The candidate during any presidential campaign must be ready to spend a tremendous amount of time and energy engaged in the campaign. Furthermore, anyone running for the presidency must also be prepared to expose their lives to public scrutiny, as well as, possible rejection by the voting public.

Caucuses:

The caucus system is the oldest method used by the political parties in choosing the delegates to their national conventions. In the past, caucuses were closed meetings of party activists that decided which of the party's candidates for president would be supported by the delegates from that state. Although the older, exclusive party caucuses were viewed by many people as elitist and rather undemocratic, some states retain a modified form of caucus. Iowa, along with several other states, utilizes a newer participatory type of caucus that is open to a wider range of party members.

The City Manager:

The city council then hires a professional city manager, the person who is charged with carrying out the policies of the council, as well as, administering the various city departments. As an administrator, the city manager helps in the preparation of the city budget.

Eligibility for a Presidential candidate:

The formal requirements of a presidential candidate are the following: 1) must be 35 years old 2) must be a natural-born citizen 3) must have resided (lived) in the U.S. for 14 years

The County Board of Supervisors:

The county board of supervisors will then conduct hearings and vote on the proposed city. If a majority of the county board of supervisors votes in favor of the new city, the citizens living within the boundaries of the proposed new city will vote whether or not to incorporate their community. Once a city is incorporated it then may become a general law city or charter city. Currently, there are 363 general law cities and 118 charter cities

Direct Mailer:

The direct mailer is a professional hired by the campaign to supervise fund-raising efforts that involve directly mailing donation forms to constituents.

preparing the budget

The executive branch begins preparing the budget around 18 months prior to the new fiscal year.

The Other Statewide Elected Officials:

The executive branch of California includes the following individuals: 1) Attorney General Kamala D. Harris 2) Secretary of State Alex Padilla 3) Controller Betty Yee 4) Treasurer John Chiang 5) Superintendent of Public Instruction Tom Torlakson 6) Insurance Commissioner Dave Jones 7) Board of Equalization (which includes four members elected in very large districts, as well as, the state controller).

The Factors that Influence Voter Turnout:

The factors that influence voter turnout include the following: 1) Age 2) Educational Attainment 3) Minority status 4) Income level 5) Two-party competition

fiscal year

The federal government operates on a fiscal year (FY) cycle that runs from October 1st to September 30th.

The First Budget Resolution:

The first budget resolution, which establishes the overall revenue and spending goals for the upcoming fiscal year, must be passed by Congress by May 15th.

Calvin Coolidge and Radio Broadcasts:

The first president to conduct radio broadcasts on a regular basis was Calvin Coolidge.

Eligibility for a U.S. Representative:

The formal requirements of a candidate for the U.S. House of Representatives are the following: 1) must be 25 years old 2) must be a resident of the state from which he or she was elected 3) must have resided (lived) in the U.S. for 7 years

Eligibility for a U.S. Senator:

The formal requirements of a candidate for the U.S. Senate are the following: 1) must be 30 years old 2) must be a resident of the state from which he or she was elected 3) must have resided (lived) in the U.S. for 9 years

Cloture (breaking a filibuster)

The only way for the members of the Senate to break a filibuster is outlined in Senate Rule 22, which was amended both in 1975 and in 1979. Under Rule 22, sixteen (16) U.S. Senators must sign a petition requesting a cloture vote in order to start the process to break a filibuster. Then, in two days time, if sixty (60) U.S. Senators vote for the cloture measure, individual Senators may have up to one hour with which to speak in favor or against the original bill in question. Regardless of who speaks, no more than 30 hours of debate may take place after the cloture vote.

Straw Polls:

The polls that Literary Digest conducted during the early 1900s are now seen as representing important steps in the development of straw polls. Although Literary Digest provided rather accurate predictions throughout the 1920s and early 1930s, its reliance on straw polling (unscientific polling) caused it to seriously err in predicting the outcome of the 1936 election.

The Powers of Congress:

The powers granted to Congress are both extremely specific and also quite vague.

The President Submits the Budget

The president then takes the OMB's proposed budget, approves it, and then submits it to both houses of Congress.

President Signs or Vetoes Bills:

The president will then either sign the bill into law or veto the bill. If the president uses a regular veto, then it is possible for the House and Senate to override the veto with a two-thirds vote in both houses.

Press Secretary:

The press secretary is the individual that is given the task of communicating and interacting with the press on a daily basis.

Cracking Voters

The process of cracking voters involves spreading out the voters of the opposition party into different districts.

Packing Voters

The process of packing voters involves cramming voters of the opposition party into as few congressional districts as possible.

Contemporary Redistricting

Today, sophisticated computer software programs allow state legislatures to redraw districts by either packing or cracking opposition voters.

Tracking Polls

Tracking polls are continuous surveys that enable a given campaign to chart its popularity on a day-to-day basis. Such polls can be extremely helpful for campaign staffs as they seek to determine which of their campaign strategies are effective.

The City Council:

Typically, a council-manager city will have a five-member city council that holds both legislative and executive powers.

Congressional Elections:

Under Article I, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution, the members of the House of Representatives are to be elected every two years by the people of their state.

Elected Officials under the Constitution of 1879:

Under the Constitution of 1879, the number of state legislators was set at 40 state senators and 80 assembly members.

Prompt 3 - evidence concerning the factors that influence voter turnout

Voting and fair elections is the basis for any democracy. The United States has a representative democracy meaning that the representatives who make policy decisions in Washington, DC are elected in free and open elections. What is probably more troubling is America's low voter turnout when compared to other countries. For instance, Italy, which employs the use of compulsory voting (i.e. citizens may be fined for failing to vote) has averaged an impressive 93% voter turnout rate between the years 1945 and 2005. By contrast, the United States averaged a voter turnout rate of 48% during the same period when presidential and midterm elections are averaged together. 1) the frequency of American elections (i.e. both primary and general elections) 2) America does not provide a holiday for voting or schedule elections on the weekend so that busy voters can exercise their right to vote 3) the voter registration process can sometimes be tedious and therefore discourages some voters from registering and voting 4) absentee ballot laws can also be burden for voters, especially in states where a citizen must apply in person for an absentee ballot 5) the U.S. does not employ the use of compulsory voting Some pundits (people viewed as political experts) argue that negative campaigning and public cynicism toward the American political process may also be to blame for low voter turnout. The factors that influence voter turnout include the following: 1) Age 2) Educational Attainment 3) Minority status 4) Income level 5) Two-party competition

America's Low Voter Turnout:

What is probably more troubling is America's low voter turnout when compared to other countries. For instance, Italy, which employs the use of compulsory voting (i.e. citizens may be fined for failing to vote) has averaged an impressive 93% voter turnout rate between the years 1945 and 2005. By contrast, the United States averaged a voter turnout rate of 48% during the same period when presidential and midterm elections are averaged together.

The Bear Flag Revolt:

When fighting broke out between the U.S. and Mexico in 1846, a group of American settlers in California started a rebellion known as the "Bear Flag Revolt.