Text Structure

Cause and Effect (Signal Words)

Here are some signal words that may indicate that information in a paragraph is organized as cause and effect: because, as a result, resulted, caused, affected, since, due to, effect.

Chronological (Explanation)

When information in a passage is organized by the time in which each event occurred, it is organized chronologically. Nonfiction passages that are organized chronologically often contains dates. Fiction passages or narratives are more subtle and are organized chronologically but usually have no dates. A narrative or story is a journey through time, and all of the events are arranged in order of time; therefore, every story has a beginning, middle, and end. Even if an author uses flashbacks, flash-forwards, or otherwise manipulates the time in his or her text, the events still occur along a timeline. Stories require the passage of time; therefore, all stories are organized chronologically. Sometimes time will stop in a narrative. Certain passages in a story may focus on describing scenery or spaces, and use a descriptive or spatial method of organization. The conflict of a story may be discussed in terms of problem and solution or cause and effect, but the text in a story is still mainly organized chronologically. Remember: Chrono = Time Logic = Order Stories are told chronologically or in order of time.

Compare and Contrast (Example)

Example: Apples and oranges are both fruits, which means that they have seeds inside of them. Each has a skin, but orange skins are thick and easy to peel. Apple skins are thinner and do not peel easily. Oranges also contain more acid than apples, but both fruits are delicious.

Compare and Contrast (Signal Words)

Here are some signal words that may indicate that the text is written using the compare and contrast organizational pattern: like, unlike, both, neither, similar, and different.

Cause and Effect (Explanation)

When an author gives reasons why something happened, he or she is explaining what caused an effect (reasons are causes and the thing that happens is the effect). Also, when a writer explains the results of an action, he or she is explaining the effects of a cause (results are effects and the thing that occurs is the cause). The cause and effect text structure is used so commonly that you have probably written a paragraph using it and not noticed.

Problem and Solution (Example)

Example: Heavy rains can cause flooding in small streams. For weather forecasters and local authorities, this flooding can be difficult to predict. Fortunately, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) has more than 7,000 streamgages that measure water flow. These streamgages help scientists to monitor water levels in good and bad weather.

Cause and Effect (Example)

Example: Many people think that they can get sick by going into cold weather improperly dressed; however, illnesses are not caused by temperature- they are caused by germs. So while shivering outside in the cold probably won't strengthen your immune system, you're more likely to contract an illness indoors because you will have a greater exposure to germs. In the above example, the paragraph explains how germs cause illnesses. The germs are the cause in the paragraph and the illness is the effect.

***Order of Importance (Example)***

Example: The company has a clearly laid out hierarchy (power structure). All major decisions go through the president, who controls the entire operation, but most daily decisions go to the board. Beneath the board members are the regional managers, who oversee the branch managers, who run each local branch.

Descriptive (Signal Words)

Some signal words that might indicate that the writer or speaker is following the descriptive or spatial pattern of organization include a wide sweeping array of prepositions, some of which I will now list: next to, behind, across from, below that, above that, to the right of and so forth.

***Order of Importance (Signal Clues)***

The Order of Importance organizational pattern can be difficult to identify alongside cause and effect and sequence text structures. In fact, in some cases one could use the same graphic organizer to represent information from an order of importance and sequence passage. The difference is subtle and must be inferred at times, but generally a sequential passage explains the steps that occur in a process.

Problem and Solution (Signal Words)

There are a few signal words which may indicate that information in a passage is ordered in the problem and solution pattern of organization: propose, solution, answer, issue, problem, problematic, remedy, prevention, and fix.

Chronological (Example)

Example: Through the ages, Pennsylvania has seen many interesting events. The state was founded in 1681 by William Penn. Later, Pennsylvania was the site of important Revolutionary War battles. After that, Pennsylvania was home to new factories during the Industrial Revolution. Today, Pennsylvania continues to make history.

Descriptive (Example)

Example: Volcanoes are a feared and destructive force for good reason. A volcano is like a pressure valve for the inner earth, but they can also be very beautiful. One part of the volcano that people rarely see is the magma chamber. The magma chamber is way beneath the Earth's bed rock. It is tremendously hot. Running from the magma chamber to the crater of the volcano is the conduit. The conduit connects the magma chamber to the outer world. At the top of the volcano is the the crater. This is where the magma exits. Volcanoes are a beautiful yet dangerous natural phenomenon.

Compare and Contrast (Explanation)

Compare and Contrast is a text structure or pattern of organization where the similarities and differences of two or more things are explored. It is important to remember that with the compare and contrast text structure the text should be discussing similarities and differences. If the text only discusses similarities, it is only comparing. Likewise, if it only discusses ways that the things are different, it is only contrasting. The text must do both to be considered compare and contrast.

***Sequence (Example)***

Example: How to Make Cookies. First, get your materials. Then, make your dough. Lastly, cook your dough at 400 degrees for 10 minutes.

***Order of Importance (Explanation)***

Ideas or steps are prioritized by the writer or speaker according to a hierarchy of value. When using the order of importance pattern of organization, information can be structured from most important to least important or least important to most important. Both structures would be considered as the order of importance text structure.

Cause and Effect (Beware!)

Identifying a text written using the cause and effect pattern of organization can be tricky. In most stories, events in the plot occur for various reasons, This can be mistaken for the cause and effect text structure; however, stories are organized chronologically, and the information in each passage is more likely to be organized by the time in which each event occurred. Contrarily, cause and effect passages usually focus on explaining the reason why something occurs or occurred, and time will usually not pass in these paragraphs.

Problem and Solution (Explanation)

Problem and Solution is a pattern of organization where information in a passage is expressed as a dilemma or concerning issue (a problem) and something that was, can be, or should be done to remedy this issue (solution or attempted solution). The problem and solution text structure may seem like it would be easy to recognize, but it can be moderately difficult to identify because it is frequently confused with the cause and effect pattern of organization, as they both have relational structures; however, if you read the passage and look specifically for both a problem and a solution to the problem, you should find it pretty easy to distinguish from cause and effect, as cause and effect passages do not propose solutions to any negative occurrences within the passage but rather just explain why or how they happen.

***Sequence (Explanation)***

Sequential order, or process writing as it is sometimes called, is when information in a passage is organized by the order in which it occurs. This method of organizing text is generally used for instructions or directions, but it can also be used to explain processes in nature or society, such as how a president is elected. Sequential organization is frequently confused with chronological order. To further confound the issue, sometimes people refer to chronological order as chronological sequence. But there is a key difference that distinguishes the two patterns: texts organized chronologically occur at a specific time and setting, whereas texts describing processes or sequences do not occur at any specific time and place. To elaborate, if I tell the story of how I came home and made cookies, that information is organized chronologically. The story took place in my kitchen sometime in the past. Alternately, consider instructions on how to make cookies. When did that occur? That could happen at anytime or no time at all. This is because a recipe describes a process or sequence, one which is not attached to any specific chronology.

Descriptive (Explanation)

This text structure is used to describe a location, idea, or event. Spatial organization (a kind of description) is when information in a passage is organized in order of space or location. If you were to describe the room in which you were sitting right now, you would be using spatial organization. Spatial organization may also be called descriptive writing and it is most frequently used when the narrator describes how something looks. Spatial organization is generally pretty easy to identify, but be aware that spatial organization is used in both fiction and nonfiction texts. Most fictional passages are organized chronologically, but in paragraphs where the narrator is describing a setting or the appearance of a character, the information may be organized spatially.

***Sequence (Signal Words)***

Unlike chronologically ordered texts, information organized sequentially does not occur at any specific time but, rather, anytime. Signal Words: First, next, before, lastly, then

Chronological (Signal Words)

You will know that you are reading a text in chronological order because you will see words like first, next, later, then, and finally. You will also see dates and other words and phrases that mark the passage of time.