TEXTBOOK: Ch. 7: Expectancy Violations Theory
*Arousal*
*___________* - increased interest or attention when deviations from expectations occur
*Proxemics*
*______________* - study of a person's use of space
*Social Distance*
*_______________* - spatial zone of 4-12 feet, reserved for more formal relationships such as those with coworkers
*Physical arousal*
*________________* - bodily changes as a result of deviations from expectations
*Intimate Distance*
*________________* - very close spatial zone spanning 0-18 inches, usually reserved for those whom we share personal feelings
*Territoriality*
*_________________* - person's ownership of an area or object
*Public Distance*
*__________________* - spatial zone of 12 feet and beyond, reserved for very formal discussions such as between professor and students in class
*Primary Territories*
*___________________* - signal a person's exclusive domain over an area or object
*Expectancies*
*___________________* - thoughts and behaviors anticipated in conversations
*Public Territories*
*____________________* - locations that signal open spaces for everyone, including beaches and parks
*Personal Distance*
*____________________* - spatial zone of 18 inches to 4 feet, reserved for family and friends
*Personal Space*
*_____________________* - individual's variable use of space and distance
*Secondary Territories*
*_____________________* - locations that signal a person's affiliation with an area or object
*Cognitive arousal*
*_____________________* - mental awareness of deviations from expectations
*Violation valence*
*_____________________* - perceived negative or positive assessment of an unexpected behavior
*Threat threshold*
*_________________________* - tolerance for distance violations
*Interactional expectations*
*_____________________________* - an individual's ability to carry out the interaction
*Pre-interactional expectations*
*______________________________* - the knowledge or skills a communicator brings to an interaction
*Communicator reward valence*
*____________________________________* - the sum of the positive and negative characteristics of a person and the potential for him or her to carry out rewards or punishments
non- verbal do; how; say Expectancy Violations Theory production nonverbal; production Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Theory unexpected expectations; nonverbal arousing; ambiguous perceived distance personal space; distance space
An important part of any discussion of communication is the role of _______________ communication. What we ____ in a conversation (or _______ we say something) can be more important than what we actually ____. To understand nonverbal communication and its effects on messages in a conversation, Judee Burgoon developed _________________________ (1978). Since that time, Burgoon and a number of her associates have studied various messages and the influence of nonverbal communication on message __________________. Burgoon (1994) discusses the intersection of ____________ communication and message ______________ when she states that "nonverbal cues are an inherent and essential part of message creation (production) and interpretation (processing)" (p. 239). The theory was originally called the _____________________________________________, but Burgoon later dropped the word nonverbal because the theory now examines issues beyond the domain of nonverbal communication, something that we will explore a bit later in the chapter. Nonetheless, from its early beginnings in the late 1970s, Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT) has been a leading theory in identifying the influence of nonverbal communication on behavior and is a theory that addresses how people respond to _______________________ communication (Guerrero, 2008). Our chapter-opening story of Margie Russo and Alyssa Mueller represents the nature of the theory. Margie entered the conversation with her interviewer with a sense of trepidation, and once their brief interaction was under way, she began to feel uneasy about the manner in which the space between them changed. Alyssa moved closer to Margie during the interview, causing Margie to feel uncomfortable. However, once the conversation centered on Margie's children, she did not view Alyssa or her closeness as a threat to her confidence. Expectancy Violations Theory suggests that people hold ______________________ about the ______________ behavior of others. Burgoon contends that unexpected changes in conversational distance between communicators are __________ and frequently ________________. Interpreting the meaning behind an expectancy violation depends on how favorably the "violator" is _________________. Returning to our opening scenario, in many interviews, the interviewer is not expected to lean on a desk in front of the job candidate. -When this occurred, Margie became uncomfortable. -It was only after Alyssa began to talk about the movies that Margie began to feel more at ease. -In other words, she started to view Alyssa in a more favorable light. In our discussion thus far, we have been using examples from nonverbal communication, primarily _____________. Burgoon's (1978) early writing on EVT integrated specific instances of nonverbal communication; namely, __________________ and people's expectations of conversational ______________. When the theory was first conceptualized, _________ was a core concept of the theory. Although the theory has expanded beyond personal space, it is important to provide you an understanding of Burgoon's original thinking before you can understand the expansion of the theory. Further, because spatial violations constitute a primary feature of the theory, it is important to understand the various spatial distances before we delve further.
Positivistic/Empirical
Approach to Knowing:
consequences arousal *arousal* increases message; source mental alertness; orienting response *Cognitive arousal* *Physical arousal* cognitive arousal decreases; increases decreases
Arousal: Burgoon originally felt that deviations from expectations have __________________. These deviations, or violations, have what is called "___________ value". By this she means that when a person's expectations are violated, the person's interest or attention is aroused, and he or she uses a particular mechanism to cope with the violation. When *______________* occurs, one's interest or attention to the deviation _______________ and one pays less attention to the ____________ and more attention to the ___________ of the arousal. Burgoon and Hale (1988) later termed this "____________________" or an "___________________," in which attention is diverted toward the source of the deviation. A person may be both cognitively and physically aroused. *_____________________* is an alertness or an orientation to a violation. -When we are cognitively aroused, our intuitive senses become heightened. *__________________* includes those behaviors that a communicator employs during an interaction—such as moving out of uncomfortable speaking distances, adjusting one's stance during an interaction, and so forth. Most EVT studies have investigated ______________________ (via self-report inventories), yet little research has examined physiological arousal. One interesting study that examined physical arousal in conversation was undertaken by Beth LaPoire and Judee Burgoon (1996). -Specifically, they asked college students to engage in a practice medical interview. -During the interaction, the researchers studied heart rate, skin temperature, and pulse volume changes every 5 seconds while they assessed expectancy violations. -Only heart rate and pulse volume demonstrated any statistical significance. -Results indicated that after subjects registered cognitive arousal to a violation, they first experienced heart rate ________________ and pulse volume _____________. -This was followed by pulse volume ________________. -In sum, people notice when others are not adhering to interaction expectations. Arousal remains a complicated but important part of EVT. As you can see, arousal is more than simply recognizing when someone commits a violation.
how; behaviors 1. Expectancies drive human interaction. 2. Expectancies for human behavior are learned. 3. People make predictions about nonverbal behavior.
Assumptions of Expectancy Violations Theory: Expectancy Violations Theory is rooted in _____ messages are presented to others and the kinds of _______________ others undertake during a conversation. In addition, 3 assumptions guide the theory: 1. 2. 3.
Burgoon
Based on the research of Judee ______________
affiliation; personal space *Personal space*
Burgoon (1978) starts from the premise that humans have 2 competing needs: _________________ and _______________________. *___________________*, according to Burgoon, can be defined as "an invisible, variable volume of space surrounding an individual which defines that individual's preferred distance from others" Burgoon and other Expectancy Violations writers believe that people simultaneously desire to stay in close proximity to others, but also desire some distance. This is a perplexing but realistic dilemma for most of us. Few people can exist in isolation, and yet people prefer their privacy at times.
-Intrapersonal -Interpersonal
Communication Context:
-Socio-psychological
Communication Tradition:
reward *communicator reward valence* value
Communicator Reward Valence: What happens when our expectations are not met in a conversation with another? Burgoon believes that when people depart, or deviate, from expectations, how that deviation is received depends on the ____________ potential of others. Let's explain this a bit further. Burgoon, along with Deborah Coker and Ray Coker (1986), notes that not all violations of expected behavior necessarily yield negative perceptions. Specifically, the researchers offer the following: "In cases where behaviors are ambiguous or have multiple interpretations, acts committed by a high-reward communicator may be assigned positive meanings, and the same acts committed by a low-reward communicator may be assigned negative meanings". Communicators can offer each other a number of rewards, including smiles, head nods, physical attractiveness, attitude similarity, socioeconomic status, credibility, and competence. In our opening story, Alyssa Mueller's demeanor in asking about Margie's children was apparently viewed as reward behavior because Margie's nervousness immediately subsided. Burgoon thinks people have the potential to either reward or punish in conversations and maintains that people bring both positive and negative characteristics to an interaction. She terms this *______________________________*. Burgoon holds that the concept of reward includes a number of characteristics that allow a person to be viewed favorably or unfavorably. According to Expectancy Violations Theory, interpretations of violations frequently depend on the communicator and his or her _______. So, for instance, Margie Russo may not view Alyssa's close proximity as a positive deviation from expected behavior in an interview. -Yet Alyssa's behavior was more positively received because of other characteristics; namely, her courteous manner and interest in Margie's children. Let's apply this idea to eye behavior in a number of different contexts. -A prolonged stare from a person on public transportation is probably not going to be received favorably, but it may be received favorably from one's romantic partner. -If a keynote speaker at a dinner banquet looked above the listeners' heads, many people would be bewildered by this lack of eye contact. -But when strangers pass on the street, lack of eye contact is expected. -Or, think about your response to receiving a constant stare from your supervisor or a coworker. -Finally, cultural differences influence perceptions of eye contact. -A wife who avoids eye contact while telling her husband that she loves him may elicit a different evaluation than if she had direct eye contact, but this interpretation varies across cultural groups. (Some (e.g., Irish Americans) would expect another to look directly at them when saying something very personal, such as "I love you." Others (e.g., Japanese Americans), however, do not place such value on eye contact.) -In each of these contexts, violations of expected eye behavior may be interpreted differently according to how we receive the communicator.
-Scope -Utility -Testability -Heurism
Evaluation Criteria:
*Individual communicator factors* *Relational factors* *Context factors*
Expectancies: -*__________________________* (gender, personality, age, appearance, reputation) -*__________________* (prior relational history, status differences, levels of attraction and liking) -*____________________* (formality/informality, social/task functions, environment restrictions, cultural norms)
behavior; cognitions
Heurism: The scholarship related to Expectancies Violation Theory has proliferated over the decades since EVT's inception. The theory has been incorporated in a myriad of studies that span a number of diverse topic areas. For instance, Danette Ifert-Johnson (2010) and her colleague Nicole Lewis (2010) investigated swearing in the workplace using EVT concepts. The theory has also been incorporated into studies related to clothing and teacher credibility, attractiveness, forgiveness in dating relationships, media figures/celebrities, and marital interactions. An interesting and compelling study by Rory McGloin and Kristine Nowak (2011) examined the employment of avatars to determine the extent to which consumers were predisposed to purchasing particular products. -The researchers successfully argued that an individual has certain impressions of an avatar's credibility and consequences exist when those expectations are violated. Expectancy Violations Theory is an important theory because it offers a way to link ____________ and ________________. It is one of the few communication theories that offers us a better understanding of our need for both other people and personal space. For that, Burgoon's work continues to be critical and ground- breaking in the communication discipline.
scope; utility; testability
Integration, Critique, and Closing: Expectancy Violations Theory is one of the few theories specifically focusing on what people expect—and their reactions to others—in conversations. The assumptions and core concepts clearly demonstrate the importance of nonverbal messages and information processing. EVT also enhances our understanding of how expectations influence conversational distance. The theory uncovers what takes place in the minds of communicators and how communicators monitor nonverbal (and verbal) behavior during their conversations. Among the criteria for evaluating a theory, 3 seem especially relevant for discussion: __________, _______, and _____________.
0; 18 touch; facial Whispers nonintimate sexual harassment
Intimate Distance: This zone includes behaviors that exist in a range encompassing ___ to ___ inches. Hall (1966) notes that this includes behaviors that range from _________ (for instance, making love) to being able to observe a person's __________ characteristics. ____________, for instance, carried out in this *intimate distance* range have the ability to become extremely powerful. Hall finds it interesting that when U.S. citizens find themselves in intimate surroundings but are not with intimate partners, they often attempt to create a _________________ experience. Consider what happens in an elevator. -People usually fix their eyes on the ceiling, the buttons, or the door as the elevator passes floor after floor. -People keep their hands at their side or grasp some object. Hall finds it amusing that many people expend so much energy extracting themselves from intimate distances. Margie Russo in our opening story seems to be troubled by the intimate distance created by Alyssa. -If she wasn't in an interview, she'd likely remove herself from the situation. It's important to point out that some invasions of personal space may be construed as ______________________, regardless of the intent. For this reason, we need to remain sensitive to the various perceptions of intimate distance.
pre-interactional; interactional *Pre-interactional expectations* *Interactional expectations* distance; listening
Judee Burgoon and Jerold Hale (1988) contend that 2 types of expectations exist: ___________________________ and __________________. *_________________________________* include the types of interactional knowledge and skills the communicator possesses before he or she enters a conversation. -People do not always understand what it takes to enter and maintain a conversation. -Some conversationalists may be very argumentative, for example, and others may be extremely passive. -Most people do not expect such extreme behavior in their dialogues with others. *___________________________* pertain to an individual's ability to carry out the interaction itself. -Most people expect others to maintain appropriate conversational ___________. -In addition, in communicating with others, ____________ behaviors such as prolonged eye contact are frequently expected. These and a host of other behaviors are important to consider when examining the role of expectations before and during an interaction.
cultural culture
Of course, depending on the ___________ background of communicators, these behaviors can vary tremendously from one person to another. In addition, whether our expectations are met will usually be influenced by the ____________ in which we live and by whether we have internalized cultural patterns for conversation expectations.
18; 4 hand; arm's family; friends voice; body heat; odor
Personal Distance: This zone includes those behaviors that exist in an area ranging from ____ inches to ______ feet. According to Hall (1966), *personal distance* encompasses being as close as holding another's ______ to keeping someone at _______ length. You may find that most, if not all, of the intimate relationships you have are within the closest point of the personal distance zone. Personal distance is likely to be used for your __________ and _________. The farthest point— 4 feet—is usually reserved for less personal relationships, such as sales clerks. Hall indicates that in the personal distance zone, the _______ is usually moderate, ______________ is detectable, and breath and body _______ may be perceptible.
intimate; personal; social; public
Proxemic Zones: Burgoon's Expectancy Violations Theory has been informed by the pioneering and classic work of anthropologist Edward Hall (1992, 1996). After studying North Americans (in the Northeast), Hall claimed that 4 proxemic zones exist—_______________, ___________, ________, and __________—and each zone is used for different reasons. Hall includes ranges of spatial distance and the behaviors that are appropriate for each zone.
12 teachers; students Public figures facial media enhancements lecture performances
Public Distance: The range encompassing _____ feet and beyond is considered to be *public distance*. The close phase of public distance is reserved for fairly formal discussions, for instance, in-class discussions between _____________ and ____________. ___________________ usually are at the far phase (around 25 feet or more). As you may have determined, it is difficult to read ________ reactions at this point, unless __________________________ (for instance, large-screen projection) are used in the presentation. Whereas the close phase characterizes teachers in a classroom, the far phase includes teachers in a __________ hall. Also, actors use public distance in their _________________________. Consequently, their actions and words are exaggerated. Teachers and actors, however, are just two of the many types of people who use public distance in their lives.
broad scope
Scope: At first glance, the scope of this theory may appear to be too __________; nonverbal communication is an expansive area. Yet Burgoon's theory has parameters in that she originally conceptualized one category of nonverbal communication as she articulated her theory: personal space. She has investigated and expanded her research to include other nonverbal behaviors such as eye gaze, yet her original work was clear in ______.
4; 12 coworkers cocktail party skin; hair; texture louder formal simultaneous
Social Distance: With a proxemic range spanning ___ to _____ feet, the *social distance* category characterizes many conversations in U.S. culture, for instance, between and among _____________. Hall (1966) contends that the closer social distance is usually reserved for those in a casual social setting, for example, a ___________________. Although the distance seems a bit far, Hall reminds us that we are able to perceive ______ and ______ ______________ in the close phase of this category. The far phase is associated with individuals who have to speak ___________ than those in the close phase. In addition, the far phase can be considered to be more ____________ than the close phase. The far phase of social distance allows people to carry on ___________________ tasks. For instance, receptionists are able to carry on with their work while they converse with approaching strangers. It is possible, therefore, to monitor another person while completing a task.
*proxemics* meaning; message
Space Relations: The study of a person's use of space is called *_________________*. Proxemics includes the way people use space in their conversations as well as perceptions of another's use of space. Many people take spatial relations between communicators for granted, yet, as we conclude, people's use of space can seriously affect their ability to achieve desired goals. Spatial use can influence ____________ and _____________, and people's spaces have intrigued researchers for some time. Burgoon began her original work on EVT by studying interpretations of space violations.
prevention; reaction prevent; respond physically cognitively markers; labels; offensive displays; tenure
Territoriality is frequently accompanied by ___________________ and ___________. That is, people may either try to ____________ you from entering their territory or will _________ once the territory is invaded. Some gangs use territorial markers in a neighborhood to prevent other gangs from invading their turf. Knapp et al. note that if prevention does not work in defending one's territory, a person may react in some way, including getting both _____________ and _________________ aroused. In sum, humans typically stake out their territory in 4 primary ways: ______________ (marking our spot), ___________ (identification symbols), ____________________ (demonstrating aggressive looks and behaviors), and __________ (being there first and staying the longest). Our elaborated discussion of space has relevance to Expectancy Violations Theory not only because the theory is rooted in proxemics, but also because it has direct application to the distances previously discussed. EVT assumes that people will react to space violations. -To this end, our expectations for behavior will vary from one distance to another. -That is, people have a sense of where they want others to place themselves in a conversation. -For instance, consider Margie and Alyssa from our opening story. -Just as Margie has expectations for Alyssa's behavior in an interview, Alyssa, too, expects Margie to behave in a predictable way. -Alyssa expects Margie to maintain a comfortable distance as well. -She does not expect Margie to come into the office, put her briefcase on the desk, and pull a chair up next to Alyssa. -According to EVT, if Margie's behavior is unexpected and Alyssa evaluates her behavior negatively, Alyssa may become more concerned with the expectancy violation than with Margie's credentials. The proxemic zones proposed by Hall, then, are important frameworks to consider when interpreting another's behavior. Thus far, we have introduced you to how personal space is associated with Expectancy Violations Theory. The theory has evolved over the years, with Burgoon and other EVT proponents clarifying their original findings and concepts. Although we provide her pioneering theory in detail in this chapter, we also integrate updates and revisions of the theory where appropriate. To further explore the theory, we will first provide the basic assumptions of the theory and then examine a number of issues associated with the theory.
*territoriality* primary; secondary; public *Primary territories* *Secondary territories* *Public territories*
Territoriality: Before we close our discussion of personal space, we explore an additional feature: *___________________*, or a person's ownership of an area or object. Frequently, we lay claim to various spatial areas that we want to protect or defend. People decide that they want to erect fences, put on nameplates, or designate spaces as their own (e.g., Marissa's room, Mom's car, etc.). 3 types of territories exist: _____________, ____________, and __________. *____________________* signal an individual's exclusive domain. -For instance, one's own workshop or computer are primary territories. -In fact, many people put their names on their primary territories to further signify ownership. *____________________* signal some sort of personal connection to an area or object. -Secondary territories are not exclusive to an individual, but the individual feels some sort of association to the territory. -For instance, many graduate students feel that a campus library is their secondary territory; they don't own the building, but they frequently occupy a space in the building. *____________________________* involve no personal affiliations and include those areas that are open to all people—for example, beaches, parks, movie theaters, and public transportation areas.
clarity validity
Testability: Some scholars have criticized the ___________ of concepts in Burgoon's theory, suggesting that testability may be problematic. Sparks and Greene comment that self-perceptions of arousal are not valid measures. They specifically note that Burgoon and her associates failed to establish valid indices of observers' ratings and believe "we should not accept the claim about the ______________ of any nonverbal index until that validity has been demonstrated" This intellectual debate may appear trivial to you, yet recall that arousal is a key component of EVT. LaPoire and Burgoon (1992) thoughtfully responded to this criticism by first claiming that Sparks and Greene did not fairly reflect the objectives of Burgoon's research. Additionally, LaPoire and Burgoon (1996) contend that because arousal is such a complicated and layered concept, their approach to defining arousal remains valid. Generally speaking, EVT is a testable theory. In Chapter 3, we noted that testability requires that theorists be specific in their concepts. In fact, Burgoon (1978) is one of a few theorists who clearly defines her terms; as she refined her theory, she also clarified past ambiguities. In doing so, she presents a foundation from which future researchers might continue to draw and replicate her claims.
expectancies *Expectancies* nonverbal; verbal random social norms; stereotypes delivered; deliver
The first assumption states that people carry _____________________ in their interactions with others. In other words, expectancies drive human interaction. *__________________* can be defined as the cognitions and behaviors anticipated and prescribed in a conversation with another person. Expectancies, therefore, necessarily include individuals' _______________ and __________ behavior. In her early writings of EVT, Burgoon (1978) notes that people do not view others' behaviors as ____________; rather, they have various expectations of how others should think and behave. Reviewing the research by Burgoon and her associates, Tim Levine and his colleagues (2000) suggest that expectancies are a result of _______________, _________________, hearsay, and the idiosyncrasies of communicators. Consider, for instance, our story of Margie Russo and Alyssa Mueller. -If you were the interviewer, what sort of expectations would you have for the nonverbal and verbal behavior of the interviewee? -Many people conducting the interview would certainly expect a specific level of confidence, manifested by a warm handshake, a give-and-take conversational flow, and active listening skills. -Interviewees would also be expected to keep a reasonable distance from the interviewer during the interview process. Many people in the United States do not want people whom they do not know to stand either too close or too far away from them. Whether it is in an interview situation or even a discussion between 2 people who have a prior relationship, Burgoon and other EVT writers argue that people enter interactions with a number of expectations about how a message should be _______________ and how the messenger should ___________ it.
predictions predictions; nonverbal touch; posture attractiveness predictions ambiguous; interpretations reward arousal; threat threshold; violation valence; communicator reward valence
The third assumption pertains to the _________________ people make about non- verbal communication. Later in this chapter we note that EVT theorists have applied the notion of expectancies to verbal behavior. Nonetheless, the original statement of EVT related specifically to nonverbal behavior. To this end, it's important to point out a belief inherent in the theory: People make ________________ about another's _____________ behavior. In later writings of EVT, Judee Burgoon and Joseph Walther (1990) expanded the original understanding of EVT via personal space to other areas of nonverbal communication, including ________ and _____________. They suggest that the __________________ of another influences the evaluation of expectancies. In conversations, people do not simply attend to what another is saying. As you will learn in this chapter, nonverbal behavior affects the conversation, and this behavior prompts others to make _______________. Let's use an example to explain this assumption a bit further. -Suppose someone whom you feel is attractive starts to make direct eye contact with you at a grocery store. -At first, you may feel a bit odd with the prolonged stare. -But because you are attracted to the person, that initial awkwardness may fade into comfort. -Then you may begin to surmise that the person is interested in you because you see a decrease in physical distance between the 2 of you. -This example illustrates the fact that you were making predictions (e.g., the person is attracted to you) based on his or her nonverbal behavior (e.g., eye contact and personal space). -Before you begin to believe your own projection of attractiveness, however, keep in mind that your reaction may be either misguided or simply wrong. -Despite your level of confidence, nonverbal communication is frequently _______________ and is open to multiple _____________________. Burgoon and her colleagues caution us that not all violations are clear, and consequently we employ a communicator __________ valence. If a violation is ambiguous or has multiple meanings, EVT predicts that "communicator valence" will influence how the violation is interpreted and evaluated. Communicators interpret the violation using communicator reward valence. If the person is someone we like, we will usually evaluate the violation positively; if it is someone we do not like, we will usually view the violation negatively. We now turn our attention to additional concepts and features of EVT: _________, ____________________, _________________________, and ________________________________.
beneficial legal hostility; sexual harassment age; gender; cultural intrusive
Theory in the Popular Press: Hugging in the Office: The notion of personal space is one that has been the subject of great popular conversation. Debra Auerbach, a writer on careers, discusses the notion of hugging in the workplace. Noting that hugs are often viewed as _________________ in demonstrating connections between and among people, Auerbach forewarns that hugging, or "zero personal space" between people has ________ implications among coworkers. Despite authentic intentions of support, the office climate today is one that is often marked by ___________ and _______________________. Consequently, Auerbach, notes that an "innocent hug" may result in a view of a "personal space invasion." Auerbach observes that hugging may be considered appropriate in the office if we consider a few themes. First, is the office setting conducive to displaying these signs of affection? Second, the type of field in which you work (e.g., psychotherapy, health care, etc.) may determine whether or not this nonverbal display is okay. Third, we should take our signals from others in the office; do they hug others on occasion without consequence? Auerbach cites a communication expert who states that a "personal boundary line" exists related to workplace affection. In other words, people's comfort level with these personal space violations may influenced by ____, ____________, and _______________ background. The author concludes by noting that handshaking may be a more relevant and less _____________ way of demonstrating workplace support and affection.
learn
This leads us to our second assumption of EVT—that people _________ their expectations from both the culture at large and the individuals in that culture. For instance, the U.S. culture teaches that a professor-student relationship is underscored by professional respect. Although not explicitly stated in most college classrooms, professors have more social status than students, and therefore certain expectations exist in their relationships with their students. For instance, we expect teachers to be knowledgeable about subject matter, to present it to students in a clear manner, and to be available if students are concerned or confused about a topic. We also expect professors to recognize, acknowledge, and affirm students in the classroom who offer their thoughts. The teacher-student relationship is just one example of a co-culture teaching its citizens that expectations exist in a particular relationship. Most discussions between teachers and students, therefore, are laden with cultural expectations of how the 2 should relate to each other. A number of societal institutions (the family, the media, business and industry, and so forth) are central in prescribing what cultural patterns to follow. These at-large cultural prescriptions ultimately may be followed by individuals in conversation with each other. Individuals within a culture are also influential in communicating expectations. Burgoon and Hale (1988) remark that differences based on our prior knowledge of others, our relational history with them, and our observations are important to consider. For instance, Alyssa Mueller's past experiences with prospective employees influence how she perceives an interaction and her expectations of job candidates in an interview (relational history). In addition, expectations result from our observations. In one family, for instance, standing very close to one another is a family norm, and yet this norm is not shared in other families. Interesting scenarios occur in conversations between individuals with different norms; expectations for conversational distance vary and may influence perceptions of the interaction or have other consequences.
threats *threat threshold* distance threatening; less high low initiator
Threat Threshold: Once arousal exists, ____________ may occur. A second key concept associated with EVT is *___________________*, which Burgoon (1978) defines as the "distance at which an interactant experiences physical and physiological discomfort by the presence of another". In a sense, the threat threshold is a tolerance for _____________ violation. Burgoon maintains that "when distance is equated with threat, closer distances are perceived as more _____________________ and farther distances as _______ threatening". In this sense, distance is interpreted as a statement of threat from a communicator. People may either reward or punish a threat. Burgoon arrives at this conclusion by consulting the research on liking and attraction. This research suggests that closer distances are reserved for people we like or to whom we are attracted. Some people don't mind when others stand close to them; their threat threshold, therefore, is _______. Others become very uncomfortable around those who stand too close; for them, the threat threshold is _____. So, for instance, if you are attracted to a person you see each morning at Starbucks, your threat threshold will likely be high as he or she talks to you and comes closer to you as your conversation progresses. During this same interaction, however, you may discover that this is not the sort of person you want to hang out with, and you may find your threat threshold getting smaller. Burgoon notes that the size of the threshold is based on how we view the _______________ of the threat, which we discussed earlier as the communication reward valence. Once a violation occurs, however, we again interpret the violation. Although Burgoon later decided that the threat threshold is not necessarily associated with the other communicator, the concept remains important to consider as you try to understand the violation-communication reward valence interplay in EVT.
valence *Violation valence* interpretation; evaluation negative positive negative
Violation Valence: Throughout this chapter, we have emphasized that when people speak to others, they have expectations. Many of these expectations are based on social norms of the other person. When expectations are violated, however, many people evaluate the violation on a ______________. *_____________________* refers to the positive or negative assessment of an unexpected behavior. Violation valence focuses on the deviation of an expectation. Violation valence requires making sense of a violation through ___________________ and ________________. Quite simply, communicators try to interpret the meaning of a violation and decide whether they like it. If, for instance, a professor is speaking very close to you, you may interpret the behavior as an expression of superiority or intimidation. -Consequently, the violation valence would be _______________. Or you may view the violation as something positive; you might think the professor is demonstrating a sense of connection. -Your violation valence, then, would be _______________. Most of the research in the area of violations suggests that violations are likely to have a ______________ impact on close relationships. To better understand the violation valence, consider 2 situations between coworkers Noland and Rick. -Standing in the break room, Noland begins to talk about his phone call to his wife this morning. -As he discusses his conversation about where they decided to go for vacation, Noland begins to close this distance between him and Rick. -Rick feels very uncomfortable with the distance in that his expectations for spatial distance between coworkers is violated. -In other words, Rick is negatively aroused by Noland's distance behavior. -A different situation, however, might prompt a different reaction. -Imagine that Noland corners Rick to tell him that he heard that the company was laying off 20% of its workers within 2 months. -Because Rick was recently hired by the company, he might be positively aroused and allow Noland to violate his personal space. -Most likely, he will positively evaluate Noland and allow the violation to take place. It may be perplexing to think that violations can be viewed positively. -Yet there are many such examples. For instance, in a job interview, the candidate who is able to convince the interviewer that he or she is the most qualified is usually the person who gets the job. Most job interviews are very structured and have an agreed-on informal process. Most job candidates follow the interview script and do not violate anyone's expectations. At times, though, candidates do not follow the script; they violate expectations. Although some interviewers may think these candidates are too independent, others (say, in the dot.com industry) may see them as creative, bold, and original. These may be the qualities that ultimately get the person the job. Thus, the violation was not expected in an interview, yet resulted in a favorable impression.
