The Bones, Cartilage and Joints
Growth zone
(epiphyseal side of growth plate) - made of cartilage. Cells are chondroblasts that are divided through mitosis. As they divide, they push cartilage upward, which pushes the epiphysis up as well.
Two ways osteoclasts remove bone
1. Secrete lysosomal enzymes, which chew up organic portion of the bone 2. Produce hydrochloric acid, which eats away the mineral part of bone
Bone Changes timeline
About 5-7% of bone mass gets recycled every 3-4 years. Compact bone is fully replaced every 10 years.
Four requirements for bone deposition
Activity, calcium, phosphate, and vitamin D.
Endochondral ossification
All long bones (besides clavical), vertebrae, and facial bones. Cartilage replaces bone. Starts in the middle of the diaphysis then continues to the ends. Epiphysis ossifies independently, leaving a cartilage gap.
Differential growth
As long as bones grow, developmental changes occur. Head grows relatively slow so that it will be normal size later on because it is so big at birth. The limbs grow faster than the head.
Sex hormones
At puberty produce rapid bone growth. Around age 18-21, the growth plates ossify and stop bone growth.
Perforating/Sharpey's fibers
Attach periosteum tightly to the surface of the bone. It is the attachment point for ligaments and tendons.
Epiphyseal line
Between diaphysis and epiphysis, very compact. Only present in adults; remnant of epiphyseal plate.
Fibrous joint
Bone ends are attached by collagen fibers. Movement depends on how long the fibers are.
Cartilaginous joint
Bone ends are united by cartilage.
Closed/Simple break
Bone ends do not puncture skin
Open/Compound break
Bone ends do puncture skin
Compression
Bone gets crushed, common in osteoporosis
Wolff's Law
Bone remodels in response to the demands and stresses placed upon them. Bones will get stronger when stressed, and are removed where not needed so that the bones don't get too heavy.
Transformation zone
Cartilage cells die and the matrix starts to calcify, laying down calcium deposits. This is when cartilage starts to transform into bone.
Organic components of bone
Cells inside bones (osteocytes, blasts, and clasts).
Anulous fibrousis
Collar of fibrocartilage that resists expansion/escaping of the gel (outer).
Ligaments
Connect bone to bone but it could limit the movement if too tight. Bear excessive strain and stretch and might break. Can only stretch 6% of the resting length. Should not be used in isolation because they are not very effective by themselves.
Extracellular Matrix
Contains ground substance and fibers. Mostly made of water.
Ossification
Converting cartilage to bone.
Synovial joints
Distinct articular joint capsule filled with fluid. Most joints fall into this category. Highly mobile. Richly supplied by nerves, which monitor joint position. Reflexes are present. Also richly supplied with blood, which makes up most of the fluid in the cavity.
Closed reduction
Dr. fixes fracture/realigns bone by hand
Open reduction
Dr. realigns bone surgically
Cleft Palate
Easily fixed in surgery. Developmental issue where the 2 sides of the hard palate don't connect. In a baby breast feeding, the milk can aspirate through the nose into the lung, which can cause pneumonia, Surgery is done in the first year of life; before the surgery you can use a prosthetic to prevent milk inhalation.
Tendo-sheaths
Elongated bursa surrounding a tendon, lubricates the tendon and prevents it from rubbing against bone; filled with synovial fluid.
Fibrous Capsule
External layer of the articular joint capsule in a synovial joint. Dense irregular tissue connected to the periosteum of the bones and helps to hold bones together.
Gomposis
Fibrous joint; "peg in socket" joint - only example is your teeth (pegs); alveolar socket -ligaments connect tooth to the bone
Syndesmosis
Fibrous joint; bones are connected by larger fibers, a ligament. Variable in length; could be synarthrosis or amphiarthroses.
Suture
Fibrous joint; connection between flat portions of the skull. Collagen fibers anchor to the periosteum of adjacent bones. Synarthroses because the fibers are very short. Protects the brain from compression. Synostosis - bony connection
Bony articulation
Fits bones tightly together, creating a tight connection. The shape has influence of the movement. Large articular surface that connects very snuggly, like the acetabulum of the hip. However, most joints do not rely on this for stability.
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
Flexor retinaculum (band of tendon across underside of wrist) becomes inflammed, swollen, and painful
Heterotopic ossification
Formation of bone in the wrong place.
Osteogenesis
Formation of bone.
Transverse break
Fracture goes straight across, perpendicular to long axis of the bone
Nucleus pulposus
Gelatinous material that absorbs shock in the intervetebral disc (center)
Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI)
Genetic weakening of the bones. Bones are very easily fractured from little applied force. Other symptoms: early hearing loss, bluish coloration to the whites of the eyes. Victims ay have hundreds of fractures over their lifetime. About 20,000 people in the U.S. have it (rare). Cause - genetic mutation affecting the production of collagen fibers; bones are like glass. They either have less collagen that they should have, or the collagen is not structured properly
Osteoporosis
Group of diseases where resorption of bone happens faster than deposition, leading to bone loss. Fractures very easily because it is weak. Commonly found in the vertebrae, hips of the elderly (lack of activity) and post-menopausal women
Appositional growth
Growth from the outside; cells in perichondrium secrete chondroblast cells, adding new cartilage to the outside.
Interstitial growth
Growth from within; cells inside the cartilage divide and make new matrix.
Epiphyseal plate
Growth plate made of cartilage. Around 18-21 years, plate ossifies, stopping bone growth.
Calcitonin
Hormone from the thyroid gland, which blocks resorption of bone and stimulates calcium deposition to the bone, taking calcium out of the blood stream and into the bone.
Intramembranous ossification
In the skull and clavicle, like the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.. These continue to grow after birth up until 2 years old. This allows the baby's head to flex/expand during childbirth, and helps with expansion/growth of skull.
Synovial Membrane
Inner layer of articular joint capsule in synovial joint; lines the capsule covers any non- cartilage joint surfaces. Produces synovial fluid contained within joint capsules
Medullary Cavity
Inside diaphysis, filled with yellow marrow
Knee joint
Largest and most complex bone in the body; most frequently injured
Long bone
Length is greater than the width. Hollow, light, and just as strong as solid bones
Positive Feedback
Less common, ex. as temp goes down, the AC is turned on, also seen in labor contractions.
Bursa
Little sacs of lubricant that can get inflamed.
Hyaline Cartilage
Lots of collagen fibers, but you can't see them on a stained slide. Used for firm support but pliable for cushioning. Most abundant type of cartilage in the body; found in the articular cartilage of the joints, tip of the nose, coastal cartilage of the ribs, the rings of the trachea, and the embryonic cells.
Spongy Bone
Made of trabeculae, which all attach together. Spaces inside are red marrow (hematopoietic tissue - produce blood)
Osteocyte
Mature bone cell that maintains and repairs. Trabaculae line up in patterns where there is a lot of stress, like the hip bone.
Endosteum
Membrane of connective tissue, collagen fibers, osteoblasts, osteoclasts which all line the cavities inside the bone.
Periosteum
Membrane on outside of the bone. Contains dense irregular connective tissue.
Inorganic components of bone
Mineral portion from your diet, makes up 2/3 of the matrix. Stores calcium and phosphorus, which are critical to bone health.
Achondroplasia
Most common form of dwarfism; bone growth disorder. AA is fatal, only is Aa when they have the disease. It affects the rates at which epiphyseal bones grow and don't ossify correctly.
Muscles and their tendons
Most common form of joint stability; especially critical in the knee, shoulder, foot arch, and ankle.
Negative Feedback
Most common homeostatic mechanism that forces a variable to change in a way that opposes and initial change, ex. As temp drops, the thermostat kicks on to bring heat back up.
Elbow joint
Move in one plane - hinge joint.
Stress fracture
Overuse injuries, exceeding body's ability to deal with stress. Micro fractures start to add up, exceeding the body's ability to repair. Often seen in the military (marching). This can also lead to muscle fatigue, which is a contributing factor to stress fractures because they are stress absorbers. When the muscles become tired, bones are forced to do more shock absorbing. These fractures are painful, but are non-displaced and can heal easily.
Menisci/Meniscus
Pad of fibrocartilage found inside the joint cavity. Found in the knee and your jaw joints; it is put in places where there is a lot of compression and pressure to stabilize the joints.
Osteoid
Part of the organic portion of the matrix of the bone. Composed of ground substance and cartilage fibers, like collagen. Collagen fibers extend up through bone in different directions, like concrete or fiberglass, which allows bones to be stronger and resist breaking.
Weeping Lubrication
Pressure forces articular to compress, squeezing fluid out onto the joint cavity, which helps the joint be lubricated under pressure.
Proteoglycans
Protein/car complexes that draws water into the matrix, helping give it viscosity, they repel each other, which enhances its cushioning properties.
Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva (FOP)
Rare genetic disorder where bones form in places they shouldn't - replaces muscles, tendons, ligaments, and other connective tissues, and soft tissue. Makes the victim immobile and look like a statue. Big toe points inward. Normal life for the first few years, then the symptoms begin before age 10. Manifests itself at site of injuries and bruises (appears in response to tissue damage).
gH hormone
Regulates post-natal growth
Two reasons to remodel
Regulation of calcium and mechanical stress
Osteogenic zone
Replace cartilage with bone. Osteoclasts break down osteocartilage bone, and new spongy bone is produced by osteoblasts.
Elastic Cartilage
Similar to hyaline's structure, but also has a lot of elastic fibers, allowing it to stretch and rebound to original position. Found in the ear and the epiglottis.
Five bone functions
Support body weight, movement, protection, mineral storage, and blood cell formation.
Osteomalacia and Rickets
They are "soft bones"; cannot mineralize organic bone once made. Produces pain when weight is put on the bones and causes bending (bow legs). Rickets are a bigger problem in kids because they are still growing. At epiphyseal plate, the cartilage can't be mineralized on the bottom, which is a point of weakness on the bone. It is caused by malnutrition, insufficient calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D, improper absorption, or inadequate sunlight in the diet.
Bone Remodeling Unit
Travels along the surface of the bone, finds damage, fixes and replaces it. Osteoblasts deposit bone where strength is needed or where there is damage. Bone deposition is stimulated by activity; the elderly move less, so they have weakening bones
Herniated disc
Very painful and common - intervertebral disc that has broken, which is supposed to provide cushioning between the vertebrae, like a get pad.
Fibrocartilage
Very thick bands of collagen fibers going in the same direction, forming collagen bundles. Compressible, good at resisting tension and stretching. Strong support. Found in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, and the meniscus of the knee joint.
Epiphyseal fracture
Weak spot in the growth plates; fracture in children that occurs in the growth plate. 15% of all childhood fractures. Usually heals without lasting effects. When blood flow to epiphyseal plate is disrupted, then retardation of bone growth occurs. Also, if there is severe damage to the plate (shifted, shattered, etc.), it could lead to a deformity in bone growth.
PTH
When calcium levels decrease, parathyroid hormones secrete this, stimulating osteoclasts to chew up bone and release calcium into the blood.
Symphysis
bone ends covered by hyaline, but in between the hyaline is fibrocartilage; used for shock absorption. Amphiarthroses, ex. Pubic symphysis
Displaced fracture
bone ends fall out of normal alignment
Non-displaced fracture
bone ends retain normal position
Comminuted fracture
bone fragments into 3 or more pieces
Complete break
bone is broken all the way through
Dislocation
bones in the joint come out of alignment; associated with falls or impacts. Some can be popped back in alignment, mild to severe forms. Most common are in the jaw bone, shoulders, fingers, and thumbs.
crepitus
crunching noise caused by osteoarthritis
Shoulder dislocation
forward and downward separation between the humorous and Glenoid surface. Can be put back in place, but the ligaments are permanently stretched, leading to future injuries
Linear break
fracture is parallel to long axis of bone
Synostosis
hyaline cartilage. Synarthroses. Examples: epiphyseal plates, and cartilage in between ribs and sternum
Greenstick fracture
incomplete breakage like a snapping of a twig
Rheumatoid Arthritis
inflamed disease of joints. Appears around age 40-50 or older. 3x more common in women. Tender, stiff, swollen joints. Affects both sides of body at the same time. Flare ups and remissions. Autoimmune. Infection may trigger this disease. Inflammation in the synovial membrane causes excess fluid to gather and swells the joints. Synovial membrane adheres to and erodes the cartilage and the bone. Scare tissue forms, binding the bone together. Creates a bony connection and fuses the bone.
Bursitis
inflammation of a bursa. Due to impact or friction. Symptoms : pain, swelling. Treatments: anti-inflammatory drugs, rest, icing will all deal with the pain. To deal with the cause (friction), physical therapy can correct it.
Tendonitis
inflammation of a tendon. Common with athletes. Treatments: anti-inflammatory drugs, rest, icing will all deal with the pain. To deal with the cause (friction), physical therapy can correct it.
Tenosynovitis
inflammation of the tendon sheath due to rubbing or friction. Treatments: anti-inflammatory drugs, rest, icing will all deal with the pain. To deal with the cause (friction), physical therapy can correct it.
Arthritis
inflammation/degeneration of joints. There are over 100 different types of this. Extremely common; 1 out of 7 people in the U.S. have this.
Perichondrium
membrane of connective tissue containing blood vessels surrounding the outside of cartilage. It keeps everything, mainly the water, contained.
Cartilage injury
meniscus is not well supplied by blood. If you tear meniscus it will most likely stay torn. Repair injury with sutures or remove the flappy part. Should not impair mobility, but will impede stability.
Osteoarthritis
most common form, chronic, degenerative, and progressively gets worse. Most common in the elderly. 85% of the U.S. will develop this. The breakdown of cartilage is faster than the repair process, so we lose articular cartilage (covers bone ends). Bones begin to get exposed, causing pain and immobility because the bones rub against each other and erode.
Oblique break
occurs at an angle to the bone
Shoulder separation
separation between acromion process of scapula and clavicle; 3 types of severity.
osteophytes
spurs that cause increased pain
Sprain
stretching and tearing of the ligaments in a joints; most common in the knee, ankle, and lower back. Mild will heal on its own with no permanent damage, though they are slow to heal because of poor blood supply. A complete tear of ligaments requires surgical procedure. Lots of inflammation can degenerate tissue.
Spiral fracture
twisting of the bone (torsion) like when skiing