The Industrial Revolution

Who became Industrialized after Great Britain?

From Great Britain, industrialization spread to the Continental countries of Europe and the United States at different times and speeds during the nineteenth century. First to be industrialized on the Continent were Belgium, France, and the German state.

What impact did the 2nd Industrial Revolution have on women?

Main Ideas: • Women were economically and legally dependent on men because they went paid enough enough, so they had to marry in order to support themselves ◦ Marriage was the most honorable thing that a women could do • Women started to fight for their rights for education, diverse, and property rights • They stopped having less children and having more abortions and took back control over their body Super long Version: • In the 19th, women remained legally inferior, economically dependent, and largely defined by family and household roles. Many women still aspired to the ideal of femininity popularized by writers and poets. ◦ This traditional characterization of the sexes, based on socially defined gender roles, was elevated to the status of universal male and female attributes in the 19th, due largely to the impact of the Industrial Revolution on the family. MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY • In the 19th, marriage was viewed as the only honorable career available to women. Although the middle class glorified the ideal of domesticity, for most women marriage was a matter of economic necessity. ◦ The lack of meaningful work and the lower wages paid to women for their work made it difficult for single women to earn a living. Most women chose to marry. • The most significant development in the modern family was the decline in the number of offspring born to the average woman. ◦ Although some historians attribute the decline to more widespread use of male withdrawal before ejaculation, others have emphasized female control of family size through abortion and even infanticide or abandonment. ‣ That a change in attitude occurred was apparent in the development of a movement to increase awareness of birth control methods. • Europe's first birth control clinic, founded by Dr. Aletta Jacob, opened in Amsterdam in 1882. • The family was the central institution of middle-class life. ◦ Men provided the family income while women focused on household and child care. ‣ The use of domestic servants in many middle-class homes, made possible by an abundant supply of cheap labor, reduced the amount of time middle-class women had to spend on household work. ‣ At the same time, by having fewer children, mothers could devote more time to child care and domestic leisure. • The middle-class family fostered an ideal of togetherness through holiday traditions. • Women in working-class families were more accustomed to hard work. ◦ Daughters were expected to work until they married; even after marriage, they often did piecework at home to help support the family. ◦ For the children of the working classes, childhood was over by the age of nine or ten when they became apprentices or were employed in odd jobs. • Between 1890 and 1914, however, family patterns among the working class began to change. ◦ High-paying jobs in heavy industry and improvements in the standard of living made it possible for working-class families to depend on the income of husbands and the wages of grown children. ◦ By the early 2000s, some working-class mothers could afford to stay at home, following the pattern of middle-class women. ‣ At the same time, working-class families also aspired to buy new consumer products, such as sewing machines, clocks, bicycles, and cast-iron stoves. THE MOVEMENT FOR WOMEN'S RIGHTS • In the 1830s, a number of women in the United States and Europe, who worked together in several reform movements, argued for the right of women to divorce and own property. ◦ They didn't get the right to own property until 1870 in Britain, 1900 in Germany, and 1907 in France. • Divorce and property rights were only a beginning for the women's movement, however. ◦ Some middle- and upper- middle-class women gained access to higher education, while others sought entry into occupations dominated by men. ‣ Teaching was the 1st to become dominated by women ‣ As medical training was largely closed to women, they sought alternatives through the development of nursing. • Nursing pioneers included the British nurse Florence Nightingale, whose efforts during the Crimean War, along with those of Clara Barton in the American Civil War, transformed nursing into a profession of trained, middle-class ''women in white.'' • By the 1840s and 1850s, the movement for women's rights had entered the political arena with the call for equal political rights. ◦ Many feminists believed that the right to vote was the key to all other reforms to improve the position of women. Suffragists had one basic aim: the right of women to full citizenship in the nation-state. ‣ Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, founded the Women's Social and Political Union in 1903, which enrolled mostly middle and upper-class women. ‣ The members of Pankhurst's organization realized the value of the media and used unusual publicity stunts to call attention to their demands and were derisively labeled ''suffragettes'' by male politicians. • Before World War I, the demands for women's rights were being heard throughout Europe and the United States, although only in Norway and some American states did women actually receive the right to vote before 1914. ◦ It would take the dramatic upheaval of World War I before male-dominated governments capitulated on this basic issue. • In many countries, women supported peace movements. ◦ Bertha von Suttner became head of the Austrian Peace Society and protested against the growing arms race of the 1890s. ◦ She was but one example of the ''new women'' who were becoming more prominent at the turn of the century. These women rejected traditional feminine roles and sought new freedom outside the house hold and roles other than those of wife and mother. ◦ Lower-class women also took up the cause of peace. ‣ A group of women workers marched in Vienna in 1911 and demanded an end to armaments, to the means of murder, and we want these millions to be spent on the needs of the people.

What effect did the 2nd Industrial Revolution have on Urban Areas?

Main Points: • In the 2nd half of rev, governments were forced to intervene with urban areas about housing and health ◦ So they created boards of health and enforced rules • Pubic health went up from clean water • Electric heaters allowed people to take hot bath • The government constructed cheap housing and rented them at cheap prices because they found that most people weren't living in good conditions, so more pubic ownership than private • They did this because socialism was on the rise Long Version: • Urbanization was an important consequences of industrialization and the population explosion of the 19th. ◦ More and more people came to live in cities. ‣ By 1914, urban residents had increased to 80 percent of the population in Britain, 45 percent in France, 60 percent in Germany, and 30 percent in eastern Europe. ◦ The size of cities also expanded dramatically, especially in industrialized countries. ‣ Between 1800 and 1900, London's population grew from 960,000 to 6.5 million and Berlin's from 172,000 to 2.7 million. • Urban populations grew faster than the general population because of the migration from rural areas to cities ◦ Cities grew faster in the 2nd 1/2 of 19th because health and living conditions were improving as reformers and city officials used new technology to improve urban life. ‣ In the 1840s, a number of urban reformers had pointed to filthy living conditions as the primary cause of epidemic diseases. Following the advice of reformers, city governments set up boards of health to boost the quality of housing and instituted regulations requiring all new buildings to have running water and internal drainage systems. • Essential to the public health was the ability to bring in clean water and to expel sewage. ◦ The problem of fresh water was solved by a system of dams and reservoirs that stored the water and aqueducts and tunnels that carried it from the countryside to the city and into homes. ◦ The treatment of sewage was also improved by laying mammoth underground pipes that carried raw sewage far from the city for disposal. • Middle-class reformers also focused on the housing needs of the working class. ◦ Overcrowded, disease-ridden slums were viewed as dangerous not only to physical health but also to the political and moral health of the entire nation. ◦ V. A. Huber, the foremost early German housing reformer, thought that good housing was a prerequisite for stable family life, and without stable family life, society would fall apart. • Early efforts to attack the housing problem emphasized the middle-class' liberal belief in the power of private, or free, enterprise. As cities continued to grow in number and size, by the 1880s governments concluded that private enterprise could not solve the housing crisis. ◦ In 1890, a British law empowered local town councils to construct cheap housing for the working classes. More and more, governments, like Germany, were stepping into areas of activity that they would not have touched earlier.

What were trade unions?

• An organization of workers who have come together to achieve common goals through the increased bargaining power wielded by the creation of a monopoly of the workers. ◦ such as protecting the integrity of its trade, improving safety standards, attaining better pay, benefits (such as vacation, health care, and retirement), and working conditions

What two groups resulted in the Industrial Revolution?

• Bourgeoise traditionally means middle class, but Marxis refers to it as everyone but workers ◦ The people who profit off of the physical means of others • The others are the Proletariats ◦ The people who labor

Louis Blanc, The Organization of Labor, 1840

• The factories would hire the cheapest workers ◦ Don't have a family because they only have to support themselves ‣ But that hurts family • If you can't get work to support your family, then you are tempted to steal and do other illegal acts ◦ There was a lot of crime, not because of bad moral, but because of temptation

How did the new factory system help Great Britain?

By the mid-nineteenth century, Great Britain had become the world's first and richest industrial nation. It produced half of the world's coal and manufactured goods; its cotton industry alone in 1850 was equal in size to the industries of all other European countries combined.

What impact did the 2nd Industrial Revolution have on Education?

Main Ideas: Bigger middle class ◦ Upper middle class-like upper class ◦ Middle class-shop keeper ◦ Lower middle class- sucessful laborers • Upper class ◦ 5% owned 40% of the land • Lower class- unskilled labors • Wages increased and it was easier to get good Long Version: • Universal education was a product of the mass society of the late 19th and early 2000s. ◦ Education in the early 19th was primarily for the elite or the wealthier middle class, but after 1870, most Western governments began to offer at least primary education to both boys and girls between the ages of six and twelve. ◦ States also assumed responsibility for better training of teachers by making teacher-training schools. ◦ By the beginning of the twentieth century, many European states, especially in northern and western Europe, provided state-financed primary schools, salaried and trained teachers, and free, compulsory elementary education. • Western nations made this commitment to mass education because of industrialization. ◦ The new firms of the Second Industrial Revolution demanded skilled labor. ‣ Both boys and girls with an elementary education had new possibilities of jobs beyond their villages or small towns. ‣ Mass education furnished the trained workers industrialists needed and for most students, elementary education led to apprenticeship and a job. • The chief motive for mass education, however, was political. With the expansion of suffrage came a need for a more educated electorate. ◦ In parts of Europe where the Catholic Church remained in control of education, implementing a mass education system reduced the influence of the church over the electorate. ◦ Mass compulsory education instilled patriotism and nationalized the masses, providing an opportunity for even greater national integration. ‣ As people lost their ties to local regions and even to religion, nationalism supplied a new faith. ‣ The use of a single national language created greater national unity than loyalty to a ruler did. ◦ Compulsory elementary education created a demand for teachers, and most of them were women. ‣ Females were paid lower salaries, in itself a considerable incentive for governments to encourage the establishment of teacher-training institutes for women, which would later become teh first women collages. • The most immediate result of mass education was an increase in literacy. ◦ In Germany, Great Britain, France, and the Scandinavian countries, adult illiteracy was virtually eliminated by 1900. ◦ Where there was less schooling, adult illiteracy rates were 79 percent in Serbia, 78 percent in Romania, and 79 percent in Russia.

What effect did the 2nd Industrial Revolution have on Social Class?

Main Ideas: Bigger middle class ◦ Upper middle class-like upper class ◦ Middle class-shop keeper ◦ Lower middle class- sucessful laborers • Upper class ◦ 5% owned 40% of the land • Lower class- unskilled labors • Wages increased and it was easier to get good Long Version: • At the top of European society stood a wealthy elite (5% of pop.), which controlling between 30 and 40 percent of the wealth. • The middle classes included a variety of groups. ◦ In the 19th, landed aristocrats had joined with the most successful industrialists, bankers, and merchants (wealthy upper middle class) to form a new elite. Members of this elite, whether aristocratic or from the middle class, assumed leadership roles in government bureaucracies and military. ‣ Marriage also united the two groups. Daughters of business tycoons gained titles, while aristocratic heirs gained new sources of cash. ◦ Below the upper middle class was a group that included lawyers, doctors, and members of the civil service, as well as business managers, engineers, architects, accountants, and chemists benefiting from industrial expansion. ◦ Beneath this middle group was a lower middle class of small shopkeepers, traders, small manufacturers, and prosperous peasants. ◦ Between the lower middle class and the lower classes were new groups of white-collar workers who were the product of the Second Industrial Revolution: the salespeople, bookkeepers, bank tellers, telephone operators, and secretaries. ‣ Though often paid little more than skilled laborers, these white-collar workers were committed to middle-class ideals. • The middle classes shared a certain lifestyle and values that dominated much of nineteenth-century society. ◦ The European middle classes believed in hard work, which they viewed as open to everyone and guaranteed to have positive results. ‣ They were also regular churchgoers who believed in the good conduct associated with traditional Christian morality. ‣ They were concerned with propriety, the right way of doing things, which gave rise to an incessant stream of books aimed at the middle-class market. • Below the middle classes on the social scale were the working classes (80% of pop.) ◦ Many of them were landholding peasants, agricultural laborers, and sharecroppers ◦ The urban working class consisted of many different groups, including skilled artisans in such traditional trades as cabinetmaking, printing, and the making of jewelry, along with semiskilled laborers, who included carpenters, bricklayers, and many factory workers. ◦ At the bottom of the urban working class stood the largest group of workers, the unskilled laborers. ‣ They included day laborers, who worked irregularly for very low wages, and large numbers of domestic servants, most of whom were women.

What impact did the 2nd Industrial Revolution have on leisure?

Main Ideas: • With organized work came organized leisure ◦ Could only leisure when they weren't at work ‣ Led to weekends and a break in the summer • New technologies led to new form of leisure ◦ Transportation also led to people to have access to activities outside of their general area • Organized team sports also emerged and created a new area of business: sports Long version: • With the Industrial Revolution came new forms of leisure. ◦ Work and leisure became opposites as leisure came to be viewed as what people do for fun when they are not at work. ◦ The new leisure hours created by the industrial system (evening hours after work, weekends, and later a week or two in the summer) largely determined the contours of the new mass leisure. • New technology created novel experiences for leisure, such as the Ferris wheel at amusement parks, while the introduction of subways and streetcars in the 1880s meant that even the working classes were no longer dependent on neighborhood facilities but could make their way to athletic games, amusement parks, and dance halls. Railroads could take people to the beaches on weekends. • Team sports had also developed into another important form of mass leisure by the late 19th. ◦ Unlike the old rural games, which were spontaneous and often chaotic activities, the new sports were strictly organized with sets of rules and officials to enforce them. ◦ The development of urban transportation systems made possible the construction of stadiums where thousands could attend, making mass spectator sports into a big business. ****If work gets organized, then leisure become organized too

When did the first Industrial Revolution begin and where?

The first Industrial Revolution began in Britain some- time after 1750.

What was the Industrial Revolution?

The first industrial revolution was period in the late 18th and the early 19th centuries (the Second was during the late 19th and early 20th) when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, production, and transportation (also medicine) had a profound effect on socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain. The changes subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a making turning point in human society; almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way.

How did the 2nd Industrial Revolution cause a new mass society?

• A new kind of society, a mass society, emerged in Europe, especially in the second half of the 19th, as a result of rapid economic and social changes. • For the lower classes, mass society brought voting rights, an improved standard of living, and access to education. ◦ But, mass society also made possible the development of organizations that manipulated the populations of the nation-states.

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, 1848

• All of human history is driven by conflict and tension between classes ◦ The oppressors and the oppressed • There has been a simplification of classes during the industrial revolution: Bourgeoise and Proletariat ◦ It is all based on wealth ‣ Dehumanizing because the old power relationships weren't based on money, but now they are • The state government are not only being run by the Bourgeoisie, but they represent the will of the Bourgeoise

How did industrialization spread to other places, such as Russian and Japan?

• At the same time, after 1870, industrialization began to spread beyond western and central Europe and North America. Especially noticeable was its rapid development in Russia and Japan. ◦ A surge of industrialization began in Russia in the 1890s under Sergei Witte, the minister for finance. ‣ Witte pushed the government toward a program of massive railroad construction. • Witte's program also made possible the rapid growth of a modern steel and coal industry, making Russia by 1900 the fourth-largest producer of steel and turning out half of the world's production of oil. ◦ In Japan, the imperial government took the lead in promoting industry. ‣ The government financed industries, built railroads, brought foreign experts to train Japanese employees in new industrial techniques, and instituted a universal educational system based on applied science. Japan developed key industries in tea, silk, armaments, and shipbuilding.

Why didn't the Industrial Revolution spread anywhere else?

• Before 1870, the industrial revolution didn't extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. ◦ Russia, for example, was still largely rural and agricultural, ruled by an autocratic regime that preferred to keep the peasants in serfdom. • In other parts of the world, the newly industrialized European states pursued a deliberate policy of preventing the growth of mechanized industry in the areas where they had established control. ◦ As the indigenous Indian textile industry declined, thousands of Indian spinners and handloom weavers lost their jobs, forcing many to turn to growing raw materials, such as cotton, wheat, and tea, for export to Britain, while buying British made finished goods. ‣ So then, the Indians will be forced to buy the cheap textiles made my the British • In a similar fashion elsewhere, the rapidly industrializing nations of Europe worked to prevent its spreading their colonies.

What effect did the Industrial Revolution have on iron production?

• Britain had always had large reserves of iron, but the basic process of producing iron had changed little since the Middle Ages and still depended heavily on charcoal. ◦ A better quality of iron came into being in the 1780s when Henry Cort developed a system called puddling, in which coke, derived from coal, was used to burn away impurities in pig iron and produce an iron of high quality. ◦ In 1740, Britain produced 17,000 tons and by 1852, 3 mil tons, more than the rest of world combined. • The new high-quality wrought iron was in turn used to build new machines and ultimately new industries. ◦ In 1804, Richard Trevithick made the first steam-powered locomotive on an industrial rail line. ◦ Engines built by George Stephenson and his son proved superior, and it was Stephenson's Rocket that was used on the first public railway line. ◦ Within twenty years, locomotives had reached 50 miles per hour, an incredible speed to contemporary travelers. By 1840, Britain had almost 6,000 miles of railroads.

What is socialism?

• Definition: A political and economic theory characterized by social ownership or democratic control of the means of production(equipment, land, transportation, and raw materials necessary to produce a product) • a belief that people as a whole rather than private individuals would own and operate the means of production ◦ In Great Brian in the early 1800s, there was a group of people who didn't like how a small group of people owned and controlled the means of production, and the people who were working in the factories, didn't have any of this ownership/reward that the owner had.

What is communism?

• Definition: a political and economic theory characterized by common ownership of the means of production, and the absence of social class, money, and the state. • a belief that the struggle between social classes would lead to a classless society with social ownership of the means of production ◦ Sometimes known as Marxis socialism ◦ Communism is a type of socialism • The goal of communism was the common ownership of the means of production and property, which would cause social class, money and government to all go away because everything is commonly owned

How did the Industrial Revolution create new job opportunities for women?

• During the course of the 19th, working-class organizations persisted in the belief that women should remain at home to bear and nurture children and not be allowed in the industrial workforce. ◦ Working-class men argued that keeping women out of the factories would ensure the moral and physical well-being of families. In reality, however, if their husbands were unemployed, women had to do low-wage work or labor part-time in sweatshops to support their families. • The Second Industrial Revolution opened the door to new jobs for women. ◦ The development of larger industrial plants and the expansion of government services created a variety of service or white-collar jobs. The increased demand for white-collar workers at relatively low wages coupled with a shortage of male workers led employers to hire women. ‣ The expansion of government services opened opportunities for women to be secretaries and telephone operators and to take jobs in health and social services. Compulsory education necessitated more teachers, and the development of modern hospital services opened jobs for nurses. ◦ Many of the new white-collar jobs were routine and, except for teaching and nursing, required few skills beyond basic literacy. These jobs had distinct advantages for many women. • For some middle-class women, the new jobs offered freedom from the domestic patterns expected of them. Since women did not receive an education comparable to that of men, they were limited in the careers they could pursue. Thus, they found it easier to fill the jobs at the lower end of middle-class occupations. • Most of the new white-collar jobs, however, were filled by working-class women who saw the job as an opportunity to escape from the physical labor of the lower-class world.

What impact did industrialization have on living standards?

• During the first half of the 19th, industrialization altered the lives of Europeans, especially the British, as they left their farms, moved to cities, and found work in factories. ◦ Industrialization increased employment and lowered the price of consumer goods, thereby improving the way people lived. ‣ They also maintain that household income rose because multiple members of the family could now hold wage-paying jobs. ◦ Wage labor made life worse for many families. ‣ Employment in the early factories was volatile as employers quickly dismissed workers whenever demand declined. ‣ Wages were not uniform, and inadequate housing in cities forced families to live in cramped and unsanitary conditions. ‣ Families continued to spend the majority of their incomes on food and clothing. ◦ Members of the middle class were the real gainers in the early Industrial Revolution and that industrial workers had to wait until the second half of the 19th to begin to reap the benefits of industrialization.

How was Marx's thinking used during in Industrial Revolution?

• The Communist Manifesto: ''the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.'' • Throughout history, oppressor and oppressed have ''stood in constant opposition to one another.'' ◦ One group of people-the oppressors-owned the means of production and thus had the power to control government and society. ◦ The other group, which depended on the owners of the means of production, were the oppressed. This class struggle continued in the industrialized societies of Marx's day. • According to Marx and Engels, ''Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.'' Marx predicted that the struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat would finally break into open revolution, ''where the violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie lays the foundation for the sway of the proletariat.'' The fall of the bourgeoisie ''and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.'' For a while, the proletariat would form a dictatorship to reorganize the means of production, and then the state would wither away. ◦ Since classes had arisen from the economic differences that would have been abolished, the end result would be a classless society

What kind of working class did the Industrial Revolution create?

• Early industrial workers faced wretched working conditions. ◦ Work shifts ranged from 12 to 16 hours a day, six days a week, with a half hour for lunch and dinner. ◦ There was no security of employment and no minimum wage. ◦ The worst conditions were in the cotton mills, where temperatures were especially debilitating. ◦ Mills were also dirty, dusty, and unhealthy. ◦ Conditions in the coal mines were also harsh. ‣ Although steam-powered engines were used to lift coal from the mines to the top, inside the mines, men still bore the burden of digging the coal out while horses, mules, women, and children hauled coal carts on rails to the lift. • Both children and women worked in large numbers in early factories and mines. ◦ Children had been an important part of the family economy in preindustrial times, working in the fields or carding and spinning wool at home. ‣ The owners of cotton factories found child labor very helpful. Children had an especially delicate touch as spinners of cotton. Their smaller size made it easier for them to crawl under machines to gather loose cotton. Children were more easily trained to do factory work. • Children represented a cheap source of labor. ◦ In 1821, about half of the British population was under twenty years of age. Hence, children made up an abundant supply of labor, and they were paid only about one-sixth to one-third of what a man was paid. • By 1830, women and children provided two-thirds of the cotton industry's labor. • Under the Factory Act of 1833, however, which prohibited employment of children under the age of nine and restricted the working hours of those under eighteen, the number of children employed declined. ◦ The new law did not end child labor, however, as many parents needed the income of working children to support the family. As the number of children employed declined, their places were taken by women, who came to dominate the labor forces of the early factories. • Men were expected to be responsible for the primary work obligations, while women assumed daily control of the family and performed low-paying jobs such as laundry work that could be done in the home. ◦ Domestic industry made it possible for women to continue their contributions to family survival.

How did industrialization cause the emergence of a world economy?

• Economic developments combined with the transportation revolution that saw the growth of marine transport and railroads, made a true world economy. International trade increased dramatically. ◦ Until the Industrial Revolution, European countries had imported more from Asia than they had exported, but now foreign countries provided markets for the surplus manufactured goods of Europe. ◦ European capital was also invested abroad to develop railways, mines, electrical power plants, and banks. ‣ High rates of return provided plenty of incentive for investors. With its capital, industries, and military might, Europe dominated the world economy by the beginning of the twentieth century.

What impact did the Industrial Revolution have on factories?

• From its beginning, the factory created a new labor system. Factory owners wanted to use their new machines constantly. Workers were therefore obliged to work regular hours and in shifts to keep the machines producing at a steady rate. ◦ Early factory workers, however, came from rural areas, where they were used to a different pace of life. • Early factory owners had to create a system of work discipline that would accustom employees to working regular hours and doing the same tasks over and over. They issued minute and detailed factory regulations. ◦ For example, adult workers were fined for a wide variety of minor infractions, such as being a few minutes late for work, and dismissed for more serious misdoings, especially drunkenness. ‣ The Employers found that dismissals and fines worked well for adult employees; in a time when population growth had produced large masses of unskilled labor, dismissal could be disastrous.

How did the new factory system differ from old factories?

• Improved production and efficiency ◦ Lowered the cost of products • Often utilized assembly line production • Often used machines • Often required laborers to work rigid hours and preform repetition ◦ Minimal human interaction ‣ Transformed the way that things were made and how people labored • Before, everything was created in small batched by specialists ◦ Skilled labor by specialist You no longer were restricted to put you factory in a place by the power source (like rivers)

How did the Industrial Revolution impact the United States?

• In 1800, 6/7 American workers were farmers, and there were no cities with more than 100,000 people. By 1860, however, the population had grown from 5 million to 30 million people, larger than Great Britain's; nine U.S. cities had populations over 100,000; and only 50 percent of American workers were farmers. • In sharp contrast to Britain, the United States was a large country. Thousands of miles of roads and canals were built linking east and west. The steamboat facilitated transportation on the many bodies of water. • Most important in the development of an American transportation system was the railroad, which was needed to transport the abundant raw materials found throughout the country. ◦ By 1865 the United States was crisscrossed by more than 35,000 miles of railroad track (more than three times the amount in Great Britain). This transportation revolution turned the United States into a single massive market for the manufactured goods of the Northeast. • Labor for the growing number of factories in this area came primarily from rural New England. ◦ Many of the workers in the new textile and shoe factories of the region were women, who often accounted for more than 80 percent of the labor force. • A growing manufacturing sector, an abundance of raw materials, and an elaborate transportation system turned the United States into the world's second largest industrial nation by the end of the 19th.

Why didn't these countries advance at the sam time as Britain?

• In 1815, Belgium, France, and the German states had experienced some developments similar to those of Britain in the 18th, but not in the 1770s and 1780s because they lacked certain advantages that had made Britain's Industrial Revolution possible. ◦ Lack of good roads and problems with river transit made transportation difficult. ◦ Customs barriers along state boundaries increased the costs and prices of goods. ◦ Continental businessmen were generally less enterprising than their British counterparts and tended to adhere to traditional business attitudes, including an unwillingness to take risks in investment. • Lack of technical knowledge was initially a major obstacle to industrialization. But the Continental countries possessed an advantage here; they could simply borrow British techniques and practices. ◦ Gradually, the Continent achieved technological independence as local people learned all the skills their British teachers had to offer. ◦ Continental countries, especially France and the German states began to establish a wide range of technical schools to train engineers and mechanics. • Governments in most of the Continental countries were accustomed to playing a significant role in economic affairs. Furthering the development of industrialization was a logical extension of that attitude. ◦ For example, the governments gave grants to inventors and provided funds to build roads and railroads. • Joint-stock investment banks pooled the savings of thousands of small and large investors, creating a supply of capital that could then be plowed back into industry. These investments were essential to Continental industrialization. ◦ By starting with less expensive machines, the British had been able to industrialize largely through the private capital of successful individuals who reinvested their profits. On the Continent, advanced industrial machines necessitated large amounts of capital; joint-stock industrial banks provided it.

How did the railroads contribute to the success and maturing of the Industrial Revolution?

• The railroad was important to the success and maturing of the Industrial Revolution. ◦ Railway construction created new job opportunities, especially for farm laborers and peasants who had long been accustomed to finding work outside their local villages. ◦ The proliferation of a cheaper and faster means of transportation had a ripple effect on the growth of the industrial economy.

What did people do to help with the worse living conditions?

• In the first half of the 19th, the pitiful conditions found in the slums, mines, and factories of the Industrial Revolution gave rise to efforts for change. ◦ One of them was a movement known as socialism. ‣ The term eventually became associated with a Marxist analysis of human society, but early socialism was largely the product of intellectuals who believed in the equality of all people and wanted to replace competition with cooperation in industry. ‣ To later socialists, especially the followers of Karl Marx, such ideas were merely impractical dreams, and they contemptuously labeled these theorists utopian socialists. ◦ Robert Owen, a British cotton manufacturer, was one such utopian socialist. He believed that humans would show their true natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment. ‣ At New Lanark in Scotland, he transformed a squalid factory town into a flourishing, healthy community. But when he tried to create such a cooperative community at New Harmony, Indiana, in the United States in the 1820s, fighting within the community eventually destroyed his dream. • Another movement for change came through the formation of labor organizations to gain decent wages and working conditions. ◦ Known as trade unions, these new associations were formed by skilled workers in a number of new industries, including ironworkers and coal miners. ‣ Some trade unions went on strike to win improvements for the members of their trades. ‣ The largest and most successful of these unions in Britain was the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, formed in 1851. Its provision of generous unemployment benefits in return for a small weekly payment was precisely the kind of practical gains that the trade unions sought.

Why did these products grow so rapidly and how did they divide Europe?

• Industrial production grew rapidly at this time because of the greatly increased sales of manufactured goods. ◦ An increase in real wages for workers, combined with lower prices for manufactured goods because of reduced transportation costs, made it easier for Europeans to buy consumer products. ◦ In the cities, the first department stores began to sell a whole new range of consumer goods made possible by the development of the steel and electrical industries. • Moreover, by 1900, Europe was divided into two economic zones. ◦ Great Britain, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Germany, the western part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and northern Italy constituted an advanced industrialized core that had a high standard of living, decent systems of transportation, and relatively healthy and educated peoples ◦ Another part of Europe, the backward and little industrialized area to the south and east, consisting of southern Italy, most of Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, the Balkan kingdoms, and Russia, was still largely agricultural and relegated by the industrial countries to the function of providing food and raw materials.

German Labor Congress at Gotha in 1875

• Labor is the source of all wealth in a society ◦ Most of the products that society makes, are made my labor ‣ But very little of the profits are going to the labors and instead to the Bourgeoise ‣ In a communist society, the profit would be more equally divided

How were socialists divided on revisionism and what impact did it. H as eon trade unions?

• Marxist parties divided over the issue of revisionism. ◦ Pure Marxists believed in violent revolution that would bring the collapse of capitalism and socialist ownership of the means of production. ◦ Revisionists, rejected revolutionary socialism and argued that workers must organize mass political parties and work together with other progressive elements to gain reforms. • Having won the right to vote, workers were in a better position than ever to achieve their aims through democratic channels. Evolution by democratic means would achieve the desired goal of socialism. • Trade unions were snother force working for evolutionary rather than revolutionary socialism. ◦ Great Britain, unions won the right to strike in the 1870s. Soon after, the masses of workers in factories were organized into trade unions in order to use the instrument of the strike. ‣ By 1900, there were 2 mil workers in British trade unions, and fourteen years later, there were almost 4 mil. ◦ Trade unions in the rest of Europe had varying degrees of success, but by World War I, they had made considerable progress in improving the living and working conditions of the working classes.

Why did industrialization lead to lower standards of living?

• Prices off goods go down ◦ But they still mostly spend it on food and shelter • Bad sanitation and cramped living • Bad work conditions and hours ◦ But more work opportunities for both men and women • More access to clean water, electronics, education, and consistent wages ◦ BUT ONLY FOR THE HIGHER CLASSES • Not much of a rise in their wages and they can be fired/injured fairly easily • Working harder they living in worse conditions, yet not much is getting better

Why did Britain get a 50 year head start, and they become the prominent World Industrial power in the 18th?

• Stable government (since 1688) ◦ Has already had its revolution/civil war so already have the people already have the government and power that they want ‣ Not going to rebel • A large number of colonies ◦ Raw materials ◦ Markets • Legacy of the Scientific Revolution ◦ Patent laws ‣ A legal document that gives you ownership over that device. It was important because it motivated people to make new products and innovate ◦ They were the country that philosophers would look up to as an ideal enlightened government • Stable financial markets ◦ Easiest to borrow money than everywhere else in the world ‣ Allows you to open and create more things because you can borrow money because you have to put a lot out at first • Relatively dense population ◦ Makes it easier to transport goods throughout the nation • Unscathed by Napoleonic Wars ◦ They were able to come out of the war with France without much of the fighting to be on their soil (because on an island and have a great navy) • The Enclosure movement ◦ If you lived in a town or a village, then there would be a local lord and a lot of land that you would work on a specific section on, but it technically belonged to the lord even though it was "communally owned" ◦ But then the government made the communal land into private land ‣ Agricultural production goes up ‣ Created large landless labor force ‣ Since people can't buy land, then they cant go into agricultural work, so they had to turn to factory working

What was the Marxist Theory?

• The Communist Manifesto: ''the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.'' • Throughout history, oppressor and oppressed have ''stood in constant opposition to one another.'' ◦ One group of people-the oppressors-owned the means of production and thus had the power to control government and society. ◦ The other group, which depended on the owners of the means of production, were the oppressed. This class struggle continued in the industrialized societies of Marx's day. • According to Marx and Engels, ''Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.'' Marx predicted that the struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat would finally break into open revolution, ''where the violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie lays the foundation for the sway of the proletariat.'' The fall of the bourgeoisie ''and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.'' For a while, the proletariat would form a dictatorship to reorganize the means of production, and then the state would wither away. ◦ Since classes had arisen from the economic differences that would have been abolished, the end result would be a classless society

What impact did the Industrial Revolution have on population growth and urbanization?

• The European population had begun to increase in the 18th, but the pace accelerated dramatically in the 19th. ◦ In 1750, the total European population stood at an estimated 140 million; by 1850, it had almost doubled to 266 million. ◦ The key to the expansion of population was a decline in death rates evident throughout Europe. Wars and major epidemic diseases, such as plague and smallpox, became less frequent, which led to a drop in the number of deaths. ◦ Thanks to the increase in the food supply, more people were better fed and more resistant to disease. ◦ With the steam engine, factory owners could locate their manufacturing plants in urban centers, where they had ready access to transportation facilities and large numbers of new arrivals from the country looking for work. • The dramatic growth of cities in the first half of the 19th resulted in miserable living conditions for many of the inhabitants. Located in the center of most industrial towns were the row houses of the industrial workers. Rooms were not large and were frequently overcrowded. • Sanitary conditions in these towns were appalling ◦ Sewers and open drains were common on city streets ◦ The use of coal blackened towns and cities with soot

What was the impact of the Industrial Revolution?

• The Industrial Revolution triggered an enormous leap in industrial production. ◦ Coal and steam replaced wind and water as new sources of energy and power to drive machines. ‣ They required new ways of organizing human labor as factories replaced workshops. ◦ Europe shifted from an economy based on agriculture and handicrafts to an economy based on manufacturing by machines and automated factories. • Large numbers of people moved from the countryside to cities to work in the new factories. • The creation of a wealthy industrial middle class and a huge industrial working class substantially transformed traditional social relationships. • It altered how people related to nature, ultimately creating an environmental: danger to human existence itself.

What theory reemerged in hopes to help the socialists?

• The desire to improve their working and living conditions led many industrial workers to form socialist political parties and socialist labor unions. ◦ They emerged after 1870, but the theory that made them possible had been developed decades earlier in the work of Karl Marx. Marxism first appeared before the revolutions of 1848 with the publication of The Communist Manifesto, written by two Germans, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

What new products were produced during the industrial revolution?

• The first major change in industrial development after 1870 was the substitution of steel for iron. ◦ New methods for shaping steel made it useful in the construction of lighter, smaller, and faster machines and engines as well as railways, ships, and armaments. • Electricity was a major new form of energy that could be easily converted into other forms, such as heat, light, and motion, and moved relatively effortlessly through space by means of transmitting wires. ◦ In the 1870s, the first commercially practical generators of electrical current were developed, and by 1910, hydroelectric power stations and coal-fired steam-generating plants enabled homes and factories in whole neighborhoods to be tied in to a single, common source of power. ◦ Electricity spawned a number of inventions. ‣ The light- bulb, developed independently by the American Thomas Edison and the Briton Joseph Swan, permitted homes and cities to be illuminated by electric lights. ‣ Electricity also transformed the factory. • Conveyor belts, cranes, machines, and machine tools could all be powered by electricity and located anywhere. ◦ Thanks to electricity, all countries could now enter the industrial age. • A revolution in communications began when Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876 and Guglielmo Marconi sent the first radio waves across the Atlantic in 1901. • The development of the internal combustion engine, fired by oil and gasoline, provided a new source of power in transportation and gave rise to ocean liners as well as airplanes and automobiles. ◦ In 1900, world production stood at 9,000 cars, but an American, Henry Ford, revolutionized the automotive industry with the mass production of the Model T. By 1916, Ford's factories were producing 735,000 cars a year ◦ In 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first flight in a fixed-wing airplane. The first regular passenger air service was established in 1919.

What effect did the industrial revolution have on textile production?

• The invention of the flying shuttle made it possible to weave faster on a loom. ◦ This created shortages of yarn until James Hargreaves's spinning jenny allowed spinners to produce yarn in greater quantities. ◦ Edmund Cartwright's loom, powered by water, allowed the weaving of cloth to catch up with the spinning of yarn. It was now more efficient to bring workers to the machines and organize their labor collectively in factories located next to rivers and streams (their sources of power) • The cotton industry was then pushed to greater heights of productivity by the invention of the steam engine. ◦ In the 1760s, James Watt, built an engine powered by steam that could pump water from mines 3 times as quickly as previous engines; allowing for more coal to be extracted from the mines. ◦ In 1782, Watt developed a rotary engine that could turn a shaft and thus drive machinery. ‣ Steam power could now be applied to spinning and weaving cotton, and because they were fired by coal, these steam engines could be located anywhere. • The boost given to cotton textile production by these technological changes was readily apparent. ◦ In 1760, Britain had imported 2.5 million pounds of cotton, which was farmed out to cottage industries. ◦ In 1787, the British imported 22 million pounds of cotton; most of it was spun on machines. ◦ By 1840, 366 million pounds of cotton, now Britain's most important product, were being imported. ‣ By this time, most cotton industry employees worked in factories, and British cotton goods were sold everywhere in the world.

What kind of middle class did the industrial revolution create?

• The rise of industrial capitalism produced a new kind of middle class. ◦ As other people began to accumulate wealth, the term bourgeois came to be applied to people involved in commerce, industry, and banking as well as professionals such as: ‣ teachers, physicians, and government officials, regardless of where they lived. • The new industrial middle class was made up of the people who constructed the factories, purchased the machines, and figured out where the markets were. • Members of the industrial middle class not only sought to reduce the barriers between themselves and the landed elite, but also tried at the same time to separate themselves from the laboring classes below them. ◦ In the first half of the 19th century, the working class was actually a mixture of different groups, but in the course of the century, factory workers came to form an industrial proletariat that constituted a majority of the working class.

Who was Robert Owen?

• a British socialist who spent the first part of his career being troubled by the conditions of the working class people, and especially how children and women were being put into these conditions. ◦ The long hours, lack of minimum wage, no rights for the workers (if gets hurt or sick), and overall bad conditions of the factories were troubling to him. • He saw that 1 group was doing really well, while the working class was being hurt, so he wanted to fix it. ◦ Some socialists wanted to just resist industrialization ◦ But his solution was going to parliament and asking to restrict the power of the factories because all of the probes are rooted in the higher classes and how they owned the means of production ◦ He had a utopian view of how it should be where the whole community would own the means of production together, work for on it together, and EQUITABLY distribute the profits (get what you put in) ‣ It failed • He also did a lot of work in law and pushing for change ◦ He was part of the 8 hour bill (8 hours of work, 8 hours of sleep, 8 hours of whatever you want) ◦ He also helped pass laws for child labor. They helped but the changes were slow.