The Ultimate Psychology Guide (All in one)

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What are the physiological effects of opiates/opioids? What are some examples?

Opiates can lower CNS activity, heart rate and BP - they are analgesics (pain reducing) E.gs - morphine, heroin, codeine,

For audition to occur, you need ______________ (the stimulus) to be present and _____________ (receptor) to transduce these waves into signals.

pressurized sound waves, hair cells

Parts of the eye: aqueous humor

water and liquid that fills the anterior chamber of the eye

Describe Piaget's formal operational stage

~12+ years - characterized by the ability to engage in abstract thinking and moral reasoning

Describe Piaget's concrete operational stage

~7-11 years - Concept of conservation has developed + able to engage in logical thought and solve math problems

What is the equation for Weber's Law?

ΔI/I=K I= Background Intensity K= Weber's Fraction ΔI = incremental threshold

You are at a rock concert and the music is playing at an intensity of 70 Watts. The rock band members turn up the volume just enough that you notice a difference in sound level intensity. If Weber's Fraction is equal to .1 in this case, what is the JND?

ΔI/I=K ΔI = (0.1)*(70W) ΔI = 7W

________________ taste buds are mushroom shaped structures located primarily in the anterior portion of the tongue. (A) Fungiform (B) Foliate (C) Circumvallate (D) Filiform

(A) Fungiform Fungiform taste buds are mushroom shaped structures located primarily in the anterior portion of the tongue.

Which of the following "anxious" and "fearful" Personality Disorders is characterized by feelings of inhibition and being inadequate? (A) Avoidant (B) Obsessive Compulsive Personality (C) Dependant (D) None of the above

(A) Avoidant Avoidant Personality Disorder is characterized by feelings of inhibition and being inadequate, so they avoid social situations.

Even if Ebbinghaus could not recall his nonsense words he learned, they were not completely gone from his long-term memory. Which of the following ways can show information is still stored? (A) By relearning the material faster than novel material is learned (B) By recalling the sequences after context clues are given (C) By learning a new set of letters and having proactive interference from previous sets. (D) By teaching the material to someone else without realizing it.

(A) By relearning the material faster than novel material is learned. Ebbinghaus found that the rate of forgetting is rapid/sharp at first but levels off - called the "curve of forgetting"

In the Cochlea, what structure moves back and forth and is responsible for transmitting an electrical impulse via the auditory nerve to the brain? (A) Cilia (Hair Cells) (B) Oval Window (C) Circular Window (D) Stapes

(A) Cilia (hair cells)

What is referred to as the awareness of our self and the surrounding environment? (A) Consciousness (B) Daydreaming (C) Drowsiness (D) Sleep

(A) Consciousness

Which of the following is NOT a type of Tyrosine Derivative? (A) Cortisol (B) Adrenaline (C) Thyroid Hormones (D) Norepinephrine

(A) Cortisol Cortisol is a classic Steroid hormone. Tyrosine Derivatives include Catecholamines (Norepinephrine and Adrenaline) and Thyroid Hormones.

The guards lost their identity as college students as they became guards. This is an example of what? (A) Deindividuation (B) Cognitive Dissonance (C) Fundamental Attribution Error (D) Confirmation Bias

(A) Deindividuation Deindividuation is when you feel less identifiable and so you engage in worse behavior. This is what happened with the guards.

Because the participants in the Zimbardo study knew this was an experiment, they acted the way that they thought Zimbardo wanted them to. This refers to which experimental error? (A) Demand Characteristics (B) Sampling Error (C) Ecological Validity (D) Double-blind Bias

(A) Demand Characteristics Demand Characteristics refers to participants trying to act in the way that they are expected to act in a study.

Of the four main classes of psychoactive drugs, which class is known for lowering the body's Central Nervous System's activity, decreasing the processing speed of the brain, and lowering one's heart rate and blood pressure? (A) Depressants (B) Stimulants (C) Hallucinogens (D) Opiates/Opioids

(A) Depressants Benzos and Barbituates also increase GABA activity, causing a sense of relaxation. Alcohol also increases GABA activity and dopamine levels.

Trait theory is focused on the _________________ of behavior whereas other theories are focused on the ______________ of behavior. (A) Describing, Origins (B) Origins, Describing (C) Causes, Effects (D) Effects, Causes

(A) Describing, Origins Trait theory is focused on the describing of behavior whereas other theories are focused on the origins of behavior.

Which of the following would fall under the "Other/Unspecified" subcategory for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, meaning it meets some but not all of the criteria? (A) Down's Syndrome Disorder (B) Autism Spectrum disorders (C) ADHD (Attention Defecit Hyperactivity Disorder) (D) What formerly was called "mental retardation"

(A) Down's Syndrome Disorder Autism Spectrum Disorders, ADHD and what was formerly called "Mental Retardation" fully meet the criteria for Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Down's Syndrome meets some of the criteria, but not all, for this category, so it falls under the "other/unspecified" subcategory.

If a doctor has diagnosed Schizophrenia in a patient, which medications are they most likely taking to treat it? (A) Drugs targeting dopamine levels and receptors (B) Drugs targeting epigenetic markers (C) Drugs targeting synapse pruning (D) None of the above.

(A) Drugs targeting dopamine levels and receptors Most of the medications used for treating Schizophrenia target dopamine levels and receptors.

In the information processing model, which of the following terms best describes hearing a patient scream or noticing a cricket chirp, which is easily forgotten? (A) Echoic Memory (B) Sensory Memory (C) Working Memory (D) Iconic Memory

(A) Echoic Memory Echoic memory is memory for what you hear and is kept only in sensory memory.

Match each emotional state with the brain hemisphere that it is usually associated with: (A) Left Hemisphere (B) Right Hemisphere -Positive emotions -Negative emotions -Isolative interactions -Social interactions

(A) Excitation of the Left Hemisphere - positive emotions and social interactions associated. (B) Excitation of the Right Hemisphere - negative emotions and isolative interactions associated.

Which of the following is not one of Lazarus' three categories/responses of primary appraisal? (A) Fearful (B) Irrelevant (C) Benign/positive (D) Stressful

(A) Fearful

When trying to first solve a Rubik's Cube, someone could be incorrectly focused on trying to solve all horizontal rows first. What is this an example of? (A) Fixation (B) Representativeness (C) Means-End Analysis (D) Insight

(A) Fixation Because the solver is stuck on a wrong approach, this is an example of fixation.

Quick and abstract reasoning is _______ Intelligence, whereas accumulated knowledge and verbal skills is ______ Intelligence. (A) Fluid, Crystallized (B) Fluid, Fluid (C) Crystallized, Fluid (D) Crystallized, Crystallized

(A) Fluid, Crystallized

Jack started hunting to provide food 20 years ago, but continues to do so today despite plenty of food and lack of necessity, purely out of enjoyment. This can be best explained by ______________, a major part of Allport's trait theory which describes how a behaviour continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally caused that behaviour. (A) Functional autonomy (B) Cardinal traits (C) Cognitive dissonance (D) Functional determinism

(A) Functional autonomy Jack started hunting to provide food 20 years ago, but continues to do so today despite plenty of food and lack of necessity, purely out of enjoyment. This can be best explained by *functional autonomy*, a major part of Allport's trait theory which describes how a behaviour continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally caused that behaviour.

The leadership team at Apple meets to discuss the new Apple Watch. Some members come to the meeting thinking that perhaps pink would be an awesome color for the new wrist band. By the end of the meeting, every team member strongly agrees that pink is the way to go. Which term best describes the leadership team's behavior? (A) Group Polarization (B) Conformity (C) Groupthink (D) Confirmation Bias

(A) Group Polarization The team members left the meeting with a stronger conviction than before in the direction of the average group member's original opinion. This is in line with Group Polarization.

_____________ frequency sounds activate the base of the cochlea, while _____________ frequency sounds activate the apex of the cochlea. (A) High, Low (B) High, High (C) Low, High (D) Low, Low

(A) High, Low

Which of the Cluster B (dramatic, emotional and erratic) Personality disorders is characterized by attention seeking and displaying a lot of outward emotions? (A) Histrionic (B) Borderline (C) Antisocial (D) Narcissistic

(A) Histrionic Histrionic Personality Disorder is characterized by attention seeking and displaying a lot of outward emotions.

Order the 3 types of nerve fibers from from fastest to slowest: I. A-beta fibers (A-B) II. C fibers III. A-delta fibers (A-D) (A) I > II > III (B) III > I > II (C) II > I > III (D) I > III > II

(A) I > II > III A beta fibers have the highest conduction velocity due to largest diameter, decreasing resistance; A-gamma follow, and C-fibers have the slowest conduction

In free recall, the serial position effect says subjects are more likely to remember the beginning and end of a list than the middle. Which of these effects is not a cause of the serial position effect? I. Context Clues II. Primacy Effect III. Recency Effect (A) I Only (B) I and II Only (C) I, II and III (D) II and III Only

(A) I Only NOT a cause

Who of the following can be considered Gestalt Psychologists? I. Solomon Asch II. Carl Jung III. Stanley Milgram (A) I Only (B) I and II Only (C) I and III Only (D) II and III Only

(A) I Only Solomon Asch was a Gestalt Psychologist.

In the analogy of the iceberg, which parts of our mind are completely below the surface of the water (only part of our unconscious)? I. Id II. Ego III. Superego (A) I Only (B) I and II Only (C) II and III Only (D) I, II, and III

(A) I Only The Id is described as the most unconscious and earliest developed part of our mind which has a pleasure principle under which it operates.

Which of the following combination of activities can a child in the preoperational stage perform? I. Symbolic/Pretend Play II. Reversible actions III. Mental math (A) I only (B) I and II only (C) II and III only (D) I, II and III

(A) I only A child in the preoperational stage can perform symbolic/pretend play. Both reversible actions and mental math are traits of operational thought, which are not developed until later.

Which of the following has been noticed in studies of patients with depression? I. Decreased Frontal Lobe activity II. Increased Temporal lobe activity III. Decreased Occipital lobe activity (A) I only (B) III only (C) I and II only (D) I and III only

(A) I only Studies have noted abnormally decreased frontal lobe activity and increased limbic system activity in depressive symptoms or disorders. These are consistent with other findings relating to emotions and stress.

Put the following 5 steps of the phototransduction cascade in order: I. The retinal goes from 11-cis to all trans, changes conformation of retinal and rhodopsin. II. Sodium channels close without cGMP bound, rod hyperpolarizes, rod inactivated. III. Light hits retinal in the rhodopsin (rod opsin). IV. Transducin will break from rhodopsin, and the alpha subunit binds to Phosphodiesterase (PDE). V. PDE converts cGMP->GMP. (A) III > I > IV > V > II (B) III > V > IV > I > II (C) II > V > IV > I > III (D) II > I > IV > V > III

(A) III > I > IV > V > II The 5 steps of the phototransduction cascade in order: Light hits retinal in the rhodopsin (rod opsin). > The retinal goes from 11-cis to all trans, changes conformation of retinal and rhodopsin. > Transducin will break from rhodopsin, and the alpha subunit binds to Phosphodiesterase (PDE). > PDE converts cGMP->GMP. > Sodium channels close without cGMP bound, rod hyperpolarizes and thus is inactivated.

Jack always wears black to look like his favorite Green Day band members. He is demonstrated which of the following? (A) Identification (B) Compliance (C) Conformity (D) Internalization

(A) Identification Jack is doing what he is doing because he respects and looks up to Green Day. This is what is seen in Identification.

The "Invisible Gorilla" is a famous experiment where watchers are asked to track a ball in a film, and more than half will miss a gorilla walking across the screen! This experiment best demonstrates which principle? (A) Inattentional blindness (B) Change blindness (C) Intentional blindness (D) Momentary blindness

(A) Inattentional blindness Check out the video here!: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=video&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj-1Jzcy5PWAhWqq1QKHXaOBlsQtwIIKDAA&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DvJG698U2Mvo&usg=AFQjCNFlaWi_8quTj_ffq-FAOUodKRZMhg

Match the type of reasoning with the type of processing: (A) Inductive Reasoning (B) Deductive Reasoning (1)Bottom-Up Processing (2)Top-Down Processing

(A) Inductive Reasoning -> (1)Bottom-Up Processing (B) Deductive Reasoning -> (2)Top-Down Processing Inductive reasoning moves from a specific instance to a generalized conclusion, just like Bottom-Up Processing Deductive reasoning moves from generalized principles to a specific conclusion, similar to Top-Down Processing

If you are trying to memorize which lights in a grid are lit, and the top row is lit, you may remember each of those lights by remembering "top row lit". Which encoding strategy is used here? (A) Rote Rehearsal (B) Chunking (C) Pegword Mnemonic Device (D) Method of Loci

(B) Chunking

Which of the following is the least likely way that someone could develop Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)? (A) Janelle's mom suffered from DID, and Janelle slowly became paranoid she would develop DID until the point where she did. (B) After spending grueling months studying for the LSAT and finally getting an offer to practice, the lawyer is thrust into a high-profile case right away as a "trial" before he is offered a contract. (C) As a child, Charlie was frequently abused by his stepdad. (D) Mike feels mistreated by all those around him.

(A) Janelle's mom suffered from DID, and Janelle slowly became paranoid she would develop DID until the point where she did. DID is known to be caused by extreme stress, with a significant portion of those being child abuse-related. Being paranoid about familial health is least likely to cause that level of stress.

What refers to a type of brain activity that suppresses cortical arousal, while also helping sleep based memory formation? This type of activity can occur naturally or by gently touching someone while they are sleeping. (A) K-Complexes (B) non-REM sleep (C) REM sleep (D) Sleep spindles

(A) K-Complexes K-Complexes refer to a type of brain activity that suppresses cortical arousal, while also helping sleep based memory formation.

Which of the following brain disorders is caused by a thiamine deficiency in the brain? (A) Korsakoff's syndrome (B) Parkinson's disease (C) Alzheimer's disease (D) Agnosia

(A) Korsakoff's syndrome Korsakoff's syndrome is the result of thiamine deficiency in the brain. It is marked by retrograde and anterograde amnesia, and even confabulation (fabiracted, distorted or misinterpreted memories).

When you are hungry, your ______________ will signal to you that you are hungry. Once you've eaten enough and are full, your ____________ will signal to you to stop eating. (A) Lateral Hypothalamus, Ventromedial Hypothalamus (B) Ventromedial Hypothalamus , Lateral Hypothalamus (C) Ventromedial Hypothalamus , Ventromedial Hypothalamus (D) Lateral Hypothalamus, Lateral Hypothalamus

(A) Lateral Hypothalamus, Ventromedial Hypothalamus When you are hungry, your Lateral Hypothalamus will signal to you that you are hungry. Once you've eaten enough and are full, your Ventromedial Hypothalamus will signal to you to stop eating.

While taking illicit drugs, Mary-Kate experienced a state of euphoria. Which of the following nervous system structures was most likely affected? (A) Limbic System (B) Frontal Cortex (C) Lateral Hypothalamus (D) Ventromedial Hypothalamus

(A) Limbic System The limbic system is known for controlling emotion, cognition, motivation and pleasure, and is a common target for illicit drugs.

Which of the following are not one of the three components of emotion? (A) Logical (B) Physiological (C) Cognitive (D) Behavioral

(A) Logical

Which of the following terms refers to the form of memory that holds almost limitless amounts of information, including implicit and explicit memories? (A) Long-term Memory (B) Sensory Memory (C) Working Memory (D) Iconic Memory

(A) Long-term Memory Long-term Memory can hold almost limitless amounts of information, and includes implicit (or non-declarative) and explicit (or declarative) memories.

Elizabeth has always dreamed about being a doctor, but she is not studying hard for the MCAT because she needs to work her hourly job at Walmart in order to pay the bills and afford groceries. Which theory of motivation is best able to explain Elizabeth's situation? (A) Maslow's Hierarchy (B) Evolutionary Approach (C) Cognitive Approach (D) Optimal Arousal Theory

(A) Maslow's Hierarchy According to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, we fulfill basic needs before higher-level needs just as Elizabeth is doing in this situation.

Driving through the Appalachians, the nearby traffic signs appear to be moving faster than the further mountain peaks. Which monocular motion cue is causing this? Explain. (A) Motion Parallax (B) Interposition (C) Relative height (D) Shading and contour

(A) Motion Parallax

Which sleep stage is between sleep and wakefulness? This stage of sleep produces Theta Waves, and one may experience hypnagonic hallucinations (imagining things that are not there), or hypnic jerks (feeling of falling). (A) N1 (B) N2 (C) N3 (D) REM

(A) N1 N1 is the sleep stage between sleep and wakefulness. This stage of sleep produces Theta Waves, and one may experience hypnagonic hallucinations (imagining things that are not there), or hypnic jerks (feeling of falling).

What refers to some people not having the ability to stop themselves from falling asleep, and genetics are strong indicator of this sleep disorder? (A) Narcolepsy (B) Sleep Apnea (C) Insomnia (D) Sleep debt

(A) Narcolepsy Narcolepsy refers to some people not having the ability to stop themselves from falling asleep, and genetics are strong indicator of this sleep disorder.

A ray of light from the left visual field hits the ____________ side of the left eye and hits the __________ side of the right eye. (A) Nasal, Temporal (B) Temporal, Temporal (C) Nasal, Nasal (D) Temporal, Nasal

(A) Nasal, Temporal

Another three-year-old has not acquired any language abilities yet, and the specialist keeps referring to a Language Acquisition Device in the child's brain. Which theory of Language Development would this specialist most agree with? (A) Nativist approach (B) Learning reinforcement (C) Interactionist approach (D) Universal approach

(A) Nativist Approach The Nativist Approach claims infants have a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in their brains to allow them to learn and understand any language, and that there is a critical/sensitive period where it is easiest to learn a language. That LAD only operates during that sensitive period.

Which route of drug entry refers to ingesting a drug, and is one of the slowest routes because of the time it takes for the drug to pass through the GI tract? (A) Oral (B) Inhalation (C) Injection (D) Transdermal

(A) Oral

Which of the "Odd and Eccentric" Personality Disorders has the defining characteristic of distrust and suspicion of others? (A) Paranoid (B) Schizotypal (C) Schizoid (D) Both B and C

(A) Paranoid

Jack sees himself as a pretty agreeable person. He rarely gets upset or starts fights with others. He gets a new boss at work one day, and feels like his boss is pushing him around and treating him like a slave. Instead of confronting his boss, Jack underperforms on key projects in order to frustrate his boss. Which defense mechanism is Jack most likely implementing? (A) Passive Aggression (B) Displacement (C) Projection (D) Altruism

(A) Passive Aggression Jack is getting back at his boss without direct confrontation as is seen in Passive Agression. It is often carried out by failing to do something. It is an indirect or passive way of expressing one's feelings.

Which of the following hormone classes vary the most in size, are made in the Rough ER, and are later packaged in the Golgi before vesicular release? (A) Polypeptides/proteins (B) Steroids (C) Tryptophan derivatives (D) Tyrosine derivatives

(A) Polypeptides/proteins These polypeptides/proteins can vary from a few amino acids to very large proteins. Proteins are made in the Rough ER, and these hormones are packaged in the Golgi before vesicular release.

Which of the following is not a category of symptoms often expressed in schizophrenics? (A) Psychotic (B) Cognitive (C) Negative (D) Positive

(A) Psychotic Schizophrenia is a subset of psychotic disorders, not the other way around. Symptoms expressed in Schizophrenia fall under the subcategories of Cognitive, Negative and Positive

Infants' motor developments generally occur in order of: (A) Superior to Inferior (B) Anterior to Posterior (C) Distal to Proximal (D) Fine motor to Gross Motor

(A) Superior to Inferior Infants' motor developments generally occur in order from head to to (superior to inferior).

Which of the following statements about classification of mental disorders is incorrect? (A) The ICD and DSM rarely change, and only change if new research demands that disorders must be reclassified. (B) There are two main systems for classifying mental disorders: the ICD and DSM. (C) The American Psychiatric Association and World Health Organization group mental disorders differently (D) The DSM-5 has more top-level categories, meaning it breaks down mental disorders into more categories.

(A) The ICD and DSM rarely change, and only change if new research demands that disorders must be reclassified. The ICD and DSM are updated regularly, for a variety of reasons!

Which of the following is not a cause of controversy regarding Dissociative Identity Disorder? (A) The media have taken an undocumented disorder, DID, and propagated it to the point where even the DSM has to address it. (B) Therapists may support the line of thinking that can lead to DID, causing some occurrences accidentally. (C) As rare as DID is in the USA, it is rare almost to the point of not existing elsewhere, making DID appear like a social construct. (D) People play different roles in different situations, so this could just be an extreme case brought on by stress.

(A) The media have taken an undocumented disorder, DID, and propagated it to the point where even the DSM has to address it. There are real, documented cases of Dissociative Identity Disorder. Options (B), (C), and (D) are all real controversies regarding DID.

In deciding whether or not she should go on a trip, Eliza decides not to go because she feels that the weather is out of her control and may ruin her vacation. Which attitude theory best explains Eliza's thought process? (A) Theory of Planned Behavior (B) Elaboration Likelihood Model (C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model (D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)

(A) Theory of Planned Behavior The Theory of Planned Behavior is focused on people making decisions based on the implications and intentions of their actions. Those intentions are affected by 3 factors, including perceived behavior control, and in this case Eliza feels she does not have control over her vacation's weather.

Which of the following does "Psychosis" include? (A) Hallucinations (B) Delusions (C) Both A and B (D) Neither

If a three-year-old has a withdrawn temperament, which of the following is most likely true for the same individual in adulthood? (A) They are more likely to stay at home on a Friday night to read a book. (B) They are going out with a small group of friends but need constant attention from friends. (C) They are going to end up at a party and have fun, no matter what happens there. (D) There is almost no consistency in a child's temperament and their actions as an adult.

(A) They are more likely to stay at home on a Friday night to read a book. A child's temperament persists in most cases through adulthood, so this individual would likely do an introverted, withdrawn action.

You see two motorcycles. One looks smaller than the other and you assume that it must be further away in the distance. What monocular cue is likely responsible for this? Explain. (A) Relative size (B) Interposition (C) Relative height (D) Shading and contour

(A) relative size Relative size tells us objects that are smaller are perceived as being further away.

About ______% of adults meet the criteria of at least one mental illness, and ____% of adults meet the criteria for at least one serious mental illness causing distress or disability. (A) 25, 10 (B) 25, 6 (C) 10, 6 (D) 35, 10

(B) 25, 6 About 25% of adults meet the criteria of at least one mental illness, and 6% of adults meet the criteria for at least one serious mental illness.

If a known trait is greatly impacted by genetic differences, which of the following scenarios will have the most different expression of the traits? (A) A child and their biological parents (B) A child and their adopted parents (C) Monozygotic twins raised separately (D) Dizygotic twins raised together.

(B) A child and their adopted parents If the trait's variance is genetically-backed, then a child and their adopted parents (which do not necessarily share any genetic material) will have the most variance. A child will have 50% of each of their parent's genetic material, and dizygotic twins also share about 50% of their genetic material. Monozygotic twins share all of their genetic material.

Where is adrenaline produced? (A) The Kidney (B) A gland on top of the kidney (C) The Liver (D) A gland on top of the liver

(B) A gland on top of the kidney Adrenaline is produced by the Adrenal Gland, which is located on top of the kidneys.

If there is a lesion in the left optic nerve before the optic chiasm, how would vision be affected? (A) All information from the right eye would be compromised. (B) All information from the left eye would be compromised. (C) All information from the right visual field would be compromised. (D) All information from the left visual field would be compromised.

(B) All information from the left eye would be compromised. If there were a lesion in the left optic nerve BEFORE the optic chiasm (where visual fields cross), then the information from the left eye would not go through.

On an electroencephalogram (EEG), ___________ waves have a frequency of 8-13 Hz and are present when one is in a daydreaming state, while ___________ waves have a frequency of 0.5-3 Hz and are seen most often when one is in a coma or deep sleep. (A) Beta waves, Delta Waves (B) Alpha waves, Delta Waves (C) Beta waves, Theta Waves (D) Alpha waves, Theta Waves

(B) Alpha, Delta

The Broca's area and Wernicke's area are connected by the ____________________, a bundle of axons that allows proper association between language comprehension and speech production. (A) Synaptic plasticity (B) Arcuate Fasciculus (C) Wernicke's axon (D) Spinal duct

(B) Arcuate Fasciculus (synaptic plasticity is a different concept relating to memory, the other two are entirely made up)

Which type of depressant is known as tranquilizers, and is used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety, however is often not prescribed because of negative side effects such as reduced memory, judgement, concentration and addiction? (A) Benzodiazepines (B) Barbiturates (C) Alcohol (D) Marijuana

(B) Barbituates Barbituates were historically used as anxiety reducing (anxiolytic) and sleep medications, but have been replaced with benzos due to negative side effects and addiction.

Which type of depressant is the most commonly prescribed suppressant that is used to treat insomnia, anxiety and seizures, acting as an anticonvulsant? (A) Barbiturates (B) Benzodiazepines (C) Alcohol (D) Methadone

(B) Benzodiazephines Benzos include alprazolam, diazepam, and clonazepam. Like barbituates, benzos are highly addictive

On an electroencephalogram (EEG), _________ waves have the highest frequency (12-30 Hz) and are are seen when alert. __________ waves are closer to 4-7 Hz are seen most often in drowsiness, early sleep, and especially in children. (A) Alpha waves, Delta waves (B) Beta waves, Theta waves (C) Delta waves, Alpha waves (D) Theta waves, Beta waves

(B) Beta, Theta

Hunger is one of the strongest natural motivations, yet people often eat for sheer pleasure. Some cultures have diets traditionally high in fat, and social activities involving food. In other cultures, anorexia has become more prevalent and is related to personality disorders. Which of the following best explains these? (A) Motivation stemming from taste bud reward response (B) Biological and sociocultural factors impact motivation (C) Expectancy-value theory of motivation (D) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

(B) Biological and sociocultural factors impact motivation Biological and sociocultural factors can impact motivation. Sociocultural example is the traditions where high-fat diets are prevalent + social activities involving food (example: Pakistani weddings or gatherings). Biological example is anorexia - sufferers are more likely to suffer from personality disorders, indicating biological interactions leading to the condition.

Which of the following mental disorders does not fall under Cluster A, characterized as "odd" or "eccentric"? (A) Paranoid (B) Borderline (C) Schizotypal (D) Schizoid

(B) Borderline

Which of the Cluster B (dramatic, emotional and erratic) Personality disorders is characterized by having very unstable emotions, self-image and relationships, and being very impulsive? (A) Histrionic (B) Borderline (C) Antisocial (D) Narcissistic

(B) Borderline Borderline Personality Disorder is characterized by having unstable emotions, self-image and relationships and being very impulsive.

Synaptic plasticity allows neurons to improve their connectivity and strength. How does repeatedly firing a neuron increase its signaling strength? (A) By triggering the growth of new neurons (cell division) (B) By converting the pre-synaptic signals into more effective, stronger synapses (Long term potentiation) (C) By changing which signaling molecules are released by the pre-synaptic neuron, the post-synaptic ion channels can be more activated (D) By sensitizing the synapse to decrease the distance between the axon terminal and dendrite

(B) By converting the pre-synaptic signals into more effective, stronger synapses (Long term potentiation)

In one experiment, a man will ask someone on a busy street for directions. Some interruption will distract the direction giver, and the asker will be replaced by a different person, and most direction givers won't notice. This experiment best demonstrates which principle? (A) Inattentional blindness (B) Change blindness (C) Intentional blindness (D) Momentary blindness

(B) Change blindness Change blindness is failing to notice changes between a previous and current state

Because of their __________ nature, the protein class of hormones have receptors located ____________. (A) Charged, intracellularly (B) Charged, in the cell membrane (C) Non-polar, intracellularly (D) Non-polar, in the cell membrane.

(B) Charged, in the cell membrane

Imagine a Great Gatsby-sized party. Through all of those voices, you can focus on the one you are conversing with until you hear your name from across the room, switching your attention. What does this scenario best demonstrate? (A) Primacy Effect (B) Cocktail Party Effect (C) Descriptivist Theory of Names (D) Change Blindness

(B) Cocktail Party Effect This would be an endogenous cue, because it was the meaning of your name that drew your attention!

Which subcategory of Schizophrenia symptoms involves issues with attention, organizing, or planning abilities? (A) None of the following (B) Cognitive (C) Negative (D) Positive

(B) Cognitive The Cognitive subcategory of Schizophrenia symptoms involves issues with attention, organizing and planning abilities.

The guards told themselves that the prisoners deserved what they got. This allowed them to feel better about their brutal actions. This is an example of what? (A) Deindividuation (B) Cognitive Dissonance (C) Fundamental Attribution Error (D) Confirmation Bias

(B) Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance is when you change the way you think about a situation in order to avoid dissonance between your behavior and your beliefs. This is what the guards did to feel better about their actions.

Jakob spends a lot of time with gangsters. Soon his parents start to notice that Jakob is dressing differently, doing drugs, and engaging in new illicit behaviors. Which term best describes Jakob's behavior? (A) Group Polarization (B) Conformity (C) Group think (D) Confirmation Bias

(B) Conformity Conformity is known colloquially as "peer pressure" and is the tendency for individuals to bring their behavior in line with group norms. Jakob is conforming to be like his new group of friends.

A _________ signal detection strategy will correctly reject any time there is no signal, however may miss a signal when present. A ________ signal detection strategy will always correctly choose a hit, but will also detect false alarms. Which answer choice correctly fills in the blank? (A) Liberal, Conservative (B) Conservative, Liberal (C) Liberal, Non-liberal (D) Conservative, Non-liberal

(B) Conservative, Liberal

What structure of the eye is transparent and serves to protect the eye while bending incoming light? (A) Pupil (B) Cornea (C) Iris (D) Lens

(B) Cornea The Cornea is a transparent structure in the front of the eye that serves to protect the eye while also bending some incoming light.

After sleeping through her alarm on her Biology test day, Kourtney's body releases a hormone to redistribute glucose in her body. This same hormone suppresses her immune system, and she develops a cold later that week. Which hormone most likely caused these changes? (A) Epinephrine (B) Cortisol (C) Oxytocin (D) Norepinephrine

(B) Cortisol Cortisol is a glucocorticoid that redistributes glucose and suppresses the immune system as part of the "fight or flight" response.

Which structure, lined with tiny holes, separates the olfactory epithelium from the human brain? (A) Glomerulus (B) Cribriform Plate (C) Amygdala (D) Vomeronasal System

(B) Cribriform Plate The Cribriform Plate is lined with tiny holes and separates the olfactory epithelium from the human brain.

After falling behind on MCAT preparation, Janelle has worked under intense stress the last three weeks. Which of the following is not a symptom she could experience from chronic stress? (A) Suppressed immune system (B) Decreased blood sugar (C) Hypertension (D) Reproductive issues

(B) Decreased blood sugar Chronic stress would likely lead to increased blood sugar

Sarah is in an abusive relationship with her husband. Instead of confronting him, however, she takes her frustration out on her children by bossing them around. Which defense mechanism is Sarah most likely implementing? (A) Passive Aggression (B) Displacement (C) Projection (D) Altruism

(B) Displacement Sarah is taking out her frustration on her husband on an easier target, her children. This is commonly seen in Displacement.

Formerly called Multiple Personality Disorder, this mental disorder is characterized by a person having multiple distinct personalities that will act in different mannerisms, including different emotional responses and denial of the other personalities. (A) Somatic symptom disorder (B) Dissociative Identity Disorder (C) Schizophrenia (D) Bipolar Disorder

(B) Dissociative Identity Disorder

Schizophrenia is likely to be a cause of: (A) Genetics (B) Environmental factors (C) Both A and C (D) None of the above

Which of the following is a criticism of the learning theory of language development? (A) Does not involve a learning acquisition device (B) Does not explain how children can learn new words or form sentences they haven't heard before (C) It explains language acquisition by a conditioning factor and reinforcement (D) It lacks biological backing

(B) Does not explain how children can learn new words or form sentences they haven't heard before

Which of the following is NOT a way that the changing environment affects gene regulation? (A) Steroids like testosterone can enter the nucleus and affect transcription to up-regulate genes. (B) During development, a girl with two X chromosomes will silence the genes from one chromosome (C) Pheromones can excite the brain and turn on genes there. (D) All of the above examples exhibit gene regulation from a changing environment.

(B) During development, a girl with two X chromosomes will silence the genes from one chromosome Answer choice (B) is an example of Genomic Imprinting, and is not caused by the changing environment as the other examples are.

Sam is goes to a car dealership to buy a car, and while he is impressed with the cars and the prices, he does not like the way the salesman is dressed or the way he talks to Sam. Which attitude theory best explains Sam's thought process? (A) Theory of Planned Behavior (B) Elaboration Likelihood Model (C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model (D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)

(B) Elaboration Likelihood Model Sam is persuaded by quality (Central Route Processing) but distracted and put off by the superficial cues (Peripheral Route Processing). This is closely related to the Elaboration Likelihood Model.

Max explains his desire to eat lasagna at dinner as resulting from his innate need for food. Which theory of motivation is Max relying upon to make this explanation? (A) Maslow's Hierarchy (B) Evolutionary Approach (C) Cognitive Approach (D) Optimal Arousal Theory

(B) Evolutionary Approach "innate need for food" = instinct The Evolutionary Approach focuses on the role instincts play in motivation. Max is explaining his motivation in terms of innate instincts that make him want to eat.

Which of the following is not one of the three temperaments assigned to babies? (A) Difficult (B) Extrovert (C) Withdrawn (D) Easy

(B) Extrovert These temperaments can be assigned at very young ages, before environments could influence temperament.

______________ taste buds are folded structures located primarily in the lateral (side) portions of the tongue. (A) Fungiform (B) Foliate (C) Circumvallate (D) Filiform

(B) Foliate Foliate tasted buds are folded structures located primarily on the lateral (side) portions of the tongue.

The Parvo Pathway is __________ detecting while the Magno Pathway is __________ detecting. (A) Form, Form (B) Form, Motion (C) Motion, Form (D) Motion, Motion

(B) Form, motion

An adolescent is presented with a nuanced story of how a lady stole medication she couldn't afford from a pharmacy to live. When asked about it, the adolescent understood it was a complex situation, not black and white. Which stage would this adolescent belong to? (A) Preoperational (B) Formal Operational (C) Concrete Operational (D) Sensorimotor

(B) Formal Operational Since the adolescent was able to examine the situation from multiple angles instead of simply right or wrong, they are clearly in that final stage of Cognitive Development: Formal Operational.

After running various intelligence tests on subjects, Charles Spearman found that students who score highly in one area tend to score very well in other categories too. Which intelligence theory does his data support? (A) Multiple Intelligences (B) General Intelligence (C) Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (D) Seven Types Theory of Intelligence

(B) General intelligence The overlap of high scores in many areas supports the existence of a "g factor", or a general intelligence factor.

The _____________ is where various sensory olfactory cells, that are sensitive to the same molecule, synapse. (A) Mitral/Tufted Cell (B) Glomerulus (C) Olfactory Epithelium (D) Cribriform Plate

(B) Glomerulus The Glomerulus is where various sensory olfactory cells, that are sensitive to the same molecule, synapse.

Which of the following is not a diagnostic tool for diagnosing schizophrenia? (A) Checking for elevated levels of Dopamine (B) Hearing voices (C) Brain scans (D) Patient History

(B) Hearing voices Hearing voices is a common symptom of schizophrenia, not a diagnostic tool.

What refers to the process your body takes to maintain body temperature, heartbeat, metabolism, and it can occur when the body is resting or even taking drugs? (A) Hallucination (B) Homeostasis (C) Inhalation (D) Relaxation

(B) Homeostasis

Which psychoanalytical theory postulated that individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by one of ten *neurotic needs*, each of which is designed to make life and interactions bearable? (A) Jung's psychoanalytical theory (B) Horney's psychoanalytical theory (C) Alder's psychoanalytical theory (D) Freud's psychoanalytical theory

(B) Horney's psychoanalytical theory The primary concept of Horney's theory is *basic anxiety*, which stems from inadequate parenting causing vulnerability, anxiety and helplessness; while neglect and rejection cause *basic hostility*

Jeremy's father recently passed away. Jeremy was extremely close to his father, but instead of getting upset or feeling bitter, he talks with his family about the good times he had with his dad, telling jokes and lightening the mood. Which defense mechanism is Jeremy most likely implementing? (A) Subilimation (B) Humor (C) Rationalization (D) Intellectualization

(B) Humor

Which form of an induced state of consciousness usually involves getting a person to relax and focus on their breathing, however becoming more susceptible to suggestion in this state? (A) Meditation (B) Hypnosis (C) Insomnia (D) Narcolepsy

(B) Hypnosis

People often compare familiar tasks to riding a bike. Which 2 of the following memory terms describe a skill like riding a bike? I. Implicit II. Non-Declarative III. Explicit (A) I Only (B) I and II Only (C) I and III Only (D) II and III Only

(B) I and II Only Implicit and Non-Declarative Memory are synonyms and describe riding a bike. Declarative and Explicit are also synonyms.

Which of the pathways potentially involved in depression has an incorrect description of its function? I. The Raphe System is responsible for serotonin secretion II. Locus coeruleus responsible for dopamine and serotonin secretion. III. The VTA supplies much of the dopamine of the brain (A) I Only (B) II Only (C) I and II Only (D) II and III Only

(B) II Only The Locus Coeruleus is responsible for norepinephrine secretion.

Order the following steps of a Cochlear Implant from first to last: I. Transmitter sends electrical impulse to the Receiver. II. Stimulator sends electrical impulse to the Cochlea which converts the electrical impulse to a neural impulse that is sent to the brain. III. Sound is converted to an electrical impulse by Speech Processor. IV. Receiver sends electrical impulse to the Stimulator. (A) I > III > IV > II (B) III > I > IV > II (C) II > IV > III > I (D) IV > II > III > I

(B) III > I > IV > II

Place the following steps in order from first to last: I. Signal synapses on to the glomerulus. II. Basal/apical cell sends axon through accessory olfactory epithelium to the accessory olfactory bulb. III. Pheromone molecule activates receptor on basal/apical cell. IV. Signal is sent to the amygdala where it is processed. V. Signal is sent to the mitral or tufted cell. (A) I > II > III > IV > V (B) III > II > I > V > IV (C) II > I > III > IV > V (D) III > II > I > IV > V

(B) III > II > I > V > IV (1) Pheromone molecule binds to and activates receptor on basal/apical cell (2) Basal/apical cell sends an axon through the accessory olfactory epithelium --> accessory olfactory bulb (3) The signal then synapses onto a glomerulus (cluster of nerve endings) (4) Signal is sent to a mitral or tufted cell (5) Signal is then sent to the amygdala for processing

Which of the following primary appraisal(s) will trigger the start of a secondary appraisal? I. Irrelevant II. Benign/ Positive III. Stressful (A) I only (B) III only (C) II and III (D) I, II and III

(B) III only Only a first appraisal of "stressful" will trigger a secondary appraisal.

In the final month before her PhD dissertation, Rebecca has been working long hours and feels her stress levels rising. Which of the following is not a suitable coping or management technique to reduce the effects of stress? (A) Exercise and meditation after work (B) Increasing her daily eating habits to account for her increased workload and energy usage (C) Having "perceived control" over her dissertation (D) Cognitive flexibility which allows her to change her perspective on the situation

(B) Increasing her daily eating habits to account for her increased workload and energy usage Increasing her eating does nothing to combat the real stressor or manage the stress that comes with it. Cognitive flexibility, perceived control, exercise and meditation are all appropriate coping and management techniques.

You have no idea whether or not jumping off a 30-story bridge is dangerous or not, but your friend group assures you that it is not dangerous at all. You believe your friends and jump off the bridge. This is an example of ____________ Influence. If you had known that it was dangerous, but went ahead and jumped as to not look like a wimp, that would be an example of ______________ Influence. (A) Normative, Informative (B) Informative, Normative (C) Public, Private (D) Private, Public

(B) Informative, Normative You have no idea whether or not jumping off a 30-story bridge is dangerous or not, but your friend group assures you that it is not dangerous at all. You believe your friends and jump off the bridge. This is an example of Informative Influence as you are looking to the group for guidance. If you had known that it was dangerous, but went ahead and jumped as to not look like a wimp, that would be an example of Normative Influence as you are letting yourself be influenced by social norms.

Which route of drug entry refers to breathing in, snorting, or smoking the particular drug? This method is highly addictive and it does not take long for the drug to travel to the brain. (A) Oral (B) Inhalation (C) Injection (D) Transdermal

(B) Inhalation

Which of the following is not a sociocultural factor for eating habits? (A) Time of day (B) Insulin levels (C) Occasions (D) Appeal

(B) Insulin Levels Common sociocultural factors affecting eating habits include occasions, time, desire, appeal, and availability.

While driving, Adam missed his street because that sign was blocked by a closer stop sign. Which monocular cue is this most like? Explain. (A) Relative size (B) Interposition (C) Relative height (D) Shading and contour

(B) Interposition infer that an object that is directly in front of another

Which route of drug delivery refers to the drug being delivered by needle into the muscle, and can be either a quick or slow delivery of the drug? (A) Inhalation (B) Intramuscular (C) Injection (D) Transdermal

(B) Intramuscular Intramuscular drug delivery refers to the drug being delivered by needle into the muscle, and can be either a quick or slow delivery of the drug

What is the relationship between the frequency and wavelength of a sound wave? (A) Proportional (B) Inverse (C) Linear (D) Exponential

(B) Inverse

Another two-year-old has learned to say female words like "mama", but has not learned "dada" or any other male words. The specialist insists it is because those masculine sounds/words are not being rewarded enough by the parents. Which theory of Language Development would this specialist most agree with? (A) Nativist approach (B) Learning reinforcement (C) Interactionist approach (D) Universal approach

(B) Learning Reinforcement Learning Reinforcement states that the infant learns to make and put together certain sounds because specific sounds will make the individuals around them will react positively to them, reinforcing those sounds.

_____________ is a hormone, produced in the ___________ gland that helps control a human's internal clock or circadian rhythm. (A) Aldosterone, Pineal (B) Melatonin, Pineal (C) Aldosterone, Adrenal (D) Melatonin, Adrenal

(B) Melatonin, Pineal Melatonin is a hormone, produced in the Pineal gland that helps control a human's internal clock or circadian rhythm.

What is the usual order of sleep stages? (A) N1->N2->N3->REM (B) N1->N2->N3->N2->REM (C) N1->N3->N2->REM (D) N1->N2->N3->N2->N1->REM

(B) N1->N2->N3->N2->REM

Which stage of sleep is characterized by Theta Waves, Sleep Spindles, and K-Complexes? (A) N1 (B) N2 (C) N3 (D) REM

(B) N2

The intense heat of a fire causes people to run away from it. Which of the following is this an example of? (A) Positive Taxis (B) Negative Taxis (C) Positive Kinesis (D) Negative Kinesis

(B) Negtive Taxis Because the response is to move away from the stimulus, this is an example of Negative Taxis. Moving towards would be positive taxis (like a moth to a light) There is no such thing as positive or negative Kinesis, because Kinesis involves changes in speed and turning, not moving to/away from something.

With current classifications, there are three clusters of Personality Disorders. Which of the following is not one of these clusters? (A) Odd and eccentric (B) Nervous and timid (C) Anxious and fearful (D) Dramatic and emotional

(B) Nervous and timid The other three are all types of clusters

Which theory of dreaming explains that dreams are our unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted? (A) Evolutionary Biology theory (B) Sigmund Freud's Dream theory (C) Memory Consolidation Theory (D) Neural Pathway Theory

(B) Sigmund Freud's Dream theory

Microscopic findings of Alzheimer's disease include: (A) Prions (B) Neurofibrillary tangles and β-amyloid plaques (C) Retroviruses in the brain (D) Foreign bacterium in the hippocampus

(B) Neurofibrillary tangles and β-amyloid plaques

A very ambitious father is trying to teach his 12-month-old daughter to potty-train, but without any success. How is this related to the Nature versus Nurture debate? (A) No matter how much Nature the child is born with, nothing can cause this milestone to be reached until the Nurture of the parent is appropriate (the father changes his approach to match the daughter's learning style). (B) No matter how much Nurturing the father gives, this milestone cannot be reached until Nature has appropriately taken its course (developing bladder muscles). (C) If the ambitious father keeps providing this level of Nurturing, he will overcome the daughter's Nature and get her to be potty-trained. (D) There are no Nature versus Nurture implications of potty-training.

(B) No matter how much Nurturing the father gives, this milestone cannot be reached until Nature has appropriately taken its course (developing bladder muscles).

Which category of behavior is characterized by regulating people spacially in their environment, like Taxis? (A) Reflexes (B) Orientation behaviors (C) Fixed Action Patterns (D) None of the Above

(B) Orientation behaviors are characterized by regulating people spacially in their environment, like through Taxis or Kinesis.

Which of the following endocrine glands is most likely going to be affected after digesting a meal with a large amount of calcium? (A) Thyroid (B) Parathyroid (C) Pancreas (D) Hypothalamus

(B) Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone is partly responsible for controlling calcium levels in the blood.

In which part of cerebral cortex is the sensory strip located? (A) Frontal Lobe (B) Parietal Lobe (C) Temporal Lobe (D) Occipital Lobe

(B) Parietal lobe

Which of the following is the correct description of bloodflow during the Fight or Flight Response? (A) Peripheral Vasoconstriction will increase bloodflow and blood pressure to the extremities, allowing them to increase performance and escape the stressor. (B) Peripheral Vasoconstriction will decrease bloodflow to the extremeties, increasing blood pressure and saving blood for the core area and vital organs. (C) Peripheral Vasodilation will increase bloodflow and blood pressure to the extremities, allowing them to increase performance and escape the stressor. (D) Peripheral Vasodilation will decrease bloodflow to the core area and vital organs, and decrease blood pressure.

(B) Peripheral Vasoconstriction will decrease bloodflow to the extremeties, increasing blood pressure and saving blood for the core area and vital organs.

Which of the following is not one of the major categories of stressors? (A) Significant life change (B) Relationships (C) Catastrophe (D) Daily Hassle

(B) Relationships

The posterior pituitary receives and stores ADH and oxytocin, which are direct hormones. It responds to increased blood osmolarity and low blood volume by: (A) Releasing oxytocin to act on uterus (B) Releasing ADH to act on kidneys (C) Releasing ADH to act on the breasts (D) Releasing oxytocin to act on kidneys

(B) Releasing ADH to act on kidneys ADH is secreted in response to low blood volume and high blood osmolarity. Its action is at the level of the collecting ducts in the kidneys - increased permeability of water = results in increased water retention, higher blood pressyre and increased blood volume.

We tend to recall information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives. This phenomenon is known as: (A) Semantic encoding (B) Self-reference effect (C) Mnemonics (D) Automatic processing

(B) Self-reference effect

Think about the vocabulary tests from elementary school. What type of memory was tested? (A) Procedural Memory (B) Semantic Memory (C) Priming (D) Episodic Memory

(B) Semantic Memory

In the information processing model, which of the following terms best describes the initial scent of fresh-cut grass that can easily be forgotten later? (A) Echoic Memory (B) Sensory Memory (C) Working Memory (D) Iconic Memory

(B) Sensory Memory

What refers to a change over time of the responsiveness to a constant stimulus and thus represents a down regulation of a sensory receptor in the body? (A) Amplification (B) Sensory Adaptation (C) Feature Detection Theory (D) Proprioception

(B) Sensory adaptation

After working in a neurobiology research lab for a semester and learning the basics, your PI tells you she has something for you that will "engage your prefrontal cortex" more. Which of the following interpretations is most likely? (A) She wants to coordinate your left and right hemispheres better. (B) She wants to give you a larger project where you will solve problems and make decisions. (C) She wants to elicit a fear response out of you before she awards you a greater role in the lab. (D) She wants you to recall all of the relevant literature you have read during the previous semester.

(B) She wants to give you a larger project where you will solve problems and make decisions The Prefrontal Cortex is in charge of problem solving, decision making and managing behavior in social situations. Congratulations on the new project!

_______________ Benzodiazepines are used to treat insomnia, while _______________ Benzodiazepines are used to treat anxiety. (A) Short-Acting, Short-Acting (B) Short-Acting, Long-Acting (C) Long-Acting, Short-Acting (D) Long-Acting, Long-Acting

(B) Short-Acting, Long-Acting

A ray of light from the right visual field hits the __________ side of the left eye and hits the _________ side of the right eye. (A) Nasal, Temporal (B) Temporal, Nasal (C) Temporal, Temporal (D) Nasal, Nasal

(B) Temporal, Nasal

Which sleep disorder refers to people often being unaware they have the disorder? During sleep, one stops breathing multiple times throughout the night and the body ends up not getting enough N3/slow wave sleep. (A) Narcolepsy (B) Sleep Apnea (C) Insomnia (D) Sleep walking

(B) Sleep Apnea Sleep Apnea is a sleep disorder that people are often unaware they have. People with sleep apnea stop breathing multiple times throughout the night resulting in the body not getting enough N3/slow wave sleep.

When you first jump into a very cold pool, you will noticeably feel the cold. After a while, however, you stop feeling cold. What type of neuron timing does this represent? (A) Non-adaptive (B) Slow-adapting (C) Fast-adapting (D) Light-adapting

(B) Slow adapting The cold is sensed for a considerable amount of time before stopping, meaning that slow-adapting neuron timing is involved here.

What is another term for sleep walking? (A) Sleep apnea (B) Somnambulism (C) Cataplexy (D) Sleep paralysis

(B) Somnambulism. Sleep walking is also known as somnambulism, and occurs during SWS.

If a subject watches a video and is later told incorrect information about the video, they are more likely to recall the video incorrectly. Which of the following is a cause of this? (A) Context Clues (B) Source monitoring error (C) Recency Effect (D) Primacy Effect

(B) Source monitoring error Source monitoring error is a confusion between semantic and episodic memory, when a piece of false or misleading information influences the memory of one's recollected experience This is an example of the misinformation effect

Which class of hormones has a characteristic cyclic portion made of three 6-membered rings and one 5-membered ring, and are synthesized from cholesterol? (A) Polypeptides/proteins (B) Steroids (C) Tryptophan derivatives (D) Tyrosine derivatives

(B) Steroids

Of the four main classes of psychoactive drugs, which class is known for exciting the Central Nervous System, increasing one's Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, awareness, and energy? (A) Depressants (B) Stimulants (C) Hallucinogens (D) Opiates/Opioids

(B) Stimulants Stimulants like amphetamines, cocaine etc. cause increased heart rate, blood pressure, alertness, energy, euphoria. They may cause increases in levels of dopamine, norepinephrine and seratonin and decreased reuptake

Which of the following is not a cognitive reaction used to interpret surroundings? (A) Appraisal (B) Surveying (C) Expectations (D) General Thoughts

(B) Surveying Appraisal, expectations and general thoughts will combine to produce an emotional reaction.

Some taste types have similar cell receptors. Which taste cells rely on G-Protein Coupled Receptors? (A) Sweet, Salty, Sour (B) Sweet, Umami, Bitter (C) Salty, Sour, Umami (D) Bitter, Umami, Sour

(B) Sweet, Umami, Bitter

Ever since Becca became concussed, she has noticed her senses are all impaired except for smell. Which structure did she most likely injure? (A) Amygdala (B) Thalamus (C) Hypothalamus (D) Hippocampus

(B) Thalamus The thalamus acts as a relay station for all senses except smell, sending the information to various parts of the cortex.

During adolescence, the brain continues to develop in several ways. Which of the following areas of the brain is NOT known to continue to develop during adolescence? (A) The limbic system (B) The somatosensory cortex (C) The corpus callosum (D) The pre-frontal cortex

(B) The somatosensory cortex The limbic system, corpus callosum and pre-frontal cortex all continue developing through (at least parts of) adolescence.

In terms of the Trichromatic theory of color vision, which of the following is the most accurate description? (A) There are three types of rods, each most sensitive to a certain quantity/intensity of light. (B) There are three types of cones, each most sensitive to a specific wavelength of light (Red, green, and blue). (C) There are three types of cones, each most sensitive to a specific quantity/intensity of light. (D) There are three types of rods, each most sensitive to a specific wavelength of light (Red, green, and blue).

(B) There are 3 types of cones each most sensitive to a specific wavelength of light (RGB)

Which of the following is a popular explanation for non-vital neonatal reflexes? (A) They are an artifact of convergent evolution. (B) They are evolutionary holdovers, artifacts that may have been useful to ancestors. (C) They prime muscles for later motor development. (D) There are no reasonable explanations for non-vital neonatal reflexes.

(B) They are evolutionary holdovers, artifacts that may have been useful to ancestors

Signal Detection Theory helps us make decisions in situations of: (A) Certainty (B) Uncertainty (C) Audition

(B) Uncertainty Signal Detection Theory helps us with "decision making with uncertainty". It answers the question of "at what point is a signal strong enough to notice?"

In a negative feedback loop, how is the upstream endocrine gland given feedback? (A) Via nerves that are activated by the downstream hormone (B) Via receptors on the upstream endocrine gland for the downstream hormone (C) Via sensing the effects of the downstream hormone (D) There is no known mechanism

(B) Via receptors on the upstream endocrine gland for the downstream hormone In a negative feedback loop, the upstream endocrine gland is given feedback via receptors on the upstream endocrine gland for the downstream hormone.

In patients with insomnia, elevated cortisol levels are often found. This extra cortisol will __________ their metabolism and ___________ their relaxation and sleep. (A) enhance, enhance (B) enhance, suppress (C) suppress, suppress (D) suppress, enhance

(B) enhance, suppress Cortisol is an "awake" or "stress" hormone that increases metabolism and stress, which will suppress relaxation and sleep

Which of the following affect intelligence? (A) Nature (B) Nurture (C) Both Nature and Nurture (D) Neither

Sound waves are represented graphically by peaks and troughs. If a wave has a high wavelength, its peaks must be: (A) close to each other. (B) far away from each other. (C) very tall. (D) very short.

(B) far away from each other

The top of the hair cells, which make up the hair bundle (upper membrane of the organ of corti) are made up of small filaments known as ______________, connected by _________ (A) auditory nerve, kinocilium (B) kinocilium, tip links (C) stapes, tip links (D) cilia, kinocilium

(B) kinocilium, tip links

A Human's brain goes through 4 main stages during sleep. These stages occur in __________ minute cycles during a normal night of sleep. (A) 70 (B) 80 (C) 90 (D) 100

_________________ is a dream theory that explains that dreams equates to the brain activity in our brainstem attempting to be interpreted by the brain's frontal cortex. (A) Freud's Theory of Dreaming (B) Evolutionary Biology Dream Theory (C) Activation Synthesis Hypothesis (D) Neural Pathway Theory

(C) Activation Synthesis Hypothesis The Activation Synthesis Hypothesis is a dream theory that explains that dreams equates to the brain activity in our brainstem attempting to be interpreted by the brain's frontal cortex

If there is a lesion after the optic chiasm on the left side, how would vision be affected? (A) All information from the right eye would be compromised. (B) All information from the left eye would be compromised. (C) All information from the right visual field would be compromised. (D) All information from the left visual field would be compromised.

(C) All information from the right visual field would be compromised. If there were a lesion in the left optic nerve AFTER the optic chiasm, then information from the right visual field would be compromised.

Which of the Cluster B (dramatic, emotional and erratic) Personality disorders is characterized by a lack of regard for others, including no remorse? (A) Histrionic (B) Borderline (C) Antisocial (D) Narcissistic

(C) Antisocial Antisocial Personality Disorder is characterized by a lack of concern for others, and its sufferers often find themselves in legal issues showing no remorse.

The anterior chamber of the eye is filled with a water/salt substance, that provides nutrients to the cells of the cornea and iris. What is this water/salt substance known as? (A) Vitreous Humor (B) Lens (C) Aqueous Humor (D) Retina

Two siblings could be born with the same combination of genes that can lead to depression, but the environment only activates those genes for one of the siblings. Which of the following scenarios is this most like? (A) Ben and Chrissy both have a dream to win a reality TV show, but only Ben achieves this dream. (B) Devon and Mike grew up having very different looks, and because Devon was more handsome, he received more positive attention. (C) Ashley and Alan both have a predisposition for panicking under stress, and Alan has a panic attack after he gets in a car accident. (D) Lauren and Desi grew up with very different lifestyles, so that only Lauren enjoys working outdoors.

(C) Ashley and Alan both have a predisposition for panicking under stress, and Alan has a panic attack after he gets in a car accident. In this scenario, the two people (Ashley and Alan) both suffer from a predisposition to a mental health issue (Panic Attacks), but the environment only activates this in one of the two (Alan in his car accident). Both have same DNA combo, but a direct environmental cause affected only one's predisposition.

Mohammad was on a roller coaster when it broke down. Ever since then, he has had a bad attitude toward riding roller coasters and no longer rides on them. Which attitude theory best explains Mohammad's thought process? (A) Theory of Planned Behavior (B) Elaboration Likelihood Model (C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model (D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)

(C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model. According to the Attitude-to-behavior Process Model, an event will influence our attitude, which will then influence our behavior.

Which of the following is NOT an example of a Cluster B, known as "dramatic," "emotional," and "erratic" mental disorder? (A) Antisocial (B) Borderline (C) Bipolar (D) Narcisstic

TrpV1 receptors are sensitive to: (A) Temperature (B) Pain (C) Both

Upon which of the following does Personality depend? (A) Inner Experience (B) Behavior (C) Both A and B (D) None of the Above

70% of individuals have language controlled in the left hemisphere of the brain. The _____________ of the brain controls our speech function, and the ______________ controls our understanding and comprehension of language. (A) Broca's Area, hippocampus (B) Wernicke's Area, amygdala (C) Broca's Area, Wernicke's Area (D) Pre-frontal cortex, amygdala

If you were to ask Jackie's 5 besties what single trait best defines her, they all unanimously say that she is determined. Determination could be said to be Jackie's: (A) Central Trait (B) Secondary Trait (C) Cardinal Trait (D) Distinct Trait

(C) Cardinal Trait Cardinal Traits are traits that we are most known for and that most closely define us. This is the case with Jackie.

Which membrane in the eye is right behind the retina and is a network of blood vessels that provides nutrients to retinal cells as well as other cells in the eye? (A) Cornea (B) Sclera (C) Choroid (D) Optic Nerve

(C) Choroid lens Choroid is a membrane in the eye that is right behind the retina and is a network of blood vessels that provides nutrients to retinal cells as well as other cells in the eye

______________ taste buds are flat mound structures that are primarily found in posterior portion of the tongue. (A) Fungiform (B) Foliate (C) Circumvallate (D) Filiform

(C) Circumvallate Circumvallate taste buds flat mound structures that are primarily found in posterior portion of the tongue.

Which structure in the ear allows the Brain to differentiate between 2 different sounds? (A) Tympanic Membrane (B) Stapes (C) Cochlea (D) Ossicles

Sarah is motivated to go to work because she knows that it is the responsible thing to do. When asked why she doesn't skip work to party, she replies that it makes rational sense to go to work so that she can pay the bills and not end up living on the streets. Which theory of motivation is Sarah relying upon to make this explanation? (A) Maslow's Hierarchy (B) Evolutionary Approach (C) Cognitive Approach (D) Optimal Arousal Theory

(C) Cognitive Approach Sarah is relying on logical thinking to explain her motivation. The Cognitive Approach focuses on rationality and decision-making abilities.

When processing the environment, feature detection is known as breaking down an object to its component parts. What are these component parts? (A) Color, Form, (B) Motion, Form (C) Color, Form, and Motion (D) Color, Motion

As John looks at a tree in the distance, his eyes are relaxed. However, when he begins to look at a pencil on the desk in front of him, his eyes must turn towards the pencil. The relaxing and turning of John's eye muscles allow John to have sense of depth. Which binocular cue does this refer to? (A) Motion Parallax (B) Shading and Contour (C) Convergence (D) Retinal Disparity

(C) Convergence Eye convergence refers to how we use our eye muscles, relaxing them when looking at something far; turning them towards an object when looking at something close

Which of the following symptom groups are NOT characteristic of depression? (A) Feeling helpless and low self esteem (B) Lack of energy and change in weight (C) Decreased self-awareness and increased interests (D) Low mood and Decreased focus

Which of the following "anxious" and "fearful" Personality Disorders is characterized by being submissive and clingy? (A) Avoidant (B) Obsessive Compulsive Personality (C) Dependant (D) None of the above

The main active ingredient in marijuana is THC. A hot-button topic for 21st century medicine is if medical marijuana should be legalized/prescribed. Which classes of drugs does Tetrahydrocannabinol (the active ingredient) act like? (A) Stimulant and depressant (B) Depressant and narcotic (C) Depressant and hallucinogen (D) Stimulant and hallucinogen

(C) Depressant and hallucinogen THC both increases perceptual sensitivity (hallucinogen) and inhibits the CNS (depressant)

Which of the following is not a way that hormone levels are regulated in the body? (A) Negative feedback loops (B) Metabolized in liver (C) Digested in small intestine (D) Filtered out by kidneys

(C) Digested in small intestine Hormones are regulated by negative feedback loops, being metabolized in the liver, and by being filtered out by the kidneys

How are the 5 different tastes (salty, sweet, sour, umami, and bitter) sensed by the tongue? (A) There are areas of the tongue whose taste buds are sensitive to one of the five flavors. (B) There are areas of the tongue whose taste bud types are sensitive to one of the five flavors. (C) Each taste bud is composed of multiple cells, that combine to sense the 5 flavors. (D) Each taste bud is composed of multiple cells, that combine to sense 1 of the 5 flavors.

(C) Each taste bud is composed of multiple cells, that combine to sense the 5 flavors. Every single taste bud can detect each one of the tastes. Because of this, any flavor can be tasted on any part of the tongue!

Some people argue that Solomon Asch's experiment is not generalizable to everyday situations in which there are incentives to conform with a group. This refers to which experimental error? (A) Demand Characteristics (B) Sampling Error (C) Ecological Validity (D) Double-blind Bias

(C) Ecological Validity These people are questioning the Ecological Validity of the study, the degree to which it applies to the real world. Sampling Error refers to the unrepresentativeness of the sample, in this case the sample being mostly college students and not diverse at all. Demand characteristics refers to how participants may change behaviour in order to match with expectations of the experimenter

Which category of behavior is characterized by a sequence of multiple actions that are performed without any interruption? (A) Reflexes (B) Orientation behaviors (C) Fixed Action Patterns (D) None of the Above

(C) Fixed Action Patterns A Fixed Action Pattern is characterized by a coordination sequence of multiple actions that will be performed without any interruption or change once initiated (hence the word "fixed"). E.g. praying mantis

A girl scout comes to your door and sells you girl scout cookies. The next week, she stops by again, and asks you to donate $1,000 so that she can attend girl scout camp. You agree. Which theory would best explain your willingness to do this? (A) Role-Playing (B) Door-in-the-face (C) Foot-in-the-door (D) Situational Approach

(C) Foot-in-the-Door You likely agreed because you already agreed to support her in a small way before. This enhanced your willingness to support her in a bigger way now. This is perfectly in line with the Foot-in-the-door theory.

Which theorist did not rely on Factor Analysis to develop their theory? (A) Big Five Theorists (B) Hans Eysenck (C) Gordon Allport (D) Raymond Cattel

(C) Gordon Allport Factor analysis is a complex statistical method to narrow down a wider set into a smaller, more representative and significant subset Gordon Allport did not rely on Factor Analysis to develop his theory.

Hannah believes that there are thousands of different traits out there in the world, but she believes that some traits are more important than others. Which theorist is her thinking most closely in line with? (A) Big Five Theorists (B) Hans Eysenck (C) Gordon Allport (D) Raymond Cattel

(C) Gordon Allport Gordon Allport believes that there are over 4500 different traits, but that some are more important than others (i.e. Cardinal Traits being more important than Central or Secondary Traits).

NASA met to discuss whether they should move forward with the Challenger launch. Those in opposition to the launch keep quiet. When those with a different opinion do speak up, they are censored. The group feels they are invincible and move forward with the launch. The launch fails, killing the astronauts involved. Which term best describes the leadership team's behavior? (A) Group Polarization (B) Conformity (C) Groupthink (D) Confirmation Bias

Of the four main classes of psychoactive drugs, which class is referred to as psychedelics, and known for causing distorted perception in its users such as heightened sensations, mood swings and increased/decreased energy, however the exact effect is different for each individual personality? (A) Depressants (B) Stimulants (C) Hallucinogens (D) Opiates/Opioids

Which of the following is not a bias that can impair decision making? (A) Confirmation Bias (B) Overconfidence (C) Heuristics (D) Belief Perserverance

Which of the following scenarios would most follow the James-Lange theory of emotion? (A) Ashley is crying because she is already sad from not getting a rose. (B) Seeing a ghost, Scooby simultaneously started to feel fearful and started to scream (C) Holding your puppy can make you happy by increasing heart rate, which changes certain neurotransmitter levels in the brain (D) Jadeveon screamed in anger before the football play, because he thought the other team would score.

(C) Holding your puppy can make you happy by increasing heart rate, which changes certain neurotransmitter levels in the brain. The James-Lange theory of emotion hypothesizes that one's interpretations of physiological changes cause emotions. A physiological change precedes the emotion!

Martha visited her primary care physician because she was having issues with being dehydrated and not able to breastfeed her newborn. Which of the following endocrine glands does the doctor think is malfunctioning? (A) Pancreas (B) Parathyroid (C) Hypothalamus (D) Adrenal Gland

(C) Hypothalamus The hypothalamus is in charge of producing ADH, an antidiuretic hormone, and oxytocin, which is necessary for the letdown of milk in breastfeeding.

Clayton was in the woods hunting deer when he drew the attention of a black bear. Which area of the limbic system will regulate his fight-or-flight response to this scare? (A) Amygdala (B) Thalamus (C) Hypothalamus (D) Hippocampus

(C) Hypothalamus The hypothalamus regulates the autonommic nervous system, including the fight-or-flight and the rest-and-digest principles.

Which of the following hormones are stored in the posterior pituitary gland before release? I. ADH II. Oxytocin III. TSH (A) I only (B) III only (C) I and II (D) I and III

(C) I and II ADH and Oxytocin are both produced in the hypothalamus, but stored in the posterior pituitary gland before release.

Often accused of just trying to be prescribed medications, Raven will go to many doctors falsifying signs and symptoms for the attention she can get being by being sick. What could Raven be diagnosed with? I. Munchhausen's II. Factitious Disorder III. Munchhausen's by Proxy (A) I only (B) III only (C) I and II (D) II and III

(C) I and II Munchhausen's and Factitious Disorder are synonymous. It would be Munchhausen's by Proxy if somebody else (like her mother) were presenting Raven with false symptoms.

Which of the following structures are affected by Parkinson's Disease? I. Substantia Nigra II. Dopaminergic Neurons III. Myelin (A) I only (B) II only (C) I and II only (D) II and III only

(C) I and II only The biological basis of Parkinson's disese is decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigra, a layer of cells in the brain that functions to produce dopamine to permit proper functioning of basal ganglia. The substantia nigra is noticeably less dark and the dopaminergic neurons are affected in patients with Parkinsons.

Which of the following global changes occur in the brains of adolescents? I. Increase in myelination II. Increase in synaptic vesicle signaling III. Synaptic pruning (A) II only (B) III only (C) I and III (D) II and III (E) I, II and III

(C) I and III Global brain changes that occur in adolescence are an increase in myelination and synaptic pruning. Increase in myelination makes communications between neurons faster, and synaptic pruning is better for more focused neural communication and use of energy. It could explain why adults think faster than children.

Who of the following are considered proponents of the Humanistic Theory? I. Carl Rogers II. Carl Jung III. Abraham Maslow (A) I and II Only (B) II and III Only (C) I and III Only (D) I, II, and III

To trigger the Fight or Flight response, the adrenal glands release catecholamines. Which of the following are catecholamines? I. Epinephrine II. Cortisol III. Norepinephrine (A) I only (B) II only (C) I and III only (D) I, II and III

Rate the following retrieveal tests in order of diffuclty from hardest to easiest to complete. I. Recognition II. Free Recall III. Cued Recall (A) I > II > III (B) II > I > III (C) II > III > I (D) I > III > II

What is the correct order of when the following major motor milestones develop in infants from first to last? I. Crawl II. Lift head III. Roll over IV. Stand with support (A) II > IV > III > I (B) III > IV > II > I (C) II > III > I > IV (D) II > III > IV > I

(C) II > III > I > IV All of these developments occur within the first 12 months of the infant's life. Exact ages can vary from infant to infant. The typical stages (within the first 14-18 months!) are as follows: Lift head -> roll over -> sit w/o support -> stand w/ support -> pull self up -> crawl -> walk w/ support -> stand w/o support -> walk w/o support

Which of the following are direct hormones from the anterior pituitary gland? I. TSH II. Prolactin III. Growth Hormone (A) II only (B) I and III (C) II and III (D) I, II and III

(C) II and III Think of the mnemonic device "FLAT PEG": FLAT are the tropic hormones that stimulate endocrine glands: FSH, LH, ACTH, and TSH (FLAT). PEG are the direct hormones: Prolactin, endorphins, and growth hormone.

Put the following phases of the Sexual Response Cycle in order from first to last: I. Plateau II. Orgasm III. Excitement IV. Refractory Period

(C) III > I > II > IV In order from first to last, the order of the phases of the Sexual Response Cycle are as follows: Excitement > Plateau > Orgasm > Refractory Period.

Put Piaget's Four Stages of Cognitive Development in order from earliest to latest stage: I. Pre-Operational II. Formal Operational III. Sensorimotor IV. Concrete Operational (A) I > II > III > IV (B) I > III > IV > II (C) III > I > IV > II (D) III > IV > II > I

(C) III > I > IV > II 1) Around 0-2 years is the Sensorimotor stage 2) ~2-7 years is the Pre-Operational stage 3) ~7-11 years is Concrete Operational stage 4) ~12+ is Formal Operational stage

In the Solomon Asch conformity study, some participants observed that cohorts gave an answer that seemed incorrect, but convinced themselves the group must be right and gave the group's answer, believing it is right. Which of the following is this an example of? (A) Normative Social Influence (B) Societal influence (C) Informational Social Influence (D) Perceptual Error

(C) Informational Social Influence Because the participant correctly perceived the right answer but was convinced before answering the group was right and _doubted themselves_, this exemplifies Informational Social Influence. In normative social influence, the participant believes the group is wrong, but provides that same wrong answer _to avoid ridicule_. In perceptual error, the participant actually concludes a wrong answer from the information provided, not due to group influence. Societal Influence is a fictitious answer.

Which route of drug entry is the most direct, and goes right to the vein, entering the circulatory system very quickly? This method can be very dangerous, and is a highly addictive method of drug delivery. (A) Inhalation (B) Intramuscular (C) Injection (D) Transdermal

What refers to the persistent difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep? (A) Narcolepsy (B) Sleep Apnea (C) Insomnia (D) Sleep debt

After a 2 year old still has not started speaking, worried parents go to see a specialist. The specialist suggests that they start bringing their child to a popular park. Which language development theory would this specialist most agree with? (A) Nativist approach (B) Learning reinforcement (C) Interactionist approach (D) Universal approach

(C) Interactionist approach This therapist would support the interactionist approach because his recommended course of action is to increase the child's interaction with other children.

Which of the following examples best represents cognitive dissonance? (A) Jessica spends lots of time alone with her boyfriend instead of socializing, and would rather spend time with him than other friends. (B) Raven telling others that her gastroparesis means she cannot eat meat, but she eats hamburgers. (C) Jason knows Paul is manipulating all their mutual friends, but convinces himself that Paul wouldn't manipulate him. (D) Matt believes everything Raven says because he is blinded by love.

(C) Jason knows Paul is manipulating all their mutual friends, but convinces himself that Paul wouldn't manipulate him. (A) shows no dissonance (B) is simply lying (D) is only one thought, so there cannot be dissonance

After olfactory cells synapse to their specific glomerulus, which structure, that projects to the brain, do the cells then travel to? (A) Olfactory epithelium (B) Cribriform Plate (C) Mitral/Tufted Cell (D) Amygdala

Researchers are trying to determine if musical tastes are genetic or environmental. Which of the following design setups would suggest that variance is almost completely caused by environments? (A) Monozygotic twins raised together (B) Dizygotic twins raised separately (C) Monozygotic twins raised separately (D) Dizygotic twins raised together

(C) Monozygotic Twins raised separately To limit variance caused by heredity, monozygotic twins are used. To amplify variance caused by environment, the twins are raised in separate households, like in an adoption study.

When describing major motor milestones in infants, which is the appropriate unit of time to judge on? (A) Days (B) Weeks (C) Months (D) Years

(C) Months For infants, major motor milestones are often talked about in terms of months because of how fast they develop!

Which stage of sleep is characterized as slow wave sleep and delta waves become present on an EEG? It is often very difficult to wake people up from this stage of sleep. (A) N1 (B) N2 (C) N3 (D) REM

Which subcategory of Schizophrenia symptoms involves blunted emotions and loss of interest in activities? (A) None of the following (B) Cognitive (C) Negative (D) Positive

(C) Negative The Negative subcategory of Schizophrenia symptoms includes blunted emotions and loss of interest in activities.

Prenatal development begins with the process of ____________ at 3-4 weeks gestational stage - this is when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow and forms a ______________ surrounded by two neural folds. (A) Neural groove, neurulation (B) Neurulation, forebrain (C) Neurulation, neural groove (D) Neural groove, basal plate

(C) Neurulation, neural groove Prenatal development begins with the process of neurulation at 3-4 weeks gestational stage - this is when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow and forms a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds.

What is the point at which the optic nerve from each eye converges? (A) Blind Spot (B) Retina (C) Optic Chiasm (D) Visual Field

According to the Psychoanalytic Theory, what two things influence our behavior? (A) Our current emotions and unconscious desires (B) Our current emotions and future expectations (C) Our childhood experiences and unconscious desires (D) Our childhood experiences and future expectations

(C) Our childhood experiences and unconscious desires The Psychoanalytic Theory says that our childhood experiences and unconscious desires influence our behaviour. Freud's theory consists of three major entities: the id, ego and superego. This theory is also known as the psychodynamic theory of personality.

Instead of feeling a "fight or flight" response before the championship game, Moriah experiences a response closer to ""Tend and Befriend," where she feels a closer bond to her team and a need to work together to overcome it. Which hormone most likely is causing this response? (A) Epinephrine (B) Cortisol (C) Oxytocin (D) Norepinephrine

Which of the following endocrine glands is most likely going to be affected after digesting a meal with a large amount of sugar? (A) Thyroid (B) Parathyroid (C) Pancreas (D) Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus does not send tropic hormones to the posterior pituitary - instead, neurons in the hypothalamus send their axons down the ________________ directly into the posterior pituitary. (A) Hypophyseal portal system (B) Pituitary duct (C) Pituitary stalk (D) Pituitary receptors

(C) Pituitary stalk Neurons in the hypothalamus send their axons down the pituitary stalk directly into the posterior pituitary.

After light crosses the lens it passes through the ______________ which is filled with a jelly-like substance known as the ____________, that helps to suspend the lens in place while also providing some structure to the eye itself. (A) Anterior Chamber, Aqueous Humor (B) Anterior Chamber, Vitreous Humor (C) Posterior Chamber, Vitreous Humor (D) Posterior Chamber, Aqueous Humor

Which structure of the brain receives all auditory information from the cochlea and is separated into regions which detect different frequency sounds? (A) Occipital Lobe (B) Cerebral Cortex (C) Primary Auditory Cortex (D) Secondary Auditory Cortex

Zane was drunk driving and ended up killing two young girls and their mother. Instead of feeling guilty about his actions, Zane is convinced that it wasn't his fault because he wasn't actually very drunk (even though he was). Which defense mechanism is Zane most likely implementing? (A) Subilimation (B) Humor (C) Rationalization (D) Intellectualization

(C) Rationalization Zane is convincing himself that it wasn't his fault using false logic, which is characteristic of Rationalization.

You see two trees ahead of you. One is higher than the other and is perceived to be further in the distance. Which monocular cue is responsible for this? Explain. (A) Interposition (B) Relative size (C) Relative height (D) Shading and contour

Mary has a subconscious wish of kissing Brad Pitt's knee. Instead of acknowledging her strange desire, she unconsciously pushes it down into her unconscious. Which defense mechanism is Mary most likely implementing? (A) Regression (B) Suppression (C) Repression (D) Denial

(C) Repression Mary is pushing an undesirable wish down into her unconscious, which is exactly what happens in Repression.

Jim is working out because he likes the respect he gets from his friends when they see his six-pack at the beach. Which level of Maslow's Hierarchy is Jim relying upon? (A) Safety (B) Phsyiological (C) Self-esteem (D) Belongingness/Love

(C) Self-esteem The need for Self-esteem is closely related to our desiring of respect from others, just as is the case with Jim the muscle man.

What is the part of the human brain that is referred to as the map of the human body? (A) Sensory Strip (B) Midbrain (C) Somatosensory Homunculus (D) Sensory Cortex

A student shows up drunk to a psychology exam, claiming he is using a retrieval cue because he studied drunk. Which retrieval cue is he using? (A) Priming (B) Context Clues (C) State-dependent (D) Recency

Which of the following is NOT one of the most common focuses of obsessions in OCD? (A) Dirt and Toxins (B) Symmetry (C) Tapping in multiples of a number (D) Accidents and extreme scenarios

(C) Tapping in multiples of a number Option (C) is a compulsion, because it is an action performed. Common Obsessions in OCD are Dirt and Toxins, Symmetry, and Worrying over Accidents and unlikely scenarios.

Which of the following properly describes a Split Brain patient? (A) The connection between the occipital and temporal lobes is severed (B) The Arcuate Fasciculus is severed (C) The Corpus Callosum is severed (D) The Central Sulcus is severed.

(C) The Corpus Callosum is severed This produces a Split Brain patient, where the right and left hemispheres do not interact with one another.

Tomi loves debating her ideas and gets excited when an argument starts, but Megyn will back away from arguments and feel anxious. Which emotion theory allows for varying appraisals to cause different physiological reactions and emotions? (A) The James-Lange Theory (B) The Schachter-Singe theory (C) The Lazarus Theory of Emotion (D) The Cannon-Bard theory

Which of the following theories is incorrectly described? (A) The theory of general intelligence states that a "g factor" could apply to various tests of intelligence. (B) The Theory of Primary Mental Abilities suggests there are seven specific factors that combine to make up all of intelligence. (C) The Theory of Multiple Intelligences is another 7-9 specific factors of intelligence that rely on each other. (D) The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence limits itself to 3 independent intelligences that will directly lead to real-world success.

(C) The Theory of Multiple Intelligences is another 7-9 specific factors of intelligence that rely on each other. They are independent and don't rely on each other

Alder's theory of personality incorporated two notions: the notion of ___________, which is the force by which individuals shape their uniqueness and personalities; and the notion of ______________, which represents a person's unique way of achieving superiority. (A) Inferiority complex, the creative self (B) The creative self, inferiority complex (C) The creative self, style of life (D) The persona, style of life

(C) The creative self, style of life Alder's theory of personality incorporated two notions: the notion of *the creative self*, which is the force by which individuals shape their uniqueness and personalities; and the notion of *style of life*, which represents a person's unique way of achieving superiority.

Without basilar tuning, humans would not be able to differentiate between sounds. What is the mapping of different frequency sounds in the brain referred to as? (A) Auditory mapping (B) Basilar mapping (C) Tonotopical mapping (D) Geographical mapping

(C) Tonotopical mapping. It is the mapping of different frequency sounds in the brain, allowing distinct areas to respond and process distinct frequencies.

Why is Trial and Error typically not used when other problem solving methods are feasible? (A) Trial and Error is a methodical approach, but non-methodical approaches are easier. (B) Trial and Error is a resource-intensive approach, and can drain the problem solver (C) Trial and Error is not a methodical approach, and therefore an inefficient approach and does not guarantee a correct solution. (D) None of the above because Trial and Error is the superior problem solving method.

(C) Trial and Error is not a methodical approach, and therefore an inefficient approach and does not guarantee a correct solution.

Robert Sternberg found that people's intelligences could be broadly grouped into a few well-defined, separated groups. Which intelligence theory is based off of this? (A) Multiple Intelligences (B) General Intelligence (C) Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (D) Seven Types Theory of Intelligence

Which of the following is not one of the major structural classifications of hormones? (A) Polypeptides/proteins (B) Steroids (C) Tryptophan derivatives (D) Tyrosine derivatives

Sometimes referred to as short-term memory, this type of memory can hold about 7 (plus or minus 2) pieces of information at a time and manipulate them. (A) Echoic Memory (B) Sensory Memory (C) Working Memory (D) Iconic Memory

Which of the following terms refers to when a recent exposure to a stimulus will unconsciously influence a response to a later stimulus? (A) procedural memory (B) semantic memory (C) priming (D) episodic memory

Which of the following are not a type of Cone? (A) Red (B) Blue (C) Yellow (D) Green

Which of the following best describes how temperament and behavior are genetically encoded? (A) In a single gene (B) A group of genes with no epigenetic changes (C) There is no genetic link (D) A group of genes is epigenetically modified based on environment

(D) A group of genes is epigenetically modified based on environment

In terms of Ethology (studying Behavior as it relates to adaptation), what would an "Overt Behavior" be? (A) A socially undesirable behavior (B) A behavior performed in secret (C) A behavior done for unclear reasons (D) Any observable behavior

(D) Any observable behavior In terms of Ethology, an Overt Behavior is any observable behavior. This differs from the conversational definition of overt!

A small chihuahua is laying in the shade and sees a coyote approaching. Not realizing that the coyote presents a dangerous situation, the chihuahua does not react. Which term best describes the step in which the chihuahua interpreted the threat level of the coyote? (A) Evaluation (B) Stressor (C) Stress reaction (D) Appraisal

(D) Appraisal Appraisal is the step where the situation is interpreted and Lazarus claims it can be much more impactful than the individual stressor.

Which of the following are damaged if a patient is suffering from Conduction Aphasia? (A) Broca's Area (B) Wernicke's Area (C) Both A and B (D) Arcuate Fasciculus

(D) Arcuate Fasciculus

Which of the following are damaged if a patient is suffering from Global Aphasia? (A) Broca's Area (B) Wernicke's Area (C) Both A and B (D) Arcuate Fasciculus

(D) Arcuate Fasciculus

What refers to the process in which the cochlea distinguishes between varying frequencies and is maintained by the brain? (A) Frequency Processing (B) Signal Detection Theory (C) Parallel Processing (D) Auditory Processing

(D) Auditory Processing

As the environment becomes _______ between subjects, the heritability of given traits will _________. (A) more controlled, Increase (B) more controlled, decrease (C) less controlled, decrease (D) Both A and C

(D) Both A and C As the environment becomes more controlled between subjects, the heritability of given traits will increase - the more controlled, the less the environment contributes to differences in specified trait(s). As the environment becomes less controlled between subjects, the heritability of given traits will decrease, because the environment begins to contribute a bigger % to differences in specified trait

With _______ sleep apnea, the sufferer stops breathing without any clear respiratory tract cause, but rather due to ventilation control system errors. With ________ sleep apnea, there is a clear physical blockage. (A) Obstructive, Obstructive (B) Obstructive, Central (C) Central, Central (D) Central, Obstructive

(D) Central, Obstructive With Central sleep apnea, the sufferer stops breathing without any clear respiratory tract cause, but rather due to ventilation control system errors. Obstructive sleep apnea has a clear physical blockage, like this image.

The leadership team at Google decides that self-driving cars are so cool and will change the future forever. Whenever they encounter information to the contrary, they ignore it and whenever they encounter information to the affirmative, they believe it. Which term best describes the leadership team's behavior? (A) Group Polarization (B) Conformity (C) Groupthink (D) Confirmation Bias

(D) Confirmation Bias This group is struggling with Confirmation Bias in which confirming information is believed while info to the contrary is dismissed.

Because the cornea is really sensitive it needs to be protected. The ___________ is a thin layer of epithelial cells that protects the cornea from friction and helps to moisturize the cornea as well. (A) Iris (B) Pupil (C) Retina (D) Conjunctiva

(D) Conjunctiva

Which of the following is NOT an example of a tyrosine derivative? (A) Thyroxine [T3] (B) T4 (C) Epinephrine (D) Cortisol

(D) Cortisol

According to many psychologists, which of the following categories of stressors is the most significant form of stress due to its recurring nature? (A) Significant life change (B) Ambient (C) Catastrophe (D) Daily Hassle

(D) Daily Hassle

Which of the following is NOT a theory on the psychologial factors/causes of depression? (A) Learned Helplessness (B) Cognitive Distortions (C) Internal, stable and global attributions (D) Decreased coping abilities

(D) Decreased coping abilities Theories of psychological causes/factors of depression include Learned Helplessness, Cognitive Distortions and Internal, stable and global attributions.

Fred's wife is having an affair. Instead of dealing with the problem , he simply ignores it and carries on with life as usual. Which defense mechanism is Fred most likely implementing? (A) Regression (B) Suppression (C) Repression (D) Denial

(D) Denial Fred is pretending that the problem is not true, which is what is done in Denial.

Aging is almost always talked about with a decline in cognitive memory, however some cognitive abilites actually improve. Which of the following does NOT improve? (A) Semantic Memory (B) Crystallized Memory (C) Emotional reasoning (D) Dividing Attention

(D) Dividing Attention Semantic Memory, Crystallized IQ (using knowledge and experience for problem solving) and Emotional Reasoning all improve with age.

Researchers are trying to determine if musical tastes are genetic or environmental, which setup would best study the genetic component of the variance? (A) Monozygotic twins raised together (B) Dizygotic twins raised separately (C) Monozygotic Twins raised separately (D) Dizygotic twins raised together

(D) Dizygotic twins raised together Studying dizygotic twins will maximize the genetic variance (50% of genes will be shared), and raising twins together will give the closest approximation of identical environments to be raised in

If a trait is known to be almost exclusively dependent on environment, which of the following scenarios will have the LEAST variance? (A) A child and their biological parents (B) A child and their adopted parents (C) Monozygotic twins raised separately (D) Dizygotic twins raised together.

(D) Dizygotic twins raised together. Twins that are raised together share as close to identical environments as possible, regardless of being dizygotic or monozygotic. Twins raised separately will have very different environments, and the parent-child generational gap produces even greater environment disparity.

Aging is almost always talked about with a decline in cognitive memory. Of the following, which is the only type of memory to decrease with age? (A) Semantic Memory (B) Recognition (C) Emotional reasoning (D) Episodic Memory

(D) Episodic Memory

Think about your high school graduation. What type of memory is that? (A) Procedural Memory (B) Semantic Memory (C) Priming (D) Episodic Memory

(D) Episodic Memory

The humanistic theory emphasizes that we as humans have __________ and that we can actively develop ourselves to our highest potential and reach ____________________. (A) Individuality, Summation (B) Individuality, Self-actualization (C) Free Will, Summation (D) Free Will, Self-actualization

(D) Free Will, Self-actualization The humanistic theory emphasizes that we as humans have Free Will and that we can actively develop ourselves to our highest potential and reach Self-actualization.

Which match of the following DSM5 (a system of categorizing mental illnesses) illness categories with its description is incorrect? (A) Personality disorders involve distress related to long term behavioral features considered characteristic, and is broken into smaller clusters of diseases (B) Somatic symptom disorders involve having symptoms that are derived psychologically, similar to an illness but without anything wrong at tissues (C) Dissociative disorders involve distress from issues of identity or memory (D) Gender dysphoria is never recognized as an illness by the DSM5

(D) Gender dysphoria is never recognized as an illness by the DSM5 Gender dysphoria is a mental disorder if the person feels distress or disability regarding their gender identity. If there is no distress or disability, it is not considered a mental illness.

After a severe biking accident, Lamelo suffers from anterograde amnesia (unable to form new memories). Lamelo can still access old memories. What area has Lamelo likely damaged? (A) Amygdala (B) Thalamus (C) Hypothalamus (D) Hippocampus

(D) Hippocampus The Hippocampus is in charge of converting short-term memories into long-term memories. A damaged hippocampus does not impair the ability to access long term memories

Put the following steps of an Action Potential in the Olfactory System in order: I. Odor molecule binds to specific G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) in the olfactory epithelia. II. G-Protein binds to an ion channel which allows odor molecule through the membrane, and triggers and Action Potential. III. G-Protein dissociates from Receptor. IV. Odor molecule activates mitral/tufted cell, which then synapses to the brain. V. Odor molecule travels through the Cribriform Plate to the Glomerulus. (A) I -> II -> III -> IV -> V (B) I -> III -> II -> IV -> V (C) I -> II -> III -> V -> IV (D) I -> III -> II -> V -> IV

(D) I > III > II > V > IV 1) The odor molecule enters the nasal pathway and binds to a specific G-protein Coupled Receptor (GCPR) on an olfactory sensory cell in the olfactory epithelium 2) This binding causes the G-protein to dissociate from the receptor 3) The G-protein subsequently binds to an ion channel which allows positive ions to flow into the cell, causing it to depolarize and fire an action potential 4) Firing the action potential -> the odor molecule goes through the cribriform plate to the glomerulus designated 5) From there, the odor molecule synapses to and activates a mitral/tufted cell and then synapses to the brain.

Which of the following are examples of neonatal reflexes (reflexes a newborn is born with and disappear by 12 months of age)? I Babinski reflex (curling foot with stimulus) II Pupillary reflex (the pupil will shrink in brighter lit places) III Rooting reflex (stroking a cheek makes the head turn that direction) (A) I only (B) II only (C) I and II (D) I and III

(D) I and III The Babinski reflex and Rooting reflex are both examples of neonatal reflexes.

Which of the following are examples of the negative effects of elevated levels of stress? I Frontal cortex and hippocampus atrophy II Anger III Addiction (A) II only (B) III only (C) I and II (D) I, II and III

(D) I, II and III Negative effects of stress include frontal cortex and hippocampus atrophy, anger, addiction, anxiety, and depression.

What cues does the body perceive and receive from the different types of somatosensations in order to process information? I. Intensity II. Timing III. Location (A) I only (B) I and II (C) II and III (D) I, II, and III

(D) I, II, and III

Which of the following are abnormalities seen in the nervous system of schizophrenics? I. Diminished tissue size leading to larger ventricles in brain II. Cortical layers of cerebral cortex are disorganized III. The mesocorticolimbic pathway that carries dopamine from VTA to other cortex and limbic system acts irregularly. (A) I only (B) III only (C) I and III (D) I, II, and III

(D) I, II, and III Abnormalities often seen in Schizophrenic patients are larger than normal ventricles in the brain, cortical layers are disorganized, and the mesocorticolimbic pathway that carries dopamine from VTA to other cortex and limbic system acts irregularly.

Which or the following can be affected by genetics? I. Drug Use II. Sexual Activity III. Hunger Levels (A) I and II Only (B) I and III Only (C) II and III Only (D) I, II, and III

(D) I, II, and III Drug Use, Sexual Activity, and Hunger Levels are all affected by genetics.

Andrew, was a "PROTAGONIST (ENFJ-A)" on the MBTI - Which of the following are a key part of my personality according to this? I. Thinking II. Judging III. Intuitive (A) I Only (B) II Only (C) I and II Only (D) II and III Only

(D) II and III Only

Which of the following are appropriate uses of the word "mood" according to the DSM-5? I. A short-term emotional state, directly driven by emotions II. A long-term emotional state, related to emotions III. The subjective experience of emotions, similar to affect (A) I only (B) I and II only (C) I and III only (D) II and III only

(D) II and III only Appropriate uses of "mood" include Long-term emotional states (compared to short-term emotions) and the subjective experience of emotions, similar to affect.

Put these steps of the middle ear audition pathway in order: I. Malleus, incus and stapes vibrate in that order. II. Oval window (elliptical window) starts to vibrate and moves cochlear fluid. III. Tympanic membrane vibrates. (A) I > II > III (B) II > I > III (C) III > II > I (D) III > I > II

(D) III > I > II Ear drum vibrates --> three bone structure vibrates --> stapes makes oval window vibrate and move cochlear fluid

In the information processing model, which of the following terms best describes the initial sight of blood or seeing a white coat that is easily forgotten? (A) Echoic Memory (B) Sensory Memory (C) Working Memory (D) Iconic Memory

(D) Iconic Memory Seeing either blood or a white coat would count as iconic memory, because they were seen but kept only in sensory memory.

A researcher is looking at blood samples of clinically depressed patients. Which of the following are they most likely to find? (A) Decreased blood glucose levels (B) Increased cytokines (C) Decreased dopamine (D) Increased cortisol levels

(D) Increased cortisol levels Many findings have seen abnormal blood concentrations of hormones in patients with depressive disorders, including increased cortisol and other stress-related hormones.

After a long time of trying to solve the Rubik's Cube, the solver takes a break and later has an "aha" moment and solves it rather quickly. What is this an example of? (A) Fixation (B) Representativeness (C) Means-End Analysis (D) Insight

(D) Insight The solver underwent Incubation by taking a break from the problem, which led to Insight when the solution popped into their head.

Jeffrey struggles with Alcoholism. Instead of getting emotional about his problem, he instead tracks his alcoholic intake, reads up on scientific literature, and plans out his day to avoid triggers. He speaks about his problem using scientific terminology and rarely displays emotions in regards to his problem. Which defense mechanism is Jeffrey most likely implementing? (A) Subilimation (B) Humor (C) Rationalization (D) Intellectualization

(D) Intellectualization Jeffrey is implementing the intellectualization defense mechanism by separating the emotion from the ideas of the problem. He is making something emotional into something more academic.

Jeremy doesn't initially agree with the ideology of the KKK. After attending their meetings with his friends for some time, however, he begins to agree with their values. Even after his friends stop attending the meetings, Jeremy keeps attending and is an avid supporter. Jeremy has fallen prey to which term? (A) Identification (B) Compliance (C) Conformity (D) Internalization

(D) Internalization Jeremy has internalized the values of the group over time, which is in line with Internalization.

Where in the body is the 30C squalene converted to Cholesterol? (A) Kidney (B) Adrenal Gland (C) Pancreas (D) Liver

(D) Liver Squalene is converted to cholesterol in the Liver.

Which of the Cluster B (dramatic, emotional and erratic) Personality disorders is characterized by having huge egos, a large need for praise, and not handling criticism well? (A) Histrionic (B) Borderline (C) Antisocial (D) Narcissistic

(D) Narcissistic. Narcissistic Personality Disorder is characterized by having huge egos, a large need for praise, and not handling criticism well.

At the end of the Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years) of Piaget's stages of development, toddlers would fully understand and utilize: (A) Pretend play (B) Symbolic representation (C) Operational thought (D) Object Permanence

(D) Object Permanence

Which structure is a bundle of nerves that lies right above the cribriform plate that sends little nerve projections through the cribriform plate into the olfactory epithelium? (A) Glomerulus (B) Filiform Papillae (C) Mitral Cell (D) Olfactory Bulb

(D) Olfactory bulb The olfactory bulb is a bundle of nerves that is an extension of the brain and lies above the cribriform plate. It sends nerve projections through the cribriform plate into the olfactory epithelium.

The olfactory epithelium sends information to the _______________. The __________________ is a specialized part of the olfactory epithelium that sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb which is then process by the brain. (A) Olfactory bulb, Basal cell (B) Accessory olfactory epithelium, olfactory bulb (C) Olfactory bulb, Vomeronasal system (D) Olfactory bulb, Accessory olfactory epithelium

(D) Olfactory bulb, accessory olfactory epithelium

Of the four main classes of drugs, which class is known to decrease Central Nervous System function, decrease Heart Rate and Blood Pressure, cause relaxation and also act as an analgesic, reducing the perception of pain? (A) Depressants (B) Stimulants (C) Hallucinogens (D) Opiates/Opioids

(D) Opiates/Opioids

John enjoys being a physician. He finds it to be much more mentally stimulating than his last job cleaning toilets and much less scary than his old job cleaning windows on 100-story skyscrapers. He feels like he is motivated to be at work because it is exciting to the right level. Which theory of motivation is John relying upon to make this explanation? (A) Maslow's Hierarchy (B) Evolutionary Approach (C) Cognitive Approach (D) Optimal Arousal Theory

(D) Optimal Arousal Theory "exciting to the right level" - hint! John has found the optimal level of arousal and it is motivating him to perform his job. In accordance with this, the Optimal Arousal Theory would suggest that John is also performing his job well due to a balanced level of arousal.

Dawn's therapist recommmended that she try cognitive behavioral therapy to cope with her agoraphobia. The therapist hopes that she will become conditioned to these situations with increased exposure, and her fight or flight response will decrease. Which of the following experiments is the therapist hoping to emulate? (A) B.F. Skinner shaping birds' actions to spin around by gradually reinforcing similar behavior. (B) A dog trainer using chaining to teach the dog a 3-minute "dance" routine slowly over time (C) Pavlov's dogs being conditioned to salivate when a bell is rung, since it signals food. (D) Pavlov's dogs, over time, becoming habituated with the bell ringing and salivating less than when first conditioned.

(D) Pavlov's dogs, over time, becoming habituated with the bell ringing and salivating less than when first conditioned. The key idea of this form of cognitive behavioral therapy recommended to Dawn was habituation of the response when faced with the unfamiliar situation.

What are molecules known as specialized olfactory cells that act as chemical signals released by a member of a species and sensed by another member of the same species? (A) Nasal Cells (B) Basal Cells (C) Apical Cells (D) Pheromones

(D) Pheromones Pheromones are molecules known as specialized olfactory cells that act as chemical signals released by a member of a species and sensed by another member of the same species.

Which of the following is NOT one of the roles of the Gonads in the Endocrine System? (A) Production of sex hormones (B) Development of Secondary Sexual Characteristics (C) Progressing the body through various sexual stages, like puberty and menopause (D) Production of Urine

(D) Production of Urine The Gonads produce sex hormones, which develop secondary sexual characteristics and guide the body through sexual stages like puberty and menopause.

Natalie knows people who drink and they are cool in her mind. She has also always been someone to try something new. Therefore, she started drinking and going to parties at the age of 13. Which attitude theory best explains Natalie's thought process? (A) Theory of Planned Behavior (B) Elaboration Likelihood Model (C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model (D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)

(D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM) The Prototype Willingness Model takes into account the role models one has and one's willingness to engage in risky behavior, as is the case here with Natalie.

Which stage of sleep is characterized by rapid eye movement, however most of one's muscles are paralyzed? The most dreaming occurs in this stage of sleep and it is the most important stage of sleep for memory consolidation. (A) N1 (B) N2 (C) N3 (D) REM

(D) REM

Which of the following is NOT a Sleep-Wake Disorder? (A) Insomnia (B) Somnambulism (sleep walking) (C) Sleep Apnea (D) REM Deficiency

(D) REM Deficiency Insomnia, Somnambulism and Sleep Apnea are all Sleep-Wake Disorders.

Jack believes that there are 16 traits that can be used to characterize everyone. Which theorist is her thinking most closely in line with? (A) Big Five Theorists (B) Hans Eysenck (C) Gordon Allport (D) Raymond Cattel

(D) Raymond Cattel Raymond Cattel believed that there are 16 traits that can be used to characterize us.

Which of the following is not a category of innate behavior caused by a stimulus? (A) Reflexes (B) Orientation behaviors (C) Fixed Action Patterns (D) Reproductive need

(D) Reproductive need The three categories of innate behavior are Reflexes, Orientation Behaviors and Fixed Action Patterns

The fact that a human's eyes are about 2.5" apart allow humans to get slightly different views of objects from each eye and thus results in a perception of depth. Which binocular cue doe this describe? (A) Interposition (B) Convergence (C) Constancy (D) Retinal Disparity

(D) Retinal disparity Retinal disparity allows us to get two different images of something from the 2 eyes, allowing better depth perception. The eyes are ~2.5" apart.

A G-Protein falls under which of the following classes? (A) Tyrosine Derivative (B) Polypeptide Hormone (C) Primary Messenger System (D) Secondary Messenger System

(D) Secondary Messenger System G-Proteins and G-protein coupled receptors are classic examples of the Secondary Messenger system.

What refers to a burst of rapid brain activity during sleep, that some researchers believe help inhibit certain perceptions so that one can maintain a tranquil state during sleep? Ex: Associated with the ability to sleep through loud noises. (A) K-Complexes (B) non-REM sleep (C) REM sleep (D) Sleep spindles

(D) Sleep spindles Sleep spindles refer to a burst of rapid brain activity during sleep, that some researchers believe help inhibit certain perceptions so that one can maintain a tranquil state during sleep

Which sleep disorder primarily occurs during N3/slow wave sleep and is mostly a genetic disorder, that decreases with time? (A) Narcolepsy (B) Sleep Apnea (C) Insomnia (D) Sleep walking

(D) Sleep walking Sleep walking is a sleep disorder that primarily occurs during N3/slow wave sleep and is mostly a genetic disorder that decreases with time.

Which route of drug delivery refers to the drug being absorbed through the skin, and is released into the bloodstream over several hours? (A) Inhalation (B) Intramuscular (C) Injection (D) Transdermal

(D) Transdermal Transdermal drug routes refer to the drug being absorbed through the skin, and is released into the bloodstream over several hours. Ex: Nicotine patches

Lamar comes from a technologically superior culture to Jane. Both are asked to describe a new Tablet, and although Lamar can use specific tech words, Jane can only describe it as "shiny" and "bright". A specialist claims that Jane must not have thought about the Tablet in the same sense that Lamar did based on her response. Which theory of Language Development would this specialist most agree with? (A) Nativist Approach (B) Learning Reinforcement (C) Interactionist Approach (D) Universal Approach

(D) Universal Approach The Universal Approach states that thoughts precede and dictate language, so Jane not being able to come up with words to describe the advanced technology means her thoughts about them were also under-developed.

Gordon Allport described three basic traits which were of utmost importance in comparison to thousands of others. Describe cardinal, central and secondary traits

*Cardinal traits* - characteristics that influence most of a person's behaviours and ways they organize his life (dominant traits - e.g. selflessness, power-motivation). Cardinal traits influence central and secondary traits. *Central traits* - major characteristics of personality easy to infer, like honesty, shyness or charisma *Secondary traits* - personal characteristics more limited in occurrence - can be described as preferences - e.g. love for modern art, pescatarian or veganism, attitudes

Differentiate between distal and proximal stimuli

*Distal stimuli* - objects and events in the world around you *Proximal stimuli* - patterns of stimuli from these objects that actually reach your senses (i.e. eyes, ears etc.)

Differentiate between internalization and identification - how do these relate to private and public conformity?

*Internalization* is essentially private conformity - involves changing one's behaviour to fit with a group _while also agreeing internally_ with the ideas of the group internally *Identification* is essentialy public conformity - outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally agreeing.

Match the defense mechanism to it's appropriate description: - Rationalization - Displacement - Sublimation (A) Justification of behaviours in manners acceptable to self and society, e.g. smoker believes he is in complete control of amount he smokes and can quit whenever (B) Channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction, e.g. pent-up sexual urges expressed in drive for artistic creativity or business success (C) Changing the target of an emotion while maintaining the same feelings; e.g. man angry at his boss holds his tongue and snaps at his spouse when home

*Rationalization* - (A) Justification of behaviours in manners acceptable to self and society, e.g. smoker believes he is in complete control of amount he smokes and can quit whenever *Displacement* - (C) Changing the target of an emotion while maintaining the same feelings; e.g. man angry at his boss holds his tongue and snaps at his spouse when home *Sublimation* - (B) Channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction, e.g. pent-up sexual urges expressed in drive for artistic creativity or business success

Match the defense mechanism to it's appropriate description: - Repression - Regression - Reaction formation - Projection (A) Individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others, e.g: /I hate my parents/ turns into /My parents hate me/ (B) The ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious, e.g. to disguise threatening impulses (C) Individuals suppress urges by unconsciously turning them into exact opposites (D) Reversion to an earlier state of development due to stress, e.g: child returns to thumb-sucking or tantrums

*Repression* - (B) The ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious, e.g. to disguise threatening impulses *Regression* - (D) Reversion to an earlier state of development due to stress, e.g: child returns to thumb-sucking or tantrums *Reaction formation* - (C) Individuals suppress urges by unconsciously turning them into exact opposites *Projection* - (A) Individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others, e.g: /I hate my parents/ turns into /My parents hate me/

The hypothalamus releases two direct hormones into the posterior pituitary. What are they and what do they do?

- ADH (Antidiuretic hormone, aka vasopressin) increases reabsorption of water in collecting ducts of the kidneys + is secreted in response to plasma osmolarity or increased solute concentations in the blood. - Oxytocin - stimulates contractions during labor + milk letdown during lactation.

Some of the key hormones released by the hypothalamus into the pituitary are GnRH, GHRH, TRH and CRF. What do each of these do as they go bind to receptors in the anterior pituitary?

- Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) --> stimulates release of FSH and LH - Growth-hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) - stimulates release of growth hormone (GH) - Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH) - release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) - release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

The release or inhibition of PTH is controlled by the amount of calcium in our blood. When Ca levels drop, PTH is released - talk about how PTH not only increases Ca levels, but also in terms of phosphorus homeostasis.

- Increases reabsorption/decreases excretion of calcium by kidneys - Increases absorption of calcium in the gut - Increases bone resorption of Ph and Ca - Reduces kidney reabsorption of Ph

What are some of the brain abnormalities in the brain seen in schizophrenics?

- Less tissue and abnormal layering on cerebral cortex - Abnormalities in neuro-pathway that involves the NT dopamine in the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain. One pathway in particular that has attracted attention is the mesocorticolimbic pathway from the VTA to other areas of the brain. - Larger ventricles in the brain due to reduced tissue size of the brain as a whole

What is detected by the 4 Types of Somatosensation? - Thermoception - Mechanoception - Nociception - Propioception

- Thermoception = temperature - Mechanoception = pressure - Nociception = pain - Propioception = position

Classify each of the following as primary or secondary sexual characteristics, and if they occur in males, females or both: -Testes development -Underarm and pubic hair -General body hair - Hips development

-Testes development - primary sex characteristic in males -Underarm and pubic hair - secondary sex characteristics in both -General body hair - secondary sex characteristics in males - Hips development - secondary sex characteristics in females

In a stressful event, the body goes into "fight or flight mode, where the body increases heart rate and decreases digestion. Hans Selye developed a sequence of physiological responses called the general adaptation syndrome - describe it's three distinct stages (alarm, resistance, exhaustion)

1) Alarm - initial stage where body activates sympathetic NS - hypothalamus stimulates pituitary to release ACTH* which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol to maintain steady supply of blood + adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and norepineprhine* 2) Resistance - continuous release of hormones keeps the sympathetic NS stimulated for the body to remain engaged to combat stressor 3) Exhaustion - when the body can no longer maintain elevated response with sympathetic NS activity - individuals become more susceptible to illnesses and medical conditions, and death in extreme cases *ACTH = adrenocorticotropic hormone; epinephrine/nor is the same as adrenaline/noradrenaline

Studies have shown three factors influence our ability to multitask. What are they?

1) Task similarity - tasks that are similar would be difficult to multitask to 2) Task difficulty - difficulty of tasks definitely influences (easy to sing to radio and drive than text and drive) 3) Practice - activities well practiced do not need as much attention as they become "automatic"

Differentiate between autocrine, paracrine and endocrine hormones

Autocrine hormones function at the cell Paracrine hormones function regionally, outside the cell Endocrine hormones function at a distance

Define functional fixedness

Functional fixedness: The inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner - not thinking outside the box

There are approximately ____ million rod cells in the human eye. There are approximately ____ million cone cells in the human eye.

120, 6

Sound waves are discriminated and sorted by its frequency inside the fluid-filled cochlea. Would a lower or higher frequency sound wave travel farther into the cochlea?

A wave of lower frequency would travel farther into the cochlea

What is the range of Frequencies in terms of Hz that humans can hear?

20-20000Hz

Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder there individuals suffer from one or more of the following conditions: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or behaviour, catatonia, and negative symptoms. For a person to be diagnosed, they must show symptoms for at least ____________ and this time period must include at least ____________ of "active symptoms" (delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech)

6 months, 1 month Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder there individuals suffer from one or more of the following conditions: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or behaviour, catatonia, and negative symptoms. For a person to be diagnosed, they must show symptoms for at least 6 months and this time period must include at least 1 month of "active symptoms" (delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech)

Match the following components of language to their meanings: - Phonology - Morphology - Semanticsterm-235 - Syntax - Pragmatics (A) The dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. (B) The structure of words (C) How words are put together to form sentences (D) The actual sound of words (E) The association of meaning with a word

A - pragmatics B - morphology C - syntax D - phonology E - semantics

Why can a cochlear implant help patients with sensorineural hearing loss (aka nerve deafness), but not cochlear or downstream nervous issues?

A cochlear implant functions by stimulating the oval window of the cochlea when its transmitter is activated. It can overcome conduction errors from the middle ear, but can't fix errors downstream of the oval window.

What is depersonalization/derealization disorder?

A dissociative disorder where individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonalization) or from their surroundings (derealization) - can be felt simultaneously.

What is a glomerulus?

A glomerulus is a bundle of nerves that can be thought of as a destination for olfactory cells sensitive to the same molecule.

Carl Rogers believed that the path toward self-actualization starts early in our lives and requires a growth-promoting climate. What are the two conditions that are essential to a growth-promoting climate?

A growth promoting climate is a place where we feel free to be our *genuine* true selves. It is also a place where we feel *acceptance/unconditional positive regard* from others. Rogers believed that when both these conditions are met, we will develop a self-concept.

What is a mental set?

A mental set is the tendency to approach similar problems in the same way

How would you describe Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)?

A personality disorder where two or more distinct personalities or identities exist in the same individual. Both identities have influences on individual's thoughts or behaviours. The identities are distinct from one another in terms of: -Mannerisms -Emotional responses -"Physical" changes (e.g. changes in dominant hand!) -Denial of existence of other personality (usually by the original personality) The disorders legitimacy has been debated due to how rare it is, and how it is even rarer outside the US

What is the key difference between primary and secondary sexual characteristics?

A primary sexual characteristic must be present for reproduction to occur, whereas a secondary sexual characteristic could be lacking and reproduction can still occur.

Parts of the eye: retina

A screen of neural elements (photoreceptors) and blood vessels in the back of the eye - converts photons into electrical signals, considered part of the CNS

What is alcohol myopia?

A short-sighted view of the world caused by excess alcohol consumption, resulting in the inability to recognize consequences of actions due to reduced logical reasoning.

How does the cochlea differentiate between sound frequencies?

A sound wave of 100Hz (low frequency) will cause vibrations which move fluid in the cochlea to travel farther towards the apex until it reaches a point where hair cells sensitive to that particular frequency respond.

There are several types of anxiety disorders. Describe specific phobias

A specific phobia is a focused anxiety - irrational fear of something that results in a compelling desire to avoid it. Typically associated with fear of animals, insects, blood or enclosed spaces. Claustrophobia - irrational fear of closed spaces; arachnophobia - fear of spiders. Social phobias are more impactful on people's lives - phobias of certain social environments leading to avoidance and isolation for many cases.

What is a stressor? What are the four MAJOR categories of stressors?

A stressor is a biological element, external condition of event that leads to a stress response. The four major categories are: Significant life change Catastrophic events Daily hassles Ambient stressors (global and environmental)

For highly addictive drugs, ___________ is common because it is easy for patients to slip and go back to old habits and environments. A) Relapse B) Cross tolerance C) Intoxication D) Withdrawal

A) Relapse

What refers to the fact that after getting used to the effects of a drug, one needs more of a drug to achieve the same high? A) Tolerance B) Withdrawal C) Intoxication D) Relapse

A) Tolerance

Amino acid derivative hormones are less common than the other two but very important. What can be said about them, and what are examples?

AA-derivative hormones include important hormones such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, triiodothryonine, thyroxine. They are derived from one or two AA's with a few modifications. Chemistry is not predictable - catecholamines (epin/norepinephrine) bind to G protein coupled receptors, thyroid hormones bind intracellularly.

thyroid hormones = tyrosine derived + iodine atoms. What kind of hormone category are they likely to fall under?

AA-derivative hormones. Derived from an AA with a few additional modifications.

Compare the Activation-Synthesis Dream Hypothesis to the Freud Dream Theory.

Activation-Synthesis: In REM sleep, the brainstem is active and the cerebral cortex will later make sense of it. Dreams are a result of random firing in the brain. Freud: The manifest content ("plot") has a hidden meaning (the latent content) to be interpreted to resolve hidden problems.

Describe sex cortisol hormones released by the adrenal cortex

Adrenal cortex releases small amounts of male sex hormones (test) - more impactful in females than males, since males have testis. Androgen deficiencies can result in problems in females - excess for e.g. can form ambigious genitals in females.

What is a possible explanation for why learning a language is much easier in childhood than adulthood?

After puberty, the corpus callosum stops developing, which limits new connections made between hemispheres, making it more challenging to learn a new language.

Describe the disorder of Agnosia

Agnosia is a brain disorder caused usually by damage to the brain, such as stroke, multiple sclerosis, etc. It is the loss of ability to recognize objects, people or sounds (usually only 1 of the 3)

There are several types of anxiety disorders. Describe Agoraphobia

Agoraphobia refers to an anxiety disorder characterized by a fear of being in places or situations individuals find hard to escape

Alcohol is often associated with nightlife, dancing, bars, and a fun time. Why is alcohol then considered a depressant?

Alcohol lowers a person's inhibitions and thus decreases one's cognitive control, a common symptom among depressants. Alcohol inhibits logical thinking and common symptoms for other depressants are observed for alcohol as well; ex: lack of coordination, slurring of speech, etc.

Match the following states of consciousness with their key characteristics (1) Alert (2) Daydreaming (3) Drowsy (4) Sleep (A) Seemingly purposeless flow of thoughts come to mind (B) Essentially unconscious, little awareness of world (C) Almost asleep, but semi-aware of the world (D) Awake and able to think

Alert - D Daydreaming - A Drowsy - C Sleep - B

Define Alertness

Alertness is a state of consciousness where we are awake and able to think cognitively, properly - process, perceive, access information and express information verbally.

A brain injury that damages or disrupts neurological connections in the prefrontal cortex results in a coma. What does this tell you about the prefrontal cortex and the state of alertness?

Alertness is maintained by neurological circuits in the prefrontal cortex - fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with a neural structure in the brainstem known as the reticular formation to keep the cortex alert and awake.

One way we forget, of course, is brain disorders: What is Alzheimer's disease?

Alzheimer's disease is the most common disorder leading to memory loss - thought to be linked to loss of acetylcholine in neurons. It is marked by progressive dementia (loss of function) and memory loss, and usually happens in a retrograde fashion (new memories lost before distant memories)

Explain the carbon-ring based structure of steroids (triterpenes).

An isoprene has the carbon backbone of 2-methyl butyl (see image), and a triterpene has 6 isoprene groups bound to form 4 Carbon rings: 3 cyclohexane rings and one cyclopentyl ring.

Explain the carbon-ring based structure of steroids (triterpenes).

An isoprene unit has a C-backbone of 2-methyl butyl (image). A triterpene is made up of 6 isoprene groups, bound to form 4 rings of Carbon - 3 cyclohexanes and one cyclopentyl ring

What are the body's responses to anger, fear, stress, sadness and happiness in respect to: - Heart rate - Skin temperature - Blood pressure - Heart rate variability

Anger - increased heart rate, skin temperature, decreased heart rate variability, greatest degree of increased dialostic blood pressure Fear - increased heart rate and blood pressure, decreased skin temperature and heart rate variability Stress - increased blood pressure Sadness - decreased blood pressure (same for relaxation) Happiness - decreased heart rate, increased heart rate variability, decreased blood pressure

Describe some of the major symptoms of stress induced depression (or depression in general): - Anhedonia - "Learned Helplessness"

Anhedonia - inability to feel pleasure "learned helplessness" - feeling of lack of control over life

Cluster B (dramatic/emotional) is defined by four types of personality disorder. Describe antisocial personality disorder

Antisocial personality disorder - 3x more common in men - essential feature is little or no regard for others. Often involved in illegal acts - many criminals and serial killers have this disorder.

If there were no cochlear fluid, would audition be possible? How would the hair cells be affected?

Any vibrations from the stapes to the oval window would move air, whose movement would have a significantly smaller effect on hair cells; thus, they wouldn't reach threshold, making audition impossible.

As many as __% of those with major depressive disorder die by suicide.

As many as 15% of those with major depressive disorder die by suicide.

In terms of homeostasis and the body's ability to adapt, why do regular drug users need a higher dose of drugs over time?

As the body adapts to drug use, it begins to prepare itself before the drug user takes the drug. Taking external and environmental cues, the brain begins to prepare the body and preemptively lowers heart rate, etc. - thus, the same dose of drugs over time is not as effective and drug users require more of the drug to achieve the same high.

As one becomes addicted to cocaine, how does the brain develop a tolerance causing the individual to take more of the drug to get high?

As the brain gets influxes of dopamine consistently, it adapts in order to balance out the unnatural levels of "happiness" or "pleasure" received from the dopamine. Thus, it shuts down some post-synaptic receptors to regulate this. As a result, as one becomes addicted to cocaine, the brain adapts and shuts down some dopamine receptors, leading to the individual needing more cocaine to achieve the high.

At the optic chiasm, how are the nasal and temporal visual fields sorted? What purpose does this serve?

At the optic chiasm, rays from the nasal field cross at the chiasm while those from the temporal do not. This allows all the information from the right visual field to go to the left side of the brain, the from the left visual field to the right side of the brain. Both eyes see both visual fields to a degree, our brain converts it into one image.

Describe the types of decision making heuristics: - Availability heuristics - Representativeness heuristics

Availability heuristic are when we make decisions or try to decide how likely something is - use examples that are readily available and easily come to mind - sometimes correct but not always. Representativeness heuristics involve categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit stereotypical, prototypical or representative images of the category

Cluster C (anxious/fearful) is defined by three types of personality disorder. Describe avoidance personality disorder

Avoidance personality disorder is characterized by extreme shyness and fear of rejection, despite intense desire for social acceptance. Generally avoid situations of criticism.

When one becomes addicted to a drug and suddenly goes through a period of not having the drug, what does the individual experience? A) Tolerance B) Withdrawal C) Intoxication D) Relapse

B) Withdrawal

What are examples of permanent reflexes?

Breathing reflex, eye blink reflex, pupillary reflex, swallowing reflex

What were Skinner and Pavlov's views on the behaviourist perspective?

BF Skinner championed the behaviourist perspective. His view focused on operant conditioning, and described personality as the result of behaviours reinforced over time. Pavlov - focused on classical conditioning. Both believed that the environment shapes behaviour and personality, and that it develops over a life span.

The two functions of the thyroid gland are setting basal metabolic rate, and calcium homeostasis. What hormones are responsible for both?

BMR - triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) Calcium homeostasis - calcitonin

Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment is famous for coming up with the social cognitive theory of personality. What were his crucial ideas?

Bandura's concepts of *reciprocal determinism* and *locus of control* were crucial to the social cognitive perspective. Reciprocal determinism - idea that out thoughts, feelings, behaviour and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation. Locus of control - level of control people feel they have over the environment, or the environment has over them.

There is a structure in the accessory olfactory epithelium called the vomeronasal system, which has specific cells that respond to pheromones. What are these cells? (Hint: there are two types)

Basal cells and apical cells

In addition to the cochlea, the brain uses __________ to distinguish between high and low frequencies.

Basilar tuning. The basilar membrane inside the cochlea contains many hair cells

In the menstrual cycle, estrogen causes the release of GnRH, which will trigger LH release, which will increase estrogen production. Is this an example of positive or negative feedback?

Because this cycle will increase the production of the primary messenger, it is a positive feedback loop.

Differentiate between bipolar I and bipolar II disorders

Bipolar I - manic episodes with or without depressive episodes Bipolar II - hypomania with at least one major depressive episode

Cluster B (dramatic/emotional) is defined by four types of personality disorder. Describe borderline personality disorder

Borderline personality disorder - 2x more common in women - characterized by unstable relations and emotions as well as unstable self-image. Can be very impulsive, high rates of suicide and self-mutilation.

Describe the amplification ability of secondary messengers from peptide hormones and catecholamines

Both peptide hormones and catecholamines cannot cross the cell membrane. The binding of the hormone to the G-protein coupled receptor initiates a series of reactions inside the cell (signalling cascade) which can lead to bulk production, or amplification, of the secondary messenger (e.g. cAMP).

When you experience pleasure, the common neurotransmitter that the brain releases is ____________, which is produced in the _______________ of the midbrain. (A) Serotonin, Pons (B) Dopamine, Limbic System (C) Dopamine, Ventral Tegmental Area (D) Serotonin, Ventral Tegmental Area

C) Dopamine, Ventral Tegmental Area

____________ refers to drug-specific behavioral and psychological effects on a person when the drug enters the body. A) Tolerance B) Withdrawal C) Intoxication D) Cross tolerance

C) Intoxication

True or False. When you are hungry, Leptin is found in high amounts in your blood as it is a hunger-stimulating hormone.

False. When you are full, Leptin is found in high amounts in your blood as it is an appetite-suppressing hormone.

Differentiate between Freud's and Jung's idea of libido

Freud believed libido was physic energy rooted in sexuality; Jung believed libido was psychic energy in general.

Which Signal detection strategy corresponds to a C>1, and C<1?

C>1 = conservative C<1 = liberal C=0 is ideal

Calcitonin is produced by C-cells (aka parafollicular cells) - discuss what it does

Calcitonin acts to decreased plasma calcium in three ways: 1) Increased Ca excretion from kidneys 2) Decreased Ca absorption from the gut 3) Increased Ca storage in the bone

Schizophrenia can also include a positive symptom of disorganized behaviour is catatonia - what does this refer to?

Catatonia refers to certain motor movements and tendencies seen in patients with schizophrenia - may include reduction of spontaneous movements, or even rigid posture and refusal to be moved. Echolalia (repeating persons words) or echopraxia (repeating persons actions) may also be associated with catatonia.

When an Ion channel opens due to receptor binding, do cations or anions flow into the cell, causing depolarization?

Cations. When a molecule binds to a receptor on an ion channel, the ion channel opens and +ions begin to flow in, causing depolarization, and an action potential.

Our daily cycle of sleeping and waking up is regulated by internally generated rhythms called __________________

Circadian rhythms. Our circadian rhythms approximate 24-hour cycles and are somewhat affected by external cues such as light.

Noam Chomsky is known for his study on transformational grammar, and advocated for the existence of some innate capacity for infants to learn language. Which theory of language is this referring to?

Chomsky's theory refers to the nativist theory (biological/innatist) of language development - states that infants have an innate ability to learn language. This innate ability was called the language acquisition device (LAD) - theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process + absorb language rules

Your wife asks you to go to the grocery store and get a variety of items. She tells you what to get, and you have to remember them. Would rote rehearsal or chunking be a better method of remembering?

Chunking. Chunking (or clustering) refers to a memory trick of taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them into categories with related meaning. Thus, you could group fruits, carbs, proteins and baking goods.

Describe the Zimbardo (Stanford) Prison Study.

College kids taken into a basement. Some were randomly made guards and the others made prisoners. The guards and prisoners started acting in accordance with their role so much so that the study had to be stopped. Zimbardo's Girlfriend had to convince Zimbardo to stop the study.

Describe the term and what kind of cue it is: colour constancy

Colour constancy - monocular cue - ability to recognize when an object or thing is of the same colour throughout despite influence of shading

Describe the two main types of strategies used in signal detection theory.

Conservative strategy - always say no unless 100% certain of a signal. Downside is you'll always get correct rejections, but may have some miss's. Liberal strategy - you'll always get the hits but then may also get some false alarms

Describe complex behaviours

Complex behaviours are a category somewhat between innate and learned behaviours - sort of like a spectrum. Think insects: an insect has an innate ability to fly, but through learning it becomes more efficient at flying (adaptive improvement).

Compare compliance, identification and internalization (all ways of being motivated by different influences or pressures)

Compliance is doing what you are asked regardless of whether you want to or not. Identification - when we go along with something under motivation of being like a certain famous figure Internalization - conforming not only publicly but also privately with a certain behaviour - internalizing the ideas - most powerful because not only do you, but you also want to!

What is the phenomenon of confabulation?

Confabulation - process of creating vivid but fabricated memories. It is thought of to be a ways for the brain to fill gaps of missing memories "False memories" are also a form of confabulation - they didn't happen but could be expressed with strong confidence.

When talking about biases, what is overconfidence?

Confirmation bias contributes to overconfidence, the tendency to interpret ones decisions, knowledge and beliefs as infallible.

Describe the following retrieval cues: Context effects

Context effects is when memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place

The position component of our sense of proprioception is controlled by proprioception spindles in the muscles, what about our sense of balance?

Controlled by the vestibular system - semicircular canals in the inner ear.

Describe the term and what kind of cue it is: eye convergence

Convergence - binocular cue - inward movement of eye towards an object when looking at something close to us, relaxing when something is far away

John's girlfriend cheats on him, yet when he finds out he is surprisingly mellow and not angry the way he was expected to be. What sort of impairment in the limbic system would explain this?

Damage to the amygdala, which controls anger/aggression and fear/anxiety emotions. Destruction of the amygdala results in a mellow attitude.

What is daydreaming?

Daydreaming occurs naturally, it is a state of being awake but not entirely aware of the environment and less focus.

Compare delirium versus dementia.

Delirium is for reversible episodes of neurocognitive malfunctions due to drugs, improper blood concentrations, or even infection. Dementia is a major neurocognitive disorder that can lead to loss of functions

Delusional thought in schizophrenia can be described in categories: delusion of reference, delusion of persecution, and delusion of grandeur. Describe these three

Delusion of reference - belief that common environmental elements are directed toward individual (TV character talking directly to patient) Delusion of persecution - belief that the person is being deliberately targetted, interfered with, plotted against, discriminated against or threatened. Delusion of grandeur - belief that the person is remarkable in some significant way

Compare the terms delusion and hallucination.

Delusions are fixed false beliefs not explained by a cultural background. Hallucinations are sensory perceptions without stimuli.

Cluster C (anxious/fearful) is defined by three types of personality disorder. Describe dependent personality disorder

Dependent personality disorder - characterized by need for reassurance - tend to remain dependent on one or more specific persons.

What are the four classes of psychoactive drugs?

Depressants, stimulants, opiates, hallucinogens

Why does the sympathetic nervous system decreased our digestive rate and inhibit peristalsis (movement of food through our digestive tract)?

Digestion requires energy - in fight-or-flight mode, your body requires all the energy in that state in order to flee or survive the given situational threat. Thus, it decreases digestion, and inhibiting peristalsis is a part of doing so.

Which of the anterior pituitary hormones are direct? tropic?

Direct hormones - Prolactin, GH, endorphins Tropic - TSH (T3 and T4), ACTH, FSH and LH

Describe Dissociative Amnesia

Dissociative amnesia is a dissociative disorder characterized by the inability to recall past experiences - often linked to trauma. Individuals with the disorder may experience a state of dissociative fugue, where they suddenly wander away from home and responsibilities and even assume a new identity.

Stressors are classified as causing either distress or eustress - differentiate between them

Distress occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressors. Eustress is the result of positive conditions.

Sensory adaptaton by your sight senses when it's extremely bright out - what kind of regulation is this?

Down regulation. When it's too bright, lots of light enters your eye and pupils go from dilated -> constricted to allow less light to enter the back of the eye, and the rods and cones are desensitized to the light.

What are the hormones released during 'fight or flight'? Compare them to what is released during 'tend and befriend'

During fight or flight, ACTH is released to stimulate release of cortisol; epinephrine and norepinephrine (aka adrenaline and noradrenaline) are also released During tend and befriend - oxytocin

A diagnosis of persistent depressive disorder is given to individuals who suffer from dysthymia, what is dysthymia?

Dysthymia is a depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet the criteria for a major depressive episode, for at least two years or so.

How does a dermatome encode a location of stimulus?

Each dermatome corresponds to an area of skin supplied by mainly one spinal nerve. Whichever dermatome is firing indicates the position.

What are the three elements of secondary appraisal?

Evaluating harm, threat and challenge. The organism evaluates harm (damage caused by the event), the threat (potential for future damage caused by event) and the challenge (potential to overcome and maybe benefit from the event). Individuals who perceive the ability to cope experience less stress.

What is the function of GH (growth hormone)?

Exactly what the name says - promotes growth of muscle and bone. This requires energy and uses glucose - GH inhibits glucose uptake by other tissues and stimulates breakdown of fatty acids - increasing glucose availability for muscle and bone.

Differentiate hypo- and hyperglycemia. Also differentiate Type I and II diabetes.

Excess insulin causes hypoglycemia - low blood glucose conc., and underproduction, insufficient secretion or insensitivity to insulin can cause diabetes. Hyperglycemia is characterized by excessive glucose in the body - in the kidneys, it will overwhelm nephrons and be excreted in urine - causes polyuria (excess urination) and polydipsia (excess thirst) Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes is caused by autoimmune destruction of beta-cells, causing little to no insulin production Type II (non-insulin dependent) diabetes is due to receptor level resistance to insulin - partially inherited partially due to diet and environment.

Remaining in stress and overdrive for too long puts your body in a system of overdrive. What are some of the physical effects of stress on the immune system?

Excess stress can lead to a suppressed immune system via too much inflammation - arthritis is an example. However, if the body gets conditioned to chronic stress, then the immune system can get suppressed, making us more susceptible to illnesses and other things like reduced healing rate.

What are pheromones?

Excreted or secreted chemicals that triggers an innate social response in members of the same species. Linked to mating, fighting, and communication.

How might the following external factors influence the absolute threshold of how likely an individual is to notice that their spouse is speaking to them while they are studying for the MCAT? - Expectations of stimuli - Experience - Motivation - Alertness

Expectations of stimuli - If you expect your spouse to speak to you while you are studying, you will be more likely to notice when it happens. Experience - If your spouse speaking to you is a common experience, you may be more likely to recognize it. Motivation - If you are motivated to impress your spouse, you may be more likely to pay attention. Alertness - If you are less tired while studying, you will be more likely to perceive that your spouse is speaking to you.

What are explicit (declarative) memories?

Explicit memories are facts or events that can clearly and explicitly be described (e.g. state capitals, vocabulary etc.) - uses semantic memory (having to do with words) or episodic memory (memory for events)

Remaining in stress and overdrive for too long puts your body in a system of overdrive. What are some of the physical effects of stress on metabolism?

Extra or psychosocial cortisol release can lead to excess glucose in the blood stream - can have profound effects on our metabolism and cause diabetes.

Motivation can be described as the purpose/driving force behind action. Can be categorized based on what drives people to act. Differentiate between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic motivation - external forces driving motivation - e.g rewards and punishments Intrinsic motivation - internal motivation from within oneself - e.g. interest by a task, or pure enjoyment (me at the gym)

Becky is one of those people who is never upset. She is always calm and collected. After hanging out with friends, she tends to get worn out. Sometimes she believes that some of her friends are out to get her even though they are not. Hans Eysenck believed that Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism were the three major traits of one's personality. How do these three traits apply to Becky?

Extroversion is the degree to which someone is outgoing. Becky would be seen to have little of this trait. Neuroticism is one's emotional stability, which is sounds like Becky has a lot of. Psychoticism is the degree to which reality is distorted in someone's view. In this case, Becky's view of reality is distorted so she would score high in psychoticism.

True or false: Between the central and peripheral processing routes, peripheral processing routes have greater likelihood of inducing long-lasting attitude change.

FALSE - central processing routes have greater likelihood of producing a long-lasting attitude change.

True or false: as levels of plasma calcium rise, PTH secretion increases.

FALSE. PTH secretion decreases with increasing levels of plasma Ca.

True or false: part of the hypothalamus is the suprachiasmatic nucleus which controls blood osmolarity.

FALSE. The suprachiasmatic nucleus IS INDEED part of the hypothalamus, but it receives info from the retinae and helps control sleep-wake cycles.

True or false: Introns code for specific proteins, while exons in DNA are regulatory regions that do not and are spliced out during post-transcriptional modification.

FALSE: EXONS code for specific proteins, while INTRONS in DNA are regulatory regions that do not and are spliced out during post-transcriptional modification.

True or false: most of the taste buds are concentrated on the posterior part of the tongue (back of the tongue)

False - most taste buds are concentrated on the anterior (front) of the tongue.

True or False? The original IQ tests are completely independent of and not affected by the culture of the test-taker.

False.

True or False? Because the different personalities in Mulitiple Personality Disorder come from the same body, there are no "physical" changes.

False. Although the different personalities in Multiple Personality Disorder come from the same body, there can be physical changes, including the dominant hand.

True or False? Catecholamines are produced in the cortex of the adrenal glands.

False. Catecholamines are produced in the MEDULLA of the adrenal glands. The cortex synthesizes glucocorticoids, like Cortisol.

True or False? Cones adapt to change in illumination very slowly, thus when one walks from a brightly lit room into a dimly light room, one is not able to clearly see color and can't make the transition very quickly.

False. Cones adapt to change in illumination very QUICKLY, thus when one walks from a brightly lit room into a dimly light room, one is ABLE to clearly see color and the make the transition fairly quickly

True or False? The larger the group, the more likely you are to conform.

False. Conformity is strongest for groups of 3 to 5.

True or False? Emotions are generally considered a voluntary response.

False. Emotions are generally considered an INVOLUNTARY response.

True or false: environmental factors and stimuli cannot induce the turning on of genes to produce proteins and elicit a response

False. Environmental factors and stimuli CAN induce the turning on of genes to produce proteins and elicit a response

True or False? Because both echoic and iconic memory fall under sensory memory, they both last the same amount of time.

False. Even though both echoic and iconic memory fall under sensory memory, the MODALITY (form of acquiring the memory) will determine how long the memory lasts for. For instance, echoic memory lasts for about 4 seconds while iconic memory only lasts for 1/4 of a second!

True or False: Heritability is the percentage for how much of a trait is due to genes.

False. Heritability is the percentage for how much VARIATION of a trait is due to genes.

True or False? Mania is similar to Action Potentials in the sense that it is an all-or-nothing occurrence.

False. Hypomania is when more mild versions of symptoms of Mania are exhibited, and the symptoms never develop into full-blown Mania.

True or False? In animal models of major depressive disorders, an increase in neuroplasticity has been noticed.

False. In animal models of major depressive disorders, a DECREASE in neuroplasticity has been noticed.

True or False? In the Milgram experiment, when the experimenter held a clipboard, obedience of the participant decreased because they knew the experimenter should have known better.

False. In the Milgram experiment, when the experimenter held a clipboard, obedience of the participant increased due to the increased authority of the person giving them the command.

True or False? In the Milgram experiment, when the experimenter was standing right behind the participant, obedience of the participant decreased because they knew the experimenter more intimately.

False. In the Milgram experiment, when the experimenter was standing right behind the participant, obedience of the participant increased because obedience increases as physical proximity and closeness increase.

True or False? Maslow believed that most people will eventually reach self-actualization.

False. Maslow believed only about 1% of people will reach self-actualization. Maslow also stated that people who self-actualize are more likely to have *peak experiences*: profound and deeply moving experiences that have important and lasting effects

True or False. Milgram's study is considered ethical as evidenced by its many replications across cultures.

False. Milgram's study is considered unethical despite its many replications across cultures.

True or False? Schizophrenia is the diagnosis if a patient exhibits multiple personalities.

False. Schizophrenia is the diagnosis if a patient has delusions and/or hallucinations that affect the way they act, including isolation, disorganization and a flat affect.

True or False? Symptoms can still be considered a mental disorder if the symptoms are being caused by drug usage.

False. Symptoms CANNOT be considered a mental disorder if the symptoms are being caused by drug usage.

True or False? The faster a drug takes affect on the body, the less likely someone will be dependent on the drug.

False. The faster a drug takes affect on the body, the MORE likely someone will be dependent on the drug.

True or false: The hypophyseal portal system is used by the hypothalamus to communicate with the posterior pituitary gland.

False. The hypophyseal portal system is used by the hypothalamus to communicate with the ANTERIOR pituitary gland.

True or False? The main male reproductive issue regarding chronic stress is decreased levels of testosterone to the point of infertility.

False. The main male reproductive issue regarding chronic stress is impotency, or Erectile Dysfunction (ED), due to peripheral vasoconstriciton.

True or False? The potential causes of Schizophrenia are Genes and Physical Stress only.

False. The potential causes of Schizophrenia are Genes and Physical Stress and Psychosocial factors, like family interaction styles in childhood.

True or False. The removal of a negative factor can replace a reward in Incentive Theory, similar to negative reinforcement and positive reinforcement in operant conditioning achieving similar outcomes.

False. The removal of a negative factor (negative reinforcement) cannot replace a reward (positive reinforcement) in Incentive Theory

True or False? In the Asch experiment, when a supporter (one who answers correctly when the others didn't) was added, conformity of the participant increased because they didn't want to look stupid like the supporter.

False. Without a supporter, 37 percent of individuals answered in line with the group 100 percent of the time, but with a supporter, conformity dropped to just 5 percent. The more unanimous a group, the more likely you will be to conform.

True or False? Words that are read will be stored in the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad of the Working Memory.

False. Words that are read will be stored in the Phonological Loop. Remember, it is the type of information that determines where in the working memory it is stored, not the modality of acquiring the information!

True or false: The thalamus acts as a relay station in the limbic system for all senses.

False: It is the relay station for all senses EXCEPT for the sense of smell!

True or false: consumption of alcohol with benzos or barbituates does not have profound negative side effects.

False: consuming alcohol and overdoses of benzos or barbituates can result in coma or death

Two of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia is the flat affect (emotional flattening) and inappropriate affect - describe this symptoms

Flat affect refers to the symptom where there are virtually no signs of emotional expression in the patient. Inappropriate affect - discordance with content of speech - e.g. laughing while describing someone's death

Sigmund Freud's Dream theory: manifest content and latent content

Freud said dreams represent our unconscious wishes, urges, feelings and conflicts. He separated dreams into their manifest content (what one actually sees) and their latent content (the underlying significance/hidden meaning behind these elements). Iceberg analogy - what you see vs. what is underlying.

Libido is the natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind. When Libido becomes fixed at a certain stage of development, what does Freud propose occurs at this point?

Freud would propose that you would end up stuck in that stage of development. So if your libido was stuck at an oral stage of development, you would have oral traits and personalities such as being very talkative, maybe smoking, etc.

Differentiate between Freud, Jung and Alder in terms of their psychoanalytical theories of personality.

Freud's major assumption was that behaviour is motivated by inborn instincts; Jung's principal is that a person's conduct is governed by inborn archetypes; Alder's theory assumes people are primarily motivated by striving for superiority.

Compare and Contrast the function of G-Protein Coupled receptors and Ion Channels in terms of the Gustatory System?

GPCR: A sweet, umami or bitter molecule binds a GPCR which causes a conformational change. The G-protein then dissociates which opens an ion channel and thus causes the cell to depolarize and fire an Action Potential. Ion Channel: A sour or salty molecule binds to a receptor on an Ion channel which opens causing the cell to depolarize and fire an Action Potential They end up doing the same thing but the initial trigger is different.

Theories of multiple intelligences also have support. What was Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences? How about psychologist Robert Sternberg's Triarchic theory?

Gardner's multiple intelligences - 7 defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal - all independent of each other. Sternberg's 3 intelligences: Analytical (IQ test relevant), creative and practical intelligence (to solve ill-defined problems).

Describe the role of glucagon in the body

Glucagon is released during times of fasting by alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans - low glucose concentrations stimulate secretion of glucagon to trigger degradation of protein and fat, conversion of glycogen to glucose, and production of new glucose via gluconeogenesis. When glucose levels are high, glucagon release is inhibited.

What are the laws of the Gestalt Principles? What is the purpose of the Gestalt Principles?

Gestalt principles are a set of principles that account for how humans naturally perceive as the most simple, organized patterns and objects possible. The laws are: similarity, pragnanz, proximity, continuity and closure.

The adrenal glands sit on top of the kidneys and are divided into the adrenal cortex and medulla. The adrenal cortex secretes corticosteroids - three functional classes, what are they?

Glucocorticoids Mineralocorticoids Cortical sex hormones

Motor skills can be broken down to two skills - differentiate between gross and fine motor skills

Gross motor skills are movements of large muscle groups and whole body motion (sitting, crawling, walking) - develop earlier Fine motor skills are movements of smaller muscles like fingers and toes + delicate movements and tracking motion

The upper membrane of the Organ of Corti contains Cilia (Hair Cells) known as the ___________.

Hair bundle

Why are some hallucinogens used to treat patients with PTSD (post traumatic stress disorder)?

Hallucinogens can allow people to access painful memories from the past without strong emotions, therefore allowing people to properly handle such an experience - not possible under normal circumstances.

What are the physiological effects of hallucinogens? What are some examples?

Hallucinogens cause individuals to experience distorted perceptions, including hallucinations or heightened sensations that are not real. They may cause increased/decreased energy but are classified by their perceptual effects. E.gs - LSD, psilocybin, PCP

How did Hans and Sybil Eysenck come up with their trait theory? (hint: PEN model)

Hans and Sybil Eysenck used factor analysis to group behaviours that typically occur together and assigned labels to those groups. They described three traits in the *PEN Model* - *Psychotism* (measure of social deviance and nonconformity); *Extraversion* (tolerance for social interaction + stimulation); and *Neuroticism* (measure of emotional arousal in stress) E.g. people who are more reserved and less outspoken tended to enjoy solitary activity and avoid stimulation.

What are the 6 components of the universal emotions?

Happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, disgust, fear

Levi has a long Dopamine-4-receptor gene. He also hates sky diving, gambling, and even stays home on Halloween to avoid the thrill. He is very calm and not interested in such activities. Do Levi's actions confirm or disconfirm the Biologic Theory?

Having a longer Dopamine-4-receptor gene is associated with being a thrill-seeker, but just because you have a genetic disposition for something doesn't mean you will certainly act that way. For this reason, Levi's actions neither confirm nor disconfirm the Biologic Theory.

Cluster B (dramatic/emotional) is defined by four types of personality disorder. Describe histrionic personality disorder

Histrionic personality disorder - characterized by being attention-seeking - usually are very extroverted, wear bright clothes, and can even sometimes be dramatic and seductive.

How does a human's Reconstructive Memory differ from a computer's memory?

Humans have reconstructive memory, which can slightly alter a memory as it is recalled based on one's mental state, mood, desires, etc. A computer's memory, however, will recall information accurately time and time again.

Excess of thyroid hormone (which can result from a tumor or over-stimulation of thyroid) can result in hyperthyroidism - what characterizes this condition?

Hyperthyroidism is characterized by heightened activity level, increased body temp, increased heart and breathing rates, heat intolerance, weight loss.

Hypnosis is an induced state, what does this mean exactly?

Hypnosis begins with hypnotic induction - the hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase their level of concentration.

Describe hypnosis

Hypnosis is an induced state of consciousness, where a person appears to be in control of their actions but is in a highly suggestible state.

Describe hypomania

Hypomania typically does not significantly impair functioning nor are there psychotic features - though individual may be more energetic and optimistic

Describe briefly the functions of the parts of the endocrine system: - Hypothalamus - Pituitary gland - Thyroid - Parathyroid - Adrenal glands - Gonads - Pancreas

Hypothalamus - control center (ADH and oxytocin) Pituitary gland - master gland Thyroid - metabolism (T3 and T4) Parathyroid - calcium levels (PTH) Adrenal glands - - cortex (cortisol and aldosterone) - medulla (catecholamines) Gonads - sex hormones (test, estrogen) Pancreas - blood sugar (insulin, glucagon)

What are the main structures involved in the limbic system?

Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Thalamus, Hippocampus

Generally define "intelligence", and what IQ stands for.

IQ = Intelligence Quotient Generally, intelligence gives the abilities to learn from experience, solve problems and adapt to new situations.

What was the problem with Broadbents theory?

If everything else were filtered out when selectively attending to one thing, how do you suddenly change focus when your name is called out in a group? (Cocktail party effect)

The opening or dark space in the middle of the eye, known as the pupil, adjusts its size based on the amount of light it receives. How does the pupil adjust its size in a dark environment? Light environment?

If it is dark outside, the pupil will expand to increase the amount of light able to enter the eye, while if it is light outside, the pupil will contract to decrease the amount of light able to enter the eye.

Can a phobia be considered an anxiety disorder?

If the phobia is causing distress or disability, then yes. It will be focused anxiety presenting with a specific pattern.

The Theory of Planned Behavior states that our behavior is determined by how we think about an action before we do it, specifically our implications and intentions. Our intentions are influenced by 3 things - attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavior control. Describe how your intention to study for the MCAT might be influenced by these three things.

If you have a negative attitude toward studying ("I hate studying"), others think your studying is a waste of time (subjective norms), and you feel like you can't control how much time you have for studying, you would be less likely to study.

Describe illness anxiety disorder

Illness anxiety disorder is characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition - individuals may be quick to become alarmed about health and excessively check selves for signs of illness

What are implicit (non-declarative) memories?

Implicit memories are more difficult to explain - they include memories for skills or how to do things (like bike riding). They lie outside of our conscious awareness. They use procedural memory (for procedures) and priming (previous experience influencing current interpretation of event)

When aging, which memories improve, remain stable and decline?

Improve: semantic memory, crystallized IQ, emotional reasoning Stable: Implicit memory, recognition Decline: recall, episodic memory, processing speed and divided attention

Why do we not realize how strange our dreams are when we are in REM sleep?

In REM sleep, the activity of the prefrontal cortex in the brain decreases. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for logical thinking, therefore our dreams in REM sleep can defy logic and not seem strange.

Compare the Information Processing Model of the nervous system to how a computer works.

In both the Information Processing Model and a computer, input is taken from the environment, processed, and outputs are produced.

Remaining in stress and overdrive for too long puts your body in a system of overdrive. What are some of the physical effects of stress on the heart?

In increased blood pressure, the blood vessels become respond by becoming more rigid and distend (swell from pressure inside) - increased vessel rigidity requires more force from the heart to move blood - leads to a cycle of elevating blood pressure, eventually hypertension. A damaging effect of this can be vascular disease (disease of blood vessels) - veins and arteries experience episodes of damage and inflammation + plaque build up. The coronary arteries is the worst place to experience this as they pump blood to the heart - coronary artery disease --> heart attack.

What are intentions in the theory of planned behaviour based off and formed by?

Intentions are based off (1) our attitudes towards a certain behaviour, (2) our subjective norms (what others/society thinks of our behaviour), and (3) perceived behaviour control (how hard it is to control our behaviour).

Contrast the order in which an event, emotion, physiological response, and appraisal/label is applied in the Schachter-Singer and Lazarus Theories of Emotion.

In the Schachter-Singer theory, first an event occurs, then a physiological response, then the labelling of the event/response, and then an emotion. In the Lazarus Theory of emotion, first an event occurs, then it is appraised, and that appraisal simultaneously determines the emotion and physiological response.

Describe the signalling pathway for the parasympathetic NS

In the parasympathetic NS, a long preganglionic neuron begins either in the brain or spinal cord, and carries the electrical signal via a long axon to the synapse with a short postganglionic neuron - synapse uses acetylcholine. The signal is then carried to the effector organ, where the synapse also uses acetylcholine. Note: both synapses use acetylcholine to carry the signal on.

Differentiate between inattentional blindness and change blindness.

Inattentional blindness: ere not consciously aware of things that happen in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field. "miss something right in front of you" Change blindness: when we fail to notice changes in the environment - "you miss a change between a previous state and current state" - e.g. moms new haircut The difference is subtle but important

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that is responsible for satiation and content. What happens to Serotonin levels when Dopamine levels increase due to heightened euphoria and pleasure?

Increase in dopamine levels causes subsequent decline in serotonin levels. Because serotonin is responsible for feelings like satiation, it explains why drugs can be so addictive and cause dependence.

Describe factitious disorder

Individuals who fake it because they 'want to be sick' - falsification of signs and symptoms

What is somatic symptom disorder?

Individuals with somatic symptom disorder have one or more somatic symptoms (which can be any symptom, may or may not be linked to a condition) that is accompanied by a disproportionately high level of concern about its seriousness, devotion of excess time and energy to it, or elevated levels of stress.

Sally is touching a hot stove. She thinks that the action potential that sent the signal to her brain must be really big and strong. How would you respond to Sally's reasoning?

Inform her that action potentials are actually always the same size. The intensity of her pain is encoded by frequencies with which nerve cells fire, which sends many action potentials to her brain over a short time period, rather than one large action potential signal.

Differentiate how the different processing routes of the elaboration likelihood model influences the types of characteristics of persuasion.

Information by this model is first filtered by our target characteristics, and then the content of the message/source characteristics are taken into account. Those in line with the central processing route - target characteristics (of listener) would likely be greater interest in topic, motivation to learn, and finding it important. In terms of message and source characteristics, the information is deeply processed. Those in line with the peripheral processing route - target characteristics might likely include lack of interest in or motivation to learn about the topic information, as well as little importance. In terms of message and source characteristics, the superficial factors like attractiveness have influence on persuasion.

Compare the effects of inhibiting versus destroying the Amygdala.

Inhibiting the amygdala will simply result in someone entering a mellow state. Destroying the amygdala will cause hyperorality, hypersexuality and disinhibited behavior, as seen in Kluver-Bucy Syndrome.

Describe innate behaviours

Innate behaviours are inherited, intrinsic behaviours that occur naturally. They are typically inflexible (not modified by experience), stereotypical species wide, and consummate (fully developed on first performance). Encoded by DNA, so subject to genetic change and mutations. Examples include blinking, eating, and many reflexes seen at birth.

Describe the role of insulin in the body

Insulin is released by beta cells of the islets of Langerhans - antagonistic to glucagon - secreted at high [blood glucose] - induces glucose uptake by muscles and liver cells. Insulin stimulates anabolic processes such as protein and fat synthesis.

What is interference?

Interference (or the interference effect) is another reason for memory loss - retrieval error caused by existence of other similar information.

Describe the term and what kind of cue it is: interposition

Interposition is a monocular cue - ability to know if something is in front of/behind another

Air moves through the nasal passage to the olfactory epithelium, which is sensitive to various molecules. What is an accessory olfactory epithelium?

It is a specialized epithelium which sends information to the accessory olfactory bulb

What is the sensory strip?

It is a specific part of your brain's cortex that contains the somatosensory homonculus, which is the map of your own body. It receives sensory input from the entire body (any pain, heat, fingers touching, feet etc). Information from any part of the body will go to one specific part of the sensory strip. There is a designated synapse area for your feet, your face, fingers, etc.

What is the just-noticeable difference (JND)?

JND is the threshold where you go from not noticing any tiny changes to just noticing a tiny little change in stimulus. Example with lifting weights, 2.2lbs vs. 2.05 (2.2 is just noticeable an increase from 2lbs whereas 2.05 would prob not be).

Jacob walked on the carpet with muddy shoes on. His Mom told him that before he could eat any dinner, he would need to clean the carpet. How might this situation relate to the Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation?

Jacob's need for food is driving him to clean the carpet. Once he finishes cleaning the carpet and eats his dinner, his need is fulfilled and his drive is reduced.

Describe the Bobo Doll Experiment. What was the major conclusion of this experiment?

Kids observed a man beating up a Bobo Doll. After the children were tasked with putting together a frustrating puzzle, they were given the opportunity to play with a room full of toys. Several children copied the man's actions and proceeded to beat up the Bobo Doll. The conclusion was that children can learn through observation.

Virat Kohli consistently hits the ball with the middle of the bat compared to how he was 4 years ago. Is this an example of proprioception or kinesthesia?

Kinesthesia - hand-eye coordination improvements and awareness + behavioural

After 4 months out with an injury, a bodybuilder finds it easier to put on lost size than when he did initially. Why?

Kinesthesia plays a big part in muscle memory.

What is sleep deprivation?

Lack of sleep from one or multiple nights of poor quality or little sleep, resulting in irritability, mood disturbances, decreased performance and slow reaction time. Sleep deprivation is also linked to anxiety, depression, and some risk of obesity due to increased cortisol.

Describe learned behaviours

Learned behaviours are not inherited and develop in response to environmental stimuli, usually for some adaptive advantage. They are learned, extrinsic, permutable (pattern/sequence that is changeable over time), adaptable (can be modified), progressive.

What is a Lewy Body, and what role does it play in Parkinson's Disease?

Lewy Bodies are found in the substantia nigra in Parkinson's Disease, and mainly contain alpha-synuclein, a normal protein that will aggregate into these bodies and cannot be cleared. These bodies can be distributed amongst the cortex too, and may or may not be what kills the dopaminergic neurons.

How is light converted into electric signals and sent to the brain?

Light hits the cones and rods and causes a conformational change in membrane proteins, which leads to electric signals that go to the brain via the optic nerve

Parts of the eye: lens

Light hits the lens which is convex - the lens can change shape and get thinner or thicker

Sensation occurs when a physical stimuli is converted into a neural impulse. In terms of the human eye, what is the physical stimuli and what cells convert that into a neural impulse?

Light is the stimulus - it enters the eye and is converted to a neural impulse by photoreceptors (cones and rods)

The most common form of depression when referred to is Major Depressive Disorder. What is this disorder characterized by?

Major Depressive Disorder - usually characterized by a feeling of helplessness and worthlessness, low self esteem, persistent depressive mood, social isolation and discouragement/loss of interest in most enjoyable activities (anhedonia) Other physical symptoms such as appetite disturbances, weight fluctuations, sleep disturbances, decreased energy (lethargy) or excessive guilt can also be seen.

Bipolar disorders are a type of mood disorder characterized by episodes of both depression and mania. Describe manic episodes

Manic episodes are characterized by abnormal and persistently elevated moods lasting a week or longer - consist of at least three of the following: increased distractibility, decreased need for sleep, high self esteem, racing thoughts, increase goal-driven activity, increased talkativeness, and potentially involvement in high-rish behaviour.

William Masters and Virginia Johnson noticed certain factors increase sexual arousal - what did they find?

Masters and Johnson noted that physiologically, sexual arousal and motivation was linked to secretion of estrogens, progesterone and androgens, with a strong correlation between hormone conc and sexual desire. Another biological factor was smell - certain odors were shown to increase sexual desire and activity Cultural factors played a role in influencing pleasure and the interpretation of pleasure, as does cognition (sexual videos study). Culture and society also influenced what was deemed appropriate.

What might be the function for the Rooting reflex?

May be beneficial for breast feeding

What is meditation?

Meditation is an induced state of consciousness that is highly dependent on the practitioner and their beliefs. It usually involves the quieting of the mind to achieve a sense of relaxation. In Western traditions it is used for counseling and psychotherapy to provide relief from anxiety or worrying. Causes physiological changes like decreased heart rate and BP

What is memory decay?

Memory loss which is natural and not due to disorders - memories not often used or stimulated are often lost naturally over time as the neurochemical trace of a short term memory fades.

There are three characteristics that influence how we are persuaded for or against something that are part of the elaboration likelihood model - what are they?

Message characteristics - features of the message itself (was the argument logical? did it have key points? was there good grammar? too long/short? addressed the issue?) Source characteristics - (did the speaker seem knowledgeable or trustworthy? where was the messaged collected from? physical environment?) Target characteristics - characteristics of the listener/that you bring - (good/bad mood? high/low self-esteem? level of alertness? intelligence of listener? hungry or satiated?)

Describe mineralocorticoids and how they work (+ e.gs)

Mineralocorticoids are used in salt and water homeostasis - aldosterone is the common example, which increases sodium reabsorption in kidneys. Aldosterone is under the control of the *renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system* - decreased blood pressure = juxtaglomerular cells of kidneys secrete renin = cleaves inactive plasma protein angiotensinogen -> active form angiotensin I -> angiotensin II (by angiotensin-converting enzyme) -> stimulates adrenal cortex to release aldosterone. Negative feedback mechanisms for homeostasis. renin -> (cleaves) angiotensinogen -> angiotensin I -> (enzyme) angiotensin II -> aldosterone release stimulated

In the frame of the nature versus nurture debate, explain the significance of monozygotic and dizygotic twin studies and adoption studies.

Monozygotic twin studies have 100% of the same genes and almost 100% similar environments. Dizygotic twins have only 50% gene sharing but still almost 100% environment. In an adoption study, the monozygotic twins still share 100% of genes, but very different environments. A combination of these studies allows studying effects of only genetic differences or only environment changes.

The three types of TrpV1 fibers, A-B, A-D, and C vary in size due to different levels of myelination. How does their relative myelination affect their function?

Myelin is very important for conduction as it increases the number of ions in the axons to create an action potential. Ions in the axons cannot escape through myelinated areas, and so the more myelinated the fiber, the faster the conduction speed. Furthermore, the more myelinated, the wider the axon = less resistance = faster conduction

How are night terrors different from dreams?

Night terrors are periods of intense anxiety during SWS - it is most common in children, who when experiencing, may thrash and scream and show signs of sympathetic overdrive (fast heart rate, rapid breathing) - can be hard to wake children as this occurs in slow-wave sleep.

DSM-5 Classification.

Neurodevelopmental disorders - distress caused by lack of NS development Neurocognitive disorders - lost function of the NS causing distress Sleep-wake disorders - distress/disability from sleep abnormalities (sleep apnea, insomnia) Anxiety disorders - some specific to phobias, but can be general too - fear and anxiety related (e.g. panic attacks) Depressive disorders - distress from abnormally negative mood Bipolar and related disorders - distress cause by both depressive moods and mania Schizophrenia spectrum + other - distress from psychosis Trauma and stressor related - distress from mentally traumatic or stressful events (e.g. PTSD) Substance-related/addictive disorders - distress from abnormal substance use leading to mental function disorders Personality disorders - distress related to personality (long term mental and behavioural features) Obsessive-compulsive disorders - distress related to obsessive and compulsive behaviour (OCD) Somatic symptom and related disorder - distress from psychologically derived symptoms from illnesses Feeding and eating disorders - distress from food related disorders (anorexia, bulimia) Elimination disorder - distress from urinating or defecating at inappropriate times Dissociative disorders - abnormalities from memory or identity Sexual dysfunction - distress from abnormalities relating to sex performance Gender dysphoria - distress from identifying as a different gender than that identified by society Paraphilic disorders - distress or disability fro sexual arousal from what is considered unusual stimuli Other disorders - one who appears to have a mental disorder causing distress/disability but doesn't fit into another category

There are three ways for a neuron to encode timing (when a stimulus starts and stops? Describe each: - Non-adaptive - Slow-adapting - Fast-adapting

Non-adaptive: neurons fire at a constant rate over time Slow-adapting: neuron firing will slowly adapt to stimulus with time - action potentials start incoming fast but become less frequent until finally stopped Fast-adapting: neuron firing will be rapid initially and then stop, and fire again once the stimulus stops

There are several types of anxiety disorders. Describe Obsessive-Compulsive disorder

OCD is characterized by obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses) which increase tension or stress level, leading to compulsions (repetitive tasks). The relationship between the two is key - obsessions raise stress level, compulsions relieve the stress. It is a disorder when it comes to the point of disrupting or affecting someone's life and the behaviour becomes a problem.

Cluster C (anxious/fearful) is defined by three types of personality disorder. Describe obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

OCPD - individual affected is a perfectionist and inflexible, tending to like rules and order - also may show excessive stubborness, lack of sense of humour, inability to throw worn out clothes, etc. DIFFERENT from OCD - OCD is

Compare and contrast Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder.

Obsessive Compulsive disorder is known for having compulsions on outside tasks or objects. Ego-dystonic. Obsessive compulsive personality disorder has a focus on their life being completely ordered and controlled, not on some outside object. Ego-syntonic.

Why is that when one has a cold and their nose is stuffy, their sense of taste is diminished?

Olfaction (smell) and gustation (taste) senses are connected. When someone eats, molecules travel to the back of the throat and nose, so when eating one's sense of taste is being used in conjunction with one's sense of smell. When someone has a cold, their sense of smell is knocked out, therefore diminishing their sense of taste.

By what mechanism does MDMA (ecstasy) function as both a stimulant and hallucinogen?

On the stimulant side, ecstasy increases dopamine and serotonin levels, leading to increased heart rate, CNS activity, blood pressure, dehydration. Overdoing it can lead to damaged serotonin receptors. On the hallucinogen side, excess ecstasy can cause perceptual changes including hallucinations and a feeling of connectedness.

When do on-center bipolar cells turn on? What about off-center bipolar cells?

On- and off-center refer to to the status of a bipolar cell being either ON or OFF. For an on-center bipolar cell, it is turned ON when light shines on the center of the rods (rods turn off). Off-center bipolar cells refer to bipolar cells being turned ON in the absence of light on the center of rods (rod cells turned on). See image for more details.

While referred to as the same class of psychoactive drugs, what is the small distinction between Opiates and Opioids?

Opiates are used to describe the drugs found naturally, while opioids are those made synthetically.

What differentiates the effects of opiates/opioids vs. depressants?

Opiates can also work as analgesics. Also, the two classes work via different mechanisms: Opiates - stimulate endorphin receptors. Depressants - enhance GABA receptors.

What defines stress?

Our response to challenging events (physio-, cognitive or behavioural) defines stress

Cluster A (Odd and eccentric) is defined by three types of personality disorder. Describe paranoid personality disorder

Paranoid personality disorder is characterized by immense distrust and suspicion of others

Ethology refers to the scientific and objective study of behaviour, usually in an adaptive sense. What are 'overt' behaviours?

Overt behaviours simply refer to observable behaviour. It can be broken down to innate, learned and complex behaviours.

One form of response to stress is to "tend and befriend" for things like pair bonding - what is the hormone released and responsible for this? Why is it seen more in females?

Oxytocin It is more common in women because it is more linked to estrogen.

Describe the third step of the phototransduction cascade. Transducin binds to PDE, what happens next?

PDE is triggered to convert cGMP, necessary for Na+ channels, to GMP. There is hence a decline in [cGMP] and a rise in [GMP]

PTH is water soluble and does not require a protein carrier to travel in the blood. What does this tell you about PTH? How would work?

PTH is a peptide hormone, since it is water soluble and doesn't require a protein carrier. In the cell, PTH would not be lipid-soluble and so would not be able to pass through a plasma membrane. Thus, it would bind to a receptor within the membrane and signal a second messenger.

Compare the Pegword and Method of Loci mnemonic devices.

Pegword devices are number and verbally based (match numbers with rhyming words, "one is a gun"), whereas Method of Loci is based on location (putting items in different rooms of your house or something like that).

Describe the Solomon Asch Conformity Study.

People are asked to identify which line (A, B, or C) is equal to the line of interest. Only one person is actually a participant, and they are found to go along with the group even when they knew the group was wrong. The participant went along with the group at least once 75 percent of the time. The participant went along with the group every time 37 percent of the time. When alone however, the participant made errors less than 1 percent of the time!

Hormones can be classified into three types - what are they?

Peptide hormones steroids amino-acid derivatives

Describe peptide hormones

Peptide hormones are made up of amino acids - derived from larger precursor polypeptides that undergo Golgi modification

Which of the following reflexes newborns are born with are permanent reflexes? Neonatal reflexes? - Breathing reflex - Rooting refelx - Eye blink reflex - Pupillary reflex - Swimming Reflex - Moro Reflex (flailing arms out when startled - Galant reflex (when stroked on side, baby will roll onto that side - Swallowing reflex - Palmar grasp reflex -Stepping reflex

Permanent reflexes: Breathing, eye blink, pupillary, swallowing Neonata reflexes: rooting, swimming, moro, galant, palmar grasp, stepping

Personality disorders are patterns of behaviour that are inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress or impaired functioning in cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning or impulse control. What does it mean to say personality disorders are ego-syntonic?

Personality disorders are ego-syntonic, meaning that the individual perceives their behaviour as the correct, normal way and is harmonious with their goals. It is in contrast to ego-dystonic

Describe the three elements of emotion/emotional response: cognitive, physio-, behavioural

Physiological response - when feeling is experiences, arousal is stimulated by ANS - physiological component includes changes in heart rate, breathing rate, skin temp, blood pressure. Behavioural response - includes facial expressions and body language - e.g. smiling, hand gestures Cognitive response - this is the subjective interpretation of the feeling being experiences - largely based on memories of past experiences and perception.

The _______ funnels sound into the ___________, where it will travel to the _______________, where the sound waves are then converted into ossicle vibrations. To fill in the blanks, please choose 3 from the following options: - Semicircular Canals - Pinna - Tympanic Membrane (eardrum) - Auditory Canal - Stapes

Pinna, Auditory Canal, Tympanic membrane

Describe the following retrieval cues: Spreading activation (priming)

Priming is the effect where one stimulus or concept activates a node in our semantic memory to think of other linked concepts being unconsciously activated - also called spreading activation e.g. the concept of red could relate to similar colours like orange, and also objects like roses or fire engines

Describe the term and what kind of cue it is: relative size

Relative size - monocular cue that allows us to perceive two things far apart as relatively the same size When objects are of relatively equal size, the one closer takes up more space in the visual field

What are problems in the brain area related to schizophrenia relating to the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus?

Prefrontal cortex - dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex Hippocampus - schizophrenics often have smaller hippocampus's

What are examples of primary and secondary sex characteristics?

Primary - genetilia - testis, ovaries Secondary - voice changes, body hair, breast and hip development, pubic and underarm hair

Describe the cognitive appraisals of stress: primary, secondary appraisal and reappraisal

Primary appraisal - stage 1 - initial evaluation of the environment and associated threat - can be irrelevant, benign or positive, or stressful. Secondary appraisal - stage 2 - begins when threat revealed by primary appraisal - evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress Some events require ongoing monitoring through constant reappraisal.

What is priming?

Priming is the effect where exposure to one stimulus influences response to another stimlus.

Jimmy agrees to eat 10 hot chili peppers with his friends. How would Private Conformity play out in this situation? What about Public Conformity?

Private Conformity would entail Jimmy agreeing inwardly and outwardly that eating 10 hot chili peppers is a good idea. Public Conformity would entail Jimmy eating the 10 hot chili peppers and agreeing that it is a good idea outwardly while feeling it is a bad idea inwardly. A private conformity will actually change your internal beliefs, whereas public would only make you put on a public persona.

What is bottom up processing?

Process begins with the stimulus, and the stimulus influences our perception. e.g. looking at a cockpit of a plane as a novice - you look at all the parts and gauges and data received drives your perception

What are the main differences between proprioception and kinesthesia?

Proprioception can be thought of as a cognitive awareness of your body in space and is more subconscious Kinesthesia can be thought of as behavioural, as your brain can consciously detect a movement and improve at that movement to better complete the task at hand.

One of the senses not often talked about in school is the sense of proprioception. Describe it.

Proprioception is defined as our ability to sense where our body is in space - our sense of position and balance.

Proprioception spindles are receptors in the muscles, often compared to springs. How do these receptors communicate position to your brain?

Proprioception spindles can sense when the muscle contracts and stretches, and stretches itself. When the protein within gets stretched, it fires a signal to the brain. The ability to know when each muscle in our body is contracted or relaxed gives us our sense of position in space, hence our proprioception.

Compare and contrast the Psychoanalytic Theory and the Humanistic Theory?

Psychoanalytic Theory thinks of us as being controlled by our unconscious. Sees us as animals that have intense desires. Humanistic Theory, however, views us as being in control and focuses on our conscious thoughts and actions. Sees us as inherently good and wanting to improve.

Compare and contrast puberty and adolescence.

Puberty is a 2-year long period for sexual maturation and drastic body changes that ends with the ability of sexual reproduction. Adolescence is a transition between childhood and adulthood seen as starting with puberty and ending once someone is an independent adult (self-supported).

Parts of the eye: pupil

Pupil is the opening of the eye which allows light in - it is controlled by the iris via sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system - dilates when it's dark out (sympathetic) so more light can enter light; constricts when its bright out (parasympathetic) so less light enters.

How is cholesterol (and after that steroid hormones) biosynthesized from isoprene groups and pyrophosphate (a good leaving group)?

Pyrophosphate is a weak base, making it a good leaving group. Electrons from one pi bond in isoprene will replace a pyrophosphate group of another isoprene to join - once there is a 30 carbon backbone (a squalene), ring closing reactions occur to close a 4-ringed chain, forming the cholesterol structure. Thereafter, cholesterol can be modified to form a steroid hormone.

Describe REM sleep and why it is also called paradoxical sleep

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is interspersed between cycles of Non-REM sleep stages. In this stage, arousal levels reach that of wakefulness but muscles are paralyzed. It is thus called paradoxical sleep because one's heart rate, breathing patterns and EEG mimic wakefulness, yet the individual is in deep sleep.

Describe the term and what kind of cue it is: relative height

Relative height - monocular cue - objects that are higher in the visual field are more distant

Describe the term and what kind of cue it is: retinal disparity

Retinal disparity/stereopsis - binocular cues - eyes separated by 2.5" (disparity); 2 eyes used to provide slightly different images on the retina

Describe rote rehearsal

Rote rehearsal (or maintenance rehearsal) is the repitition of a piece of info to either keep it within working memory (and not forget) or store it in short-term and eventually long-term memory. This rehearsal is generally not effective in facilitating later recall

Compare and contrast the mechanism and effects of the secondary messenger system and primary messenger system.

Secondary Messenger: After first hormone is bound on an extracellular receptor, a series of reactions will cause a secondary messenger like cAMP to be produced in bulk. This allows amplification! Primary messenger: The receptor is intracellular. Hormones cross the cell membrane and bind to receptor. That binding can directly effect transcription/translation. It is simpler, but does not allow for amplification.

Jacob says he has reached self-actualization after winning an Olympic Gold medal in the high jump. He used steroids to achieve this feat and was really only doing it for the fame and fortune. Would Maslow agree with Jacob?

Self actualization revolves around reaching one's maximum potential. If he was really doing it for the fame and fortune only, and not self-improvement, think about it. Self-actualizers are those who reach their full potential and these individuals are true to their own moral principles. Jacob is not focused on reaching his full potential or on obeying his own moral principles. He is most likely trying to meet needs of self-esteem, and is not actually self-actualizing.

Describe self-serving bias

Self-serving bias is the notion that we ourselves couldn't commit atrocious acts or crimes applying to certain situations, such as the Milgram experiment or the holocaust.

What is sensory adaptation?

Sensory adaptation is a down regulation of sensory receptors over time to a change in stimulus

Why is Sensory adaptation important in terms of cells becoming over excited?

Sensory adaptation is necessary as otherwise cells remaining excited for too long leads to them being over-excited, which can induce damage and cell-death.

Describe the term and what kind of cue it is: Shading, lighting and contours

Shading/contours - monocular cue - recognition of shading and lighting to attain depth information

Describe the term and what kind of cue it is: shape constancy

Shape constancy - monocular cue - ability to recognize similar/same shapes even when in different orientation

Why do we dream? No one knows this answer, but what are some of the theories?

Sigmund Freuds theory- dreams are our unconscious desires and needs that we want to fulfill Evolutionary theory- some evolutionists believe dreams evolved as a ways to develop either problem solving and/or threat stimulation Other theories- can include to develop neural pathways, maintain and consolidate memories

Mwape just barely arrives at a new school. She meets two new friends, Becky and Sarah. Mwape starts inviting them over to her house and leading them in several of her favorite games. Does Mwape demonstrate Social Potency or Traditionalism. What about Sarah and Becky? Explain why?

Social Potency is the degree to which a person assumes leadership and mastery roles in a social situation. Mwape is demonstrating this by quickly taking control in her new friend group. Sarah and Becky likely demonstrate Traditionalism as they are quick to follow Mwape's lead.

There are several types of anxiety disorders. Describe social anxiety disorder

Social anxiety disorder is anxiety due to social situations - fear of being exposed to social situation or performance that may lead to embarrassment.

Compare Somatic Symptom Disorder and Conversion Disorder.

Somatic Symptom disorder can have any type of symptom, specific or general, can have extreme levels of anxiety over these symptoms, and may or may not be medically explained. Conversion Disorder, on the other hand, is characterized by neurological symptoms, like speech, swallowing, seizures, or paralysis. They are incompatible/undetectable with any test/exam.

What are the roles of somatostatin?

Somatostatin is produced by delta cells of the islets of Langerhans (pancreas) - stimulated by high blood sugar and AA concentrations - inhibitor for both glucagon and insulin. Also produced by hypothalamus to decrease GH secretion.

Sound waves hit the outer ear - how do they reach the inner ear?

Sound waves hit the pinna and travel down the external auditory meatus (auditory canal) and hit the ear drum (tympanic membrane), causing it to vibrate. This causes the 3 bone structure (malleus, incus, stapes) to vibrate back and forth. The stapes is attached to a the oval window, a membrane-covered opening that leads into the inner ear.

How do the Parvo Pathway and Magno Pathway compare in terms of: -Spatial Resolution (Detail)? -Temporal Resolution (time)? -Color Vision?

Spatial Resolution - The Parvo pathway can provide much greater detail, necessary for detecting form. Temporal Resolution - The Magno Pathway has faster processing, necessary for tracking motion. Color Vision - Only found in the Parvo Pathway.

Deutsch and Deutsch's Late selection theory

Spawned from the cocktail party effect. This shifted the selective filter aspect to after the perceptual meaning.

There are four stages of sleep. What are they characterized by?

Stage 1 - when you are drowsy or doze off - theta waves are experienced by this point (irregular waveforms, low F high V) - also called stage N1 Stage 2 - as you fall more deeply asleep - the EEG shows theta waves along with sleep spindles and K complexes (see image) - stage N2 Stage 3 and 4 are known as slow wave sleep (SWS) - delta waves are seen, though stage 3 is aka stage N3; at this point it is harder to wake someone.

Of the 4 main stages of sleep, which stages are characterized as Non-Rapid Eye Movement (non-REM)?

Stages 1, 2 and 3 (N1, N2, N3)

Describe steroid hormones and how they function.

Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol (nonpolar molecules) and easily cross the cell membrane - they function by binding to intracellular/nuclear receptors to undergo confor-changes and induce increased or decreased transcription of certain genes. Dimerization is a common form of conformational change

What are the physiological effects of Stimulants? What are some examples?

Stimulants stimulate or intensity neural activity and bodily functions, i.e. increase CNS activity, heart rate and blood pressure - also causes one to be more awake and alert. E.gs amphetamines (like meth), caffeine, nicotene, MDMA/ecstasy, cocaine

What are subliminal stimuli?

Stimuli below the absolute threshold (less than 50% detected/not detected by the individual). Homer Simpson example:

A common effect of Alzheimer's is sundowning - what does this refer to?

Sundowning is the phenomenon of increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening

True or false: The biological and trait perspectives are closely linked. In twin studies with identical twins raised separately, one of the supporting findings for these theories was that traits such as social potency and traditionalism were common in both twins.

TRUE: The biological and trait perspectives are closely linked. In twin studies with identical twins raised separately, one of the supporting findings for these theories was that traits such as social potency and traditionalism were common in both twins. social potency = degree to which a person assumes leadership in mastery roles in social situations traditionalism = tendency to follow authority

True or false: the *object relations theory* is a psychoanalytical personality theory that refers to objects as representations of parents/caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy - these objects persist into adulthood and influence interactions and social bonds.

TRUE: the *object relations theory* is a psychoanalytical personality theory that refers to objects as representations of parents/caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy - these objects persist into adulthood and influence interactions and social bonds.

True or false: the PEN model by Eysenck was expanded to the *Big Five*, which describes majority of people using the dimensions of five traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism

TRUE: the PEN model by Eysenck was expanded to the *Big Five*, which describes majority of people using the dimensions of five traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism acronym - OCEAN

Give an example of how framing a decision can change the choice a person will make.

Take the flu vaccine as an example. If I ask someone if they want to be protected from the flu, they would be likely to get vaccinated; if I ask if they want to receive a shot, they are less likely to get vaccinated. Framing makes a big difference in how someone views their choices!

Where in the retina is the image at its sharpest?

The fovea, due to high concentration of cone cells.

Why is Temperament often associated with the Biologic Theory?

Temperament related to mood, activity level, etc. - it is an innate disposition (inherited) and the Biologic Theory is focused on the innate causes of our behavior.

If a person strongly believes in the spotlight and resource models, what would their opinion be on multi-tasking?

That the ability to multi-task is ineffective, and attending to one set of stimuli is more effective.

One of Jung's archetypes is the self - describe what he means by the self.

The *self* - intersection between the collective unconscious, personal unconscious and conscious mind. This archetype strives for unity.

Why is Cognitive Theory seen as a bridge between Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis?

The *social cognitive* perspective focuses not only on how the environment influences behaviour, but also how we interact with the environment.

John knows that his family has a history of depression, and he has the disease version of the 5-HTTLPR gene (associated with depression in some cases). Knowing this, John avoids long-term stressors when possible and never develops depression. How can this be explained?

The 5-HTTLPR gene is only associated with depression if the person is in stressful situations often.

A child is taking a hearing test. How might the concept of Absolute Threshold of Sensation apply to this situation?

The Absolute Threshold of Sensation is a generally detectable stimulus. It is defined as the minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to detect that stimulus at least 50% of the time. Thus, for a child taking a hearing test, it would be the point at which the child begins to detect the sound in their ear at least 50 percent of the time.

Contrast The Behavioral Theory and the Psychoanalytic Theory.

The Behavioral Theory says that we are influenced by our environment and is focused on observable behavior. Psychoanalytic Theory, on the other hand, is focused on internal desires and mental states.

What makes the Biologic Theory unique as compared to the Humanistic and Psychoanalytic Theories?

The Biologic Theory posits that our behavior and personality are inherited whereas the Humanistic and Psychoanalytical Theory propose that they develop from our experiences. Certain traits and genes are coupled with certain behaviours, however not necessarily defining.

Contrast the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion with the James-Lange theory of emotion.

The Cannon-Bard theory claims an event can cause a physiological response and an emotion simultaneously. The James-Lange theory claims a physiological response will occur, and then its perception will cause an emotion.

Describe the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion. (hint: think separate and simultaneous)

The Cannon-Bard theory states that the cognitive and physiological components of emotion occur simultaneously and result in the behavioural component (action). This theory separates the two - disagrees with James-Lange - believes that one could experience physio- response without emotion. An event occurs and causes a response AND an emotion simultaneously E.g. heart races when you are scared but also when you run; "I am afraid because I see a snake and my heart is racing....run!"

Describe the James-Lange theory of emotion. (hint: think functionalist, William James = founder of functionalism)

The James-Lange theory of emotion states that a stimulus first results from physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labelled. Peripheral organs receive signals and respond, and that response is labelled as an emotion by the brain. E.g. "I must be angry because my heart rate is elevated, skin is hot, blood pressure is high"

Draw or visualize an example of The Law of Closure. Describe this law.

The Law of Closure - objects grouped together are seen as a whole. We tend to ignore gaps and complete contour lines

Compare the nervous system and endocrine system, focusing on speed and duration.

The Nervous System can send signals and cause change very quickly, but the duration of these effects tend to be short. The Endocrine System will take much longer to send signals across the body, but the duration of these signals tend to last much longer.

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the Prototype-Willingness model (PWM)

The PWM says that behaviour is a function of six factors - past behaviour, attitudes towards behaviour, subjective norms, intentions, willingness to engage in a behaviour, and prototypes (models) This theory combines the planned behaviour and attitude-behaviour theories and adds onto it.

What is parallel processing?

The ability to detect all information relating to feature detection (color, form, motion) simultaneously.

What is depth perception?

The ability to perceive the world in 3 dimensions + distance of an object. Depth perception rises from a variety of depth cues (monocular and binocular cues).

Describe emotional intelligence

The ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions in your interactions with others

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the attitude-behaviour process model

The attitude-behaviour process model says that an event triggers an attitude, which influences our perception of an object or stimulus. Additional outside knowledge towards the situation or object, combined with our attitude, leads to our behaviour.

What is the major function of the basal ganglia (which contains the substantia nigra)?

The basal ganglia coordinates motor movements. It receives dopamine from the substantia nigra to function properly - it controls initiation and termination of movements, as well as sustaining repetitive motor skills and smoothening muscles.

Describe the behavioural theory of personality.

The behavioural theory states that personality is the result of the interaction between an individual and their environment.

Differentiate between the biomedical and biopsychosocial approaches to psych- disorders.

The biomedical approach assumes disorders have roots in biomedical/biological disturbances and abnormalities, and therapy focuses on interventions that rally around symptom reduction. The biopsychosocial approach assumes there are biological, psychological and social components that contribute to an individual's disorder. The biomedical approach is typically narrower than the biopsychosocial and fails to take into account psychological and social factors like lifestyle and socioeconomic status.

In terms of the difference of choroids, explain why cats have better night vision than humans?

The choroid in humans is black in colour, and so absorbs all light and reflects none. However, in cats the choroid is a shiny colour, and thus light not absorbed by the retina is reflected back onto the retina after striking the choroid and given another chance at retinal absorption, resulting in better night vision for cats.

What are the function of the ciliary body?

The ciliary body has the ciliary muscles which control shape of the lens (by pulling on suspensory ligaments), and ciliary epithelium that produces aqueous humor to bathe the eye front before draining into the canal of Schlemm

For patients with CRSD (Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders), daily rhythms like body temperature, alertness and hormone secretion are impaired. What is the circadian rhythm responsible for in a healthy individual?

The circadian rhythm is often called a "biological clock", because it causes sleepiness to gradually increase during the day, regulating sleep and wakefulness.

Describe the cognitive approach of motivation

The cognitive approach of motivation focuses on our rationale and decision-making ability

What does the cognitive process dream theory state?

The cognitive process dream theory states dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness

Describe the fourth step of the phototransduction cascade. We now have high [GMP] - so what?

The decline in [cGMP] is crucial because sodium channels throughout the rod cells require cGMP to be bound in order to remain open. Now, with them closed, less sodium enters the cell, causing the cell to hyperpolarize and subsequently turn off.

When talking about biases, what is the disconfirmation principle?

The disconfirmation principle states when a potential solution fails during testing it should be discarded - solution does not work. Confirmation bias may prevent one from doing this.

Within the prefrontal cortex, describe the function of the following: - dorsal prefrontal cortex - ventral prefrontal cortex - ventromedial prefrontal cortex

The dorsal prefrontal cortex is associated wit attention and cognition The ventral prefrontal cortex connects with regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotion The ventromedial prefrontal cortex plays roles in decision making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala

Describe Frued's element of the ego

The ego and superego both have conscious and unconscious elements. The ego operates according to the *reality principle*, and takes reality into account to inhibit or guides the activity of the id - guidance referred to as *secondary process*. The aim of this principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction is actually obtainable. The ego also moderates the superego

How are the ego and superego related?

The ego mediates the desires of the superego, just as it does those of the id. The three are in conflict, and the ego's recourse for relieving anxiety caused by clash of the id and superego is via *defense mechanisms*

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the elaboration-likelihood model for persuasion

The elaboration-likelihood model theory separates individuals based on their processing of persuasive info - is more cognitive and focuses on the 'why' and 'how' aspects. There are two ways this model is processed: 1) At one extreme, those who elaborate extensively and think deeply - *central processing route* - the degree of attitude change depends on the quality of arguments by the persuader 2) Other extreme - those who do not elaborate much - *peripheral processing route* - looks at superficial and nonverbal persuasion cues (attractiveness, status, expertise)

What is the endocrine system?

The endocrine system is a system of organs called glands which release chemicals called hormones into the bloodstream to initiate an effect.

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the functional attitudes theory

The functionalist attitude theory states that attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation and ego defence. *Knowledge* provides consistency and stability in thought. Attitudes can be *ego expressive* (to communicate and solifidy our identity; e.g. big Eminem fan, big Pats fan) and *ego defensive* (protect self-esteem or justify actions we know are wrong). They can also be *adaptive* - idea that one will be accepted if attitudes are socially acceptable.

How does a cochlear implant work?

The implant is a Receiver and has a tube called a Stimulator that goes all the way and connects to the cochlea. The receiver gets information from its adjacent structure called a Transmitter, which gets electrical information from the Speech Processor. The Speech Processor gets information from it's microphone, which goes to the Transmitter -> Receiver, which sends the information through the Stimulator into the cochlea, which converts that electrical impulse into a neural impulse. This restores some degree of hearing to individuals with nerve deafness

When talking about biases, what is belief perseverance?

The inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

Describe the incentive theory of motivation

The incentive theory explains behaviour as motivated by desire to pursue rewards + avoid punishments, rather than by arousal. It is based on the idea that if a behavior is rewarded, it will result in the behavior occurring again.

How is the lack of a reflex in an infant clinically significant in a pediatrician checkup?

The lack of a reflex can signal that a certain area or group of muscles is not developing properly.

Why do some astronauts or even scuba divers feel 'disoriented' at times?

The lack of gravity in space, or the effect of buoyancy in deep waters, will cause the carbonate crystals in the otolithic system to not function properly, as gravity is an essential component in its shifting and subsequent pulling on hair cells to indicate orientation and position.

What is the macula? Fovea? Difference?

The macula is the name given to a avascular region in the posterior region of the eye. The fovea is a dimple-like area in the center of the macula, densely populated with cones, which allows detailed vision and in colour.

A woman dreams about her boss getting eaten by a giant snake. What might be the manifest content in this example? latent content?

The manifest content is what she saw - her boss getting eaten by a giant snake. The latent content could be her suppressed feelings of anger toward her boss. Perhaps subconsciously she wants her boss to be out of her life.

In terms of storing memory, how is the Modified Semantic Networks (current theory) different than a simple hierarchical semantic network model?

The modified theory allows for a "hierarchy" based on personal experience and common knowledge, not necessarily just based on traits. This allows for individual differences in what connections exist in individuals, and differences in relative processing time.

A smoker who has been smoking for 6 years is aware of how damaging it is to his body, yet he cannot seem to stop smoking. In fact, he claims he smokes more cigarettes today compared to two years ago, when he tried to start quitting due to harm realization. How does the opponent-processing theory explain these phenomenon?

The opponent-processing theory explains that when a drug is repeatedly taken, the body attempts to counteract effects by changing physiology. It counteracts alcohol abuse, for example, by increasing arousal. The problem arises because this reaction lasts longer than the drug - results in withdrawal symptoms which are exact opposing effects of the alcohol or drug. This can create a physical dependence. The same phenomenon runs for nicotine, in cigs - it explains why the smoker smokes more today as he has an increased tolerance.

What is the optimal arousal theory of motivation?

The optimal arousal theory states people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal - seek to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level. The image shows the Yerkes-Dodson law which postulates a U shaped function between arousal and performance - performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal, and best when at optimal levels.

Arriving at the scene, an EMT needs to quickly assess the situation, including any bleeding, discoloration, injuries, etc. How does the parallel processing of multiple vision pathways enable them to do this quickly and efficiently?

The parallel processing of multiple pathways allows different aspects (color, form, motion) to be processed quickly at the same time, and integrated at higher vision centers.

The autonomic nervous system is split into sympathetic and parasympathetic components. What do each do?

The parasympathetic nervous system controls homeostasis and the body at rest, and is responsible for the "rest and digest" function of the body. The sympathetic nervous system controls the body's response to threat, and "fight or flight" mode.

Talk about the parathyroid gland, which consists of 4 pea-sized structures on the posterior surface of the thyroid, and its hormone.

The parathyroid gland produces PTH (parathyroid hormone) - serves as antagonist hormone to calcitonin. The overall effect of PTH is a significant increase in blood calcium levels with little effect on phosphorus (phosphorus homeostasis).

A common issue with flash photography is the "red eye effect". What part of the eye anatomy causes the red eye effect, and how?

The red eye effect phenomenon is due to light reflecting back off the retina, which is a reddish colour.

How does Deutsch and Deutsch's Late Selection Theory differ from Broadbent's Early Selection Theory?

The selective filter that discriminates information to be processed in Deutsch's is after the perceptual processing, but is before this in Broadbent's.

If a salt receptor was accidentally expressed and activated in a sweet cell, would the sensed taste in the brain be salty or sweet? Why?

The sensed taste would be sweet. If the salty receptor in a sweet cell was accidentally expressed, it would trigger a cascade effect which would still fire an action potential up an axon leading to the designated area in the brain. By the Labelled Lines model, the axons do not mix, and thus the synapse in the brain would still be in the area that detects sweet tastes - thus, the taste would be sweet. Type of cell determines the taste sensed, not the receptor

Describe the signalling pathway for the sympathetic NS

The signal pathway consists of two neurons - starts with a short preganglionic neuron, whose cell body originates at the spinal cord and the axon extends into the PNS. The preganglionic neuron synapses with a long postganglionic neuron using acetylcholine, which extends to synapse to the effector organ (using epinephrine/norepinephrine) Note: the synapse between pre- and postganglionic neurons uses acetylcholine while the second between the post- and effector organ uses epinephrine or norepinephrine.

Clearly differentiate the terms stressor, stress reaction, and stress.

The stressor is the event that is causing the animal to have that stress reaction. The stress reaction is how the animal with the stressor physiologically responds. Stress is the combination of the stressor and stress reaction.

When talking about biases, what is confirmation bias?

The tendency to focus on info that fits an individuals beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the theory of planned behaviour

The theory of planned behaviour states we consider our implications of our actions before we decide how to behave. The best predictor of our behaviour are our intentions in a given situation.

Parts of the eye: sclera

The thick white covering layer of the eye, does not cover the cornea - supplied nutrients by two bloodvessels: choroidal and retinal vessels. Composed of protein called collagen as well as elastic fibers

Jack sees a poor man on the street. He thinks to himself, "That poor fellow. He doesn't deserve this." Is this an example of the Just World Phenomenon?

This is not an example of the Just World Phenomenon. If it was, Jack would have said, "That fellow is getting what he deserves. He must be too lazy to get a job." Think of the "Just World Phenomenon" as a "Fair World", and it can be used to justify critical judgments.

When traveling to the Eiffel Tower for the first time, tourists may still get a feeling of deja-vu. Why is this the case in terms of bottom-up and top-down processing?

Tourists have probably seen pictures of the Eiffel Tower, so top-down processing will quickly recognize the structure before bottom-up processing can actually process the stimuli.

Parts of the eye: vitreous humor

Transparent gel in the eye behind the lens which supports the retina

Define the methods of problem solving: - Trial & Error - Algorithms - Heuristics

Trial and error - less sophisticated - various solutions to a problem are tried until one works Algorithms - formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem - e.g. mathemetical or instructions set Heuristics are simplified principles to make decisions - rules of thumb - e.g. ismeans-end analysis (starts with the biggest problem -> smaller); working backwards (working way back from start point of a maze to find the beginning).

True or False? Constancy is a perceptual category in which our perception of an object remains the same even if the image cast on the retina is different.

True

True or False? Unlike innate behaviors, learned behaviors are adaptable, meaning that these behaviors can be altered to better suit the environment.

True

True or false: Endorphines decrease the perception of pain - mask it and can even induce sense of euphoria

True

True or false: Rods are slow-adjusting to changes in light whereas cones are rapid-adjusting

True

True or false: extreme sleep deprivation can lead to psychosis

True

True or False? Culture can have an impact on development on different levels: a specific aspect of culture could both help and hinder different parts of development.

True. Culture can have an impact on development on different levels: a specific aspect of culture could both help and hinder different parts of development. An example of this is Doctors now recommending infants sleep on their backs, which delays learning to crawl (slight negative), but prevents babies suffering SIDS (positive). *

True or False? Depression is biologically-supported, and there is evidence that patients suffering from Depression stop making and have reduced responses to serotonin in the frontal cortex.

True. Depression is biologically-supported, and there is evidence that patients suffering from Depression stop making and have reduced responses to serotonin in the frontal cortex.

True or False? Ekman's 6 universal emotions are considered universal because they are expressed by consistent facial expressions, regardless of cultural background.

True. Ekman's 6 universal emotions are considered universal because they are expressed by consistent facial expressions, regardless of cultural background.

True or false: epinephrine and norepinephrine are water soluble, not lipid soluble, and amino-acid derivative hormones

True. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are water soluble, not lipid soluble, and amino-acid derivative hormones

True or false: genetic abnormalities and predispositions can be a cause to contribute towards depressive disorders, along with psychosocial factors

True. Genetic abnormalities and predispositions can be a cause to contribute towards depressive disorders, along with psychosocial factors. Nature and nurture can combine to cause the illness.

True or False? Gestalt Psychologists believe that you cannot understand human psychology by breaking it down into its parts. Rather it must be understood as a whole.

True. Gestalt Psychologists believe that you cannot understand human psychology by breaking it down into its parts. Rather it must be understood as a whole.

True or False? Hypnosis and Meditation are two examples of Induced States of Consciousness.

True. Hypnosis and Meditation are two examples of Induced States of Consciousness.

True or False? In the Asch experiment, when the participant was told to write their answers down, conformity of the participant decreased because they no longer had to state a dissonant answer out loud.

True. In the Asch experiment, when the participant was told to write their answers down, conformity of the participant decreased because they no longer had to state a dissonant answer out loud. When you know you are not being observed, your conformity will decrease.

True or false: in most cases, individuals with dissociative identity disorders have suffered of childhood abuse, either physical or sexual.

True. Most cases - individuals with DID have suffered of severe physical or sexual abuse.

True or false: Rods and cones have structural similarities

True. They both have structural similarities despite just being shaped different. Rods and cones both have membrane-bound optic discs with a form of opsin (internal protein) - in rods, the protein is rhodopsin while in cones, it is photopsin.

True or False? When experiencing pleasure, the Ventral Tegmental Area sends dopamine to the Amygdala, Nucleus Accumbens, Prefrontal Cortex, and the Hippocampus.

True. When experiencing pleasure, the Ventral Tegmental Area sends dopamine to the Amygdala, Nucleus Accumbens, Prefrontal Cortex, and the Hippocampus.

Type theories like the MBTI create a taxonomy of personality types - one well known theory describes type theories as Type A or Type B - what were these types?

Type A- competitive and compulsive behaviour; type B- laid-back and relaxed. Type A were found to be more prone to heart disease, though no evidence of higher mortality rates exist.

Why are Tyrosine derivatives treated as a separate class of hormones from the polypeptide class?

Tyrosine derivatives are made of exactly one amino acid that is manipulated, not multiple. The cyclic structure also gives tyrosine derivatives some non-polar characteristics, so they can act similarly to both Polypeptide and Steroid hormones in certain contexts.

Frued's psychoanalytical theory has heavy basis on unconscious desires and libido - describe these two.

Unconscious desires influence our behaviours, along with childhood experiences. Our personalities have memories, beliefs, urges and drives we aren't aware of, that make up this unconscious. Libido refers to natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind - it is fixated at certain psychosexual stages of development.

What is amplification?

Up regulation of a certain stimulus

How does priming affect selective attention?

We attend to information we have been primed for, even if not consciously thought about. For example, after eating, you would be primed to recognize food words in a word scramble. This would also explain the Cocktail Party Effect, as we'd have been primed to respond to our names.

Why do humans rely very little on pheromones? Which structure in the human olfactory system is not present that is present in other animals that rely on pheromones?

We lack the accessory olfactory bulb. We do have vomeronasal system but not the accessory olfactory bulb.

As sound travels through an ear, how many levels of amplification do we see? Why is this amplification of sound even necessary?

We see three levels of amplification - the first by the pinna capturing sound, the second by the ear drum, and the third by the 3 bones in the middle ear. The reason we need amplification is because in the inner ear sound is transmitted through a fluid, perilymph - sound travels through more resistance in fluid than in air.

The tip link of a kinocilium is attached to the gates of a K+ channel. Explain how an action potential is generated when fluid begins to move inside the cochlea.

When fluid moves in the cochlea, the tip links are pushed back and forth and subsequently stretched by movement in the cochlea. This stretching activates K+ channels they are linked to, allowing K+ to enter the cell. The entry of K+ activates Ca2+ channels inside the cell, and Ca2+ is also allowed into the cell. This causes an action potential which activates the auditory nerve.

When is the phototransduction cascade triggered?

When light is present and hits rod cells and turns them off

How is a pressurized sound wave formed when someone claps their hands?

When one claps their hands, a number of air molecules that were in a more open space are suddenly compressed into confined space between the palms. With less space to move, this compression forces them to be pressurized - to relieve this pressure, air molecules try to escape, which results in areas of high and low pressure = creating pressurized sound waves

Why do some users who take drugs in new locations overdose?

When taking drugs in a new location, the brain does not take external or ritualistic cues and hence has no time to adjust preemptively - thus, the same higher dose that would be needed in a drug users normal location would be too much when the body has not adjusted beforehand, leading to OD.

What is the crash?

When the body adjusts its homeostatic conditions with cues and the brain expects incoming drugs, but does not receive them, the time spent staying in preemptive preparation is the crash.

You look at a group of lightbulbs and notice that some are brighter than others. You are unable to tell however that two of the lightbulbs have any difference in intensity, seeming to be the same brightness. How does the concept of Just-noticeable Difference (JND) apply in this context?

When you can see a difference in the brightness of some bulbs, the level of brightness for said bulbs in comparison to the baseline has exceeded your just-noticeable difference (JND). When you do not perceive others as brighter, however, the difference in intensity has not passed your JND.

What is *wish fulfillment* and how is it part of the Id?

Wish fulfillment refers to mental imagery like fantasy or daydreaming - it serves as a ways to fulfill satisfaction, which is the function of the Id.

With Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), where does the distress or disability come into play?

With OCD, distress comes into their everyday life when their compulsions interfere with daily activities.

For months, Alterrique appeared to be depressed. However, this episode ends and Alterrique has extreme self-esteem and optimism, but also shows risky behaviors. Could Alterrique have been misdiagnosed and suffer from Bipolar Disorder?

Yes, Alterrique's behaviors after the depressive episode are characteristic of mania. Displaying both manic and depressive episodes is characteristic of bipolar disorder.

According to the DSM-5, is Sexual Dysfunction considered a mental disorder?

Yes, Sexual Dysfunction is considered a mental disorder because it involves Distress and Disabilities from abnormalities or performance of sexual acts.

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory states that you are reliant upon four factors that will determine whether or not you will learn something through observation. What are these four factors (Hint: Am I Motivated?)? Describe each and how it might apply to the Bobo Doll Experiment.

_Attention_ - Were the kids paying attention to the video of the man beating up the Bobo Doll? _Memory_ - Did the kids remember what the man did and said? _Imitation_ - Were the kids physically able to kick and punch? _Motivation_ - Were the kids motivated to beat up the Bobo Doll?

Rods and cones are connected by ________ cells, which directly or indirectly transmit signals from the photoreceptors to __________ cells.

bipolar, ganglion

Parts of the eye: ciliary body

ciliary muscles help change the shape of the lens and make it contract by pulling on suspensory ligaments under parasympathetic conditions

Parts of the eye: iris

coloured part of the eye - two different muscles that contract and expand that control the size of the pupil - dilator pupillae (sympathetic) and constrictor pupillae (parasympathetic)

In signal detection theory, what do the notations d' and c mean?

d' = refers to strength of the signal c = refers to strategy

What are ganglion cells?

retinal ganglion cells are types of neurons located in the inner surface of the retina - receive information from either of two intermediate neuron types, bipolar cells or amacrine cells Info is transmitted --> optic nerve --> brain

Parts of the eye: conjunctiva

thin layer of epithelial cells covering the cornea - helps moisturize cornea and protect from dust and debris

Dopamine is involved in many neural activities. Match the structure to its activity caused by dopamine: (1) Amygdala (2) Prefrontal Cortex (3) Hippocampus (4) Nucleus Accumbens (A) Memory formation (B) Emotion (C) Attention and planning (D) Controls Motor Function

(1) Amygdala - (B) Emotion (2) Prefrontal cortex - (C) Attention + planning (3) Hippocampus - (A) Memory formation (4) Nucleus Accumbens - (D) Controls Motor Function

Light hits a photoreceptor in the eye and causes the the cell to fire an action potential. That cell is connected to two other cells, which also fire action potentials. What does this form of up-regulation refer to? (A) Amplification (B) Sensory Adaptation (C) Habituation (D) Proprioception

(A) Amplification

In Kluver-Bucy Syndrome, patients are known to express hyperorality, hypersexuality and disinhibited behavior. Which part of the brain, normally associated with fear and anxiety, is usually affected by Kluver-Bucy Syndrome? (A) Amygdala (B) Thalamus (C) Hypothalamus (D) Hippocampus

(A) Amygdala The amygdala is known for controlling anger/violence and fear/anxiety. Kluver-Bucy Syndrome is a bilateral destruction of the amygdala, causing the aforementioned symptoms.

In the case of Phineas Gage, a metal rod penetrated Gage's skull. Afterwards, he showed less inhibition, along with increased crudity, temper, and an inability to plan. Which two areas were most likely injured? (A) Amygdala and Pre-Frontal Cortex (B) Amygdala and Hypothalamus (C) Cerebellum and Hypothalamus (D) Cerebellum and Pre-Frontal Cortex

(A) Amygdala and Pre-Frontal Cortex The metal rod injured mainly the pre-frontal cortex (planning and inhibition) and the amygdala (crudity and temper).

Which of the following examples is NOT an example of Complex Behavior? (A) An insect is born knowing how to eat and continues to eat with age. (B) An insect is born knowing how to fly but improves its flying through practice. (C) An child learns how to run but gets progressively better. (D) An infant is born able to cry,. but develops other ways to express themselves.

(A) An insect is born knowing how to eat and continues to eat with age. Complex Behaviors have to exhibit parts that are both Innate and Learned Behavior, and choice (A) does not exhibit traits of Learned Behavior.

Which match of the following DSM5 (a system of categorizing mental illnesses) illness categories with its description is incorrect? (A) Anxiety Disorders - distress caused by only phobias (B) Neurodevelopmental - distress is caused by improper development of the nervous system (C) Neurocognitive - nervous system developed then lost function afterwards, causing distress (D) Bipolar disorders - distress caused by both depressive moods and mania

(A) Anxiety disorders - distress caused by only phobias Anxiety disorders can be general too, not only caused by specific stimuli like phobias.

Which theory of dreaming explains that dreaming has developed to occur as a threat simulation to prepare for the real world, or as a method of problem solving? (A) Evolutionary Biology theory (B) Sigmund Freud's Dream theory (C) Memory Consolidation Theory (D) Neural Pathway Theory

(A) Evolutionary Biology theory

Christy sees her father die before her very eyes. Whenever she talks about the problem with a therapist, she starts sucking her thumb as a way to comfort herself. Which defense mechanism is Christy most likely implementing? (A) Regression (B) Suppression (C) Repression (D) Denial

(A) Regression Christy is resorting to behavior that is characteristic of an earlier stage of development as is seen in Regression.

Which of the following is not a coping mechanism for Cognitive Dissonance? (A) Removing the Cognitions (B) Modifying the Cognitions (C) Trivializing the Cognitions (D) Denying the relation between the Cognitions

(A) Removing the Cognitions The main strategies of reconciling cognitive dissonance is modifying the cognitions, trivializing the cognitions, or adding more cognitions to confound the first two, and denying the relation between the cognitions.

Jack is a medical student. He is trying his best to act like a doctor. Over time, he starts to truly feel like a doctor. Which theory best explains Jack's change? (A) Role-Playing (B) Door-in-the-Face (C) Foot-in-the-Door (D) Situational Approach

(A) Role-Playing Jack is role-playing being a doctor until he starts feeling like one.

If you are looking for supplies at a bookstore, and you are trying to learn your list by simply repeating the items over and over again, which encoding strategy are you using? (A) Rote Rehearsal (B) Chunking (C) Pegword Mnemonic Device (D) Method of Loci

(A) Rote Rehearsal It is also the weakest method.

Which taste cells rely on Ion Channels? (A) Salty, Sour (B) Bitter, Sweet (C) Sweet, Umami (D) Bitter, Umami

(A) Salty, Sour Salty and sour molecules bind to receptors on ion channels in tastes cells, which pumps ions to trigger an action potential to the brain.

What type of constancy refers to fact that even though an image may look bigger than another image because it is closer, we still process the images as the same size? (A) Size Constancy (B) Shape Constancy (C) Relative Constancy (D) Color Constancy

(A) Size constancy

Lexy has strong violent urges to hurt other people. Instead of hurting others, though, she lets out her feelings through art. Which defense mechanism is Lexy most likely implementing? (A) Subilimation (B) Humor (C) Rationalization (D) Intellectualization

(A) Subilimation Lexy is channeling her negative feelings into a more positive activity, which is what happens in Sublimation.

Which of the following is not a part of the General Adaptation Syndrome (G.A.S.)? (A) Alarm (B) Action (C) Exhaustion (D) Resistance

(B) Action

Which of the following is not a trait of innate (genetically encoded, not taught) behavior? (A) Intrinsic (B) Inflexible (C) Environmentally fit / well adapted (D) Stereotypical

(C) Environmentally fit / well adapted Traits of innate behavior include being Inherited, Intrinsic, Stereotypical, Inflexible and Consummate (fully developed right away)

Which of the following examples best exhibit Darwin's theory that emotions have an adaptive or inherent value? (A) A child sees their parent bargaining with a sales clerk for a discount, and will attempt bargaining with their teacher. (B) A toddler is told to use their words to explain what is wrong, but the toddler only cries. (C) A child throws a tantrum after watching their younger sibling complain and get a toy. (D) A blind man will use similar facial expressions as the general public, even though he's never seen them.

(D) A blind man will use similar facial expressions as the general public, even though he's never seen them. The other responses would require to be learned and not innate.

Which of the following endocrine glands is improperly matched to its function? (A) Pituitary Gland - Directs other endocrine glands in their function (B) Thyroid - Monitoring metabolism (C) Parathyroid - controlling calcium levels in the blood (D) Adrenal medulla - producing steroids

(D) Adrenal medulla - producing steroids The Adrenal medulla is responsible for producing catecholamines, while the Adrenal cortex produces steroids.

Dee was a serial killer. He was extremely violent and was sentenced to prison for the remainder of his life. While in prison, he finds joy and forgets his problems as he focuses on serving his fellow inmates, trying to make their stay in prison more enjoyable. Which defense mechanism is Dee most likely implementing? (A) Passive Aggression (B) Displacement (C) Projection (D) Altruism

(D) Altruism Dee is forgetting about his own problems and finding joy in serving others. This is an example of Altruism.

Which of the following are examples of heuristics? I) Availability II) Representativeness III) Means-end analysis (A) I only (B) III only (C) I and III (D) I, II and III

(D) I, II and III Availability (of examples that come to mind), Representativeness (using prototypes), and Means-end Analysis (breaking large problems into smaller ones) are all heuristics, or mental shortcuts used in problem solving. Working backwards is another common heuristic.

Which of the following are potential characteristics of Mania? I. Delusions of grandeur II. Poor Judgment III. Risky behaviors influenced by increased optimism (A) I Only (B) I and III Only (C) II and III Only (D) I, II and III

(D) I, II and III Characteristics of Mania include Delusions of grandeur, Risky Behaviors, Poor Judgment, and dangerously increased Self-esteem and Optimism.

How is a sound wave 'caught' and transmitted through the ear?

1) sound waves are *caught by your pinna/auricle* (big part of external ear) and passed along into deeper ear 2) sound *passes through the external auditory meatus* (auditory canal), connecting into the middle ear --> *auditory waves collide with the tympanic membrane* (aka eardrum), which is the boundary between the two 3) *Ear drum vibrates and passes vibrations to bones in the middle ear (aka tympanic cavity)*, which *amplifies sound waves* when they enter the inner ear *through the auditory ossicles* (3-bone structure of the malleus, incus and stapes - aka hammer anvil and stirrup) 4) The 3 bone structure acts as a chain to *conduct sound through* another membrane, *the superior oval window, which sets fluid in the inner ear into motion, through which sound travels* 5) *inner ear converts sound into electrical impulses* to send to the brain - more on that later.

What is a flashbulb memory, and are they susceptible to reconstruction?

A flashbulb memory is an extremely emotional, vivid memory (positive or negative). They are still susceptible to reconstruction. A person after experiencing something like say, a traumatic experience, will be likely to remember the memory and things done on that day very vividly - this is the concept of flashbulb memories.

In the image behind this flashcard, try to match each letter with the number provided: 1. Iris 2. Lens 3. Aqueous Humor 4. Vitreous Humor 5. Ciliary muscles 6. Optic nerve 7. Retina 8. Pupil 9. Fovea 10. Cornea

A-10 B-3 C-8 D-1 E-2 F-5 G-4 H-7 I-9 J- 6

What are the 3 types of nerve fibers? Distinguish between them

A-beta nerve fibers - largest diameters and plenty of myelin A-gamma nerve fibers - medium, some myelin C-fibers - smallest diameters, no myelin Combo of size and myelin changes how quickly each fiber can send an action potential

Sally has a bad attitude towards spiders. Describe this by each of the three components of attitude

Affective - Sally is scared of spiders (fear being the emotion) Behaviour - because of her fear, Sally will avoid spiders and going near them (action) Cognitive - Sally believes spiders are dangerous. All three contribute to form Sally's negative attitude towards spiders.

How do the functions of the external and middle ears differ from the inner ear?

All three portions of the ear are involved in hearing, but the inner ear is also involved in maintaining your equilibrium (proprioception).

Pancreas - from endocrine standpoint, small clusters of hormone producing cells are grouped into the islets of Langerhans - Islets contain three cell types each secreting a different hormone - what are they and what do they secrete?

Alpha cells - glucagon Beta cells - insulin Delta cells - somatostatin

Compare Alzheimer's Disease with Korsakoff Syndrome: - Cause of each? - Symptoms? - Treatment? - Permanent or Treatable?

Alzheimers: Unknown cause, problems based more on attention, semantic and abstract thoughts. Progressive and terminal. Untreatable. Korsakoff's Syndrome: Caused by lack of B1/thiamine, so lack of glucose metabolism, will have poor balance and abnormal eye movement along with memory/confusion issues. Can be treated and improve.

What is kinesthesia?

An awareness of the position and the movement of parts of the body by means of sensory organs. Kinesthesia is much more concerned with movement and behaviour, and is a key component of hand eye coordination and muscle memory.

Compare the differences in symptoms between patients with Broca's aphasia, Wernicke's aphasia, and conductive aphasia.

Aphasia is an impairment of language, due to injury. Broca's aphasia - damage to the Broca would result in impaired or slurred speech. Wernicke's aphasia - difficulty or inability to understand words + producing nonsense words Conductive (or global) aphasia - damage to the arcuate fasciculus resulting in loss of connection between the Broca's and Wernicke's areas - they are both in tact and hence so is speech production and language comprehension but the patient is unable to repeat something said to him. But with enough time patients will correctly get their point across via synaptic plasticity.

When graphing Signal detection theory, D represents the distance between the peaks of the noise curve and the signal curve. As D decreases, what happens to the frequency of misses/false alarms?

As D decreases, the range of signals and thresholds also decreases, and false alarms and misses would become more common.

How is attention split between multiple tasks, and why does this make multi-tasking less effective?

Attention is not actually split between two tasks simultaneously, but rather only focuses on one at a time. These gaps in attending to each task makes multitasking ineffective.

How would you describe attitudes (ABC model) and how they influence us?

Attitudes can be described as learned tendencies with three components: affective, behavioural, and cognitive components (ABC model). Affective component refers to how we feel emotions, which shapes our attitude Behavioural component refers to how we behave towards a subject, influencing our attitude Cognitive component refers to thoughts and beliefs or knowledge we form about something which influences our components.

Differentiate automatic processing from controlled (effortful) processing

Automatic processing is when information is gained without effort; controlled processing is active memorization of information. With practice, controlled processing can become automatic (think when you get good at a foreign language)

A week after his house was broken into in the night, James has a panic attack while trying to fall asleep in his bed his first night back home. Could he be diagnosed with a panic disorder?

Based on this information, no. James had an isolated panic attack that was somewhat justified by the situation, not a history of panic attacks for less warranted reasons.

Read this paragraph about the Prototype WIllingness Model: http://wiki.scetool.nl/index.php?title=Prototype_Willingness_Model What does it mean to say that the Prototype WIllingness Model is a Dual-processing Model? Can you relate this to a child who decides to smoke for the first time?

Basically, this theory says that there are two paths of influence on this child's behavior. The first path is rational and analytical (i.e. "It is okay to smoke because I've never been taught the consequences") . The second path is the social reaction path, which involves prototypes ("I know people who smoke and they are cool") and willingness to engage in the risky behavior ("I'm a daredevil, risk-taker kind of person").

Explain the difference between Belief Perseverance and Confirmation Bias.

Belief Perseverance is maintaining old, incorrect beliefs by ignoring or rationalizing against the dis-confirming facts presented to you. Confirmation Bias is when you intentionally seek out only facts to support your current opinion/decision.

Benzodiazepines, often shortened to "Benzos", can be prescribed for conditions from insomnia to anxiety. If their mechanism is opening chloride channels, how does "Benzos" repress insomnia and anxiety?

Benzos open up GABA (inhibitory NT) activated chloride channels on neurons - allowing more Cl- ions to flow in. The negatively charged anions makes the cell more resistant to excitation - thus they are used to repress anxiety or induce sleep/counter insomnia.

Electroencephalography (EEG) is used to record average electrical patterns of the brain - there are four characteristic patterns, or waves, associated with different states of waking or sleeping. What are beta and alpha waves?

Beta and alpha waves characterize brain wave activity when we are awake; Beta waves have a high frequency (12-30Hz) and occur when we are alert and attending a mental task - neurons are randomly firing Alpha waves occur when we are awake but relaxed with our eyes closed, and are slower than beta waves (8-13Hz) - more synchronized

How are circadian rhythms regulated?

Biochemical signals underlie the concept of circadian rhythms. Less light induces melatonin release for sleepiness, while more induces cortisol release for wakefulness. Sleepiness is attributed to increased levels of melatonin, a seratonin-derived hormone) released by the pineal gland. The retina is directly connected to the hypothalamus, which controls the pineal gland - decreasing light can trigger release of melatonin. In contrast, more light = cortisol release, which contributes to wakefulness. Increased light causes release of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) from the hypothalamus - causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ATCH) from anterior pituitary, which stimulates cortisol release.

The part of the retina that is directly in front of where the optic nerve exits the eye is known as the _____________.

Blind Spot. The Blind Spot is directly in front of where the optic nerve exits the eye - contains no rods or cones.

Differentiate between Anorexia and Bulimia nervosa

Both Anorexia and Bulimia are Feeding and Eating Disorders that lead to underweight patients. In Anorexia, the person consumes too little food consistently, whereas in bulimia, a person will binge eat and then purge it out (throw up the food).

Compare Schizotypal and Schizoid Personality Disorders.

Both Schizotypal and Schizoid Personality Disorders are part of the "Odd and Eccentric" Cluster. Schizoid Personality Disorder is characterized by emotional detachment, whereas Schizotypal personality disorder will both avoid close relationships AND hold magical/odd beliefs.

P.K.U (which codes for a liver protein) disorders can lead to a baby getting a buildup of phenylalanine and suffer neural defects. Giving the baby a phenylalanine-free diet will make the baby asymptomatic. Is P.K.U. caused by nature (genes), nurture (environment), or both?

Both genes and environment. Like many diseases, there is a genetic component (lacking the protein to breakdown Phenylalanine), but altering the environment appropriately (consuming a phenylalanine-free diet) prevents the disease from manifesting.

Compare the functions of the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad with the Phonological Loop.

Both the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad and Phonological Loop are part of Working Memory. The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad is used for visual information (like schedules and maps) whereas the Phonological Loop is used for verbal information (words and numbers). Modality is not the way information is acquired, so whether numbers are heard (echoic) or seen (iconic memory), they will go to the phonlogical loop.

For two siblings, with genetic predispositions to depression, one child ends up good looking and receives more attention and affection, and the other ends up ugly and thereby is more isolated from society. What would account for the second child becoming depressed, nature or nurture?

Both. Nature in the sense of genetic predisposition as well as unfortunate aesthetic genes, nurture in the sense that the people in the surrounding environment did not give the child the same sort of attention and privileges.

Compare bottom-up and top-down processing.

Bottom-up: Stimulus influences our perception. Data driven and no preconceived knowledge is used, thus integrates stimuli slower. Top-down: Using background knowledge to influence perception. Theory-driven, it is quicker, but more prone to mistakes.

Later psychoanalytical theories have given more emphasis to interpersonal, sociological and cultural influences. Carl Jung preferred to think of libido as psychic energy in general. How did Jung define the ego and elements of the theory?

Carl Jung identified the ego as the conscious mind. He divided the unconscious mind into the *personal unconscious* (=Fruedian unsconscious) and the *collective unconscious*, which is a powerful system shared among all humans, considered to be a residue of experiences of early ancestors.

Describe Piaget's pre-operational stage

Children ~2-7 years - characterized by symbolic thinking (including ability to speak), egocentrism and centration (tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon). Concepts of conservation and pretend-play also develop.

There are ten personality types organized into 3 clusters. What are these clusters?

Cluster A - Odd and eccentric (paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid) Cluster B - Dramatic, emotional and errate (antisocial, borderline, narcissistic, histrionic) Cluster C - Anxious and fearful (avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive)

After living with a depressed roommate for months and not scoring well on the LSAT, Jamarcus starts to develop depression himself. Could co-rumination have been a factor? If so, how?

Co-rumination is definitely a possible factor. Living with a depressed roommate, and after failing, Jamarcus and his roommate both may have sulked, and Jamarcus could have adopted some of his roommate's tendencies and attributions.

Define cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is the discomfort felt when holding two or more conflicting cognitiosn (ideas, values, beliefs, etc.) - can lead to alterations in attitudes or behaviours, which are done in order to reduce that dissonance

Substance use can lead to problems such as substance induced disorders. What falls under this category?

Conditions caused by substances that can range from substance induced mood disorders (mania, depression), disorders relating to anxiety, sleep, sexual function, even psychosis

What type of light do cones detect?

Cones detect colour and detail. There are three types, named for their wavelengths - short cones (S, blue light), medium cones (M, green light) and long cones (L, red light)

Differentiate between conformity, compliance and obedience

Conformity is how we adjust our attitudes and behaviours in order to go along with the group. Compliance is doing as you are asked even when you don't want to. (e.g. paying taxes) Obedience describes how we obey authority and follow order - does not involve cognitive factor that conformity does. (e.g. Nazism)

What is the definition of conformity?

Conformity is the tendency of people to bring their behaviour in line with group norms.

How can we define consciousness?

Consciousness can be described as one's level of awareness of themselves and their environments. Can be influenced by many factors including drugs. There are many stages of consciousness.

What is conversion disorder?

Conversion disorder (formerly hysteria) is characterized by unexplained symptoms with neurological basis that affect voluntary motor or sensory functions. Usually begin after something traumatic or stressful and develops over time - e.gs include paralysis or blindness without evidence of neurological damage. Individuals may be unconcerned about the symptom - la belle indifférence

What are binocular cues? Provide examples.

Cues about depth information derived from the use of both eyes. Examples include: Stereopsis (2 slightly diff images on retina), Eye convergence, Retinal disparity (the difference in image location seen by both eyes; ~2.5in) Yielding depth

What are monocular cues? Provide examples.

Cues provide depth information when viewing a scene with one eye. Examples include: Motion parallax (relative motion) Relative size Interposition Relative height Lighting, shading and contours Size constancy Shape constancy Colour constancy

Compare: - Deductive reasoning - Inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning (top-down) - starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from info given Inductive reasoning (bottom up) - create a theory via generalizations - starts with specific instances and draws conclusions from them

What are the physiological effects of Depressants? What are some examples?

Depressants are drugs that lower the body's basic functions and neural activity, i.e. decreased CNS activity, reaction time, processing speed, heart rate and blood pressure. E.g. benzos, barbituates, alcohol

In what ways is comparing Depression and a common cold appropriate? In which ways is it inappropriate?

Depression is by far the #1 reason for reaching out to mental health services, so its prevalence in the mental health community is similar to a cold's prevalence. However, this comparison can trivialize depression, since common colds are often recovered from without outside help.

What are some of the emotional behaviour effects of stress?

Depression, anger, anxiety/fear and addiction

What are the coping mechanism types for cognitive dissonance?

Described from perspective of smoker: 1) Modifying - modifying the cognitions; "i don't really smoke that much" 2) Trivialize - trivializing/making less important their cognitions - "evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer" 3) Add - adding more cognitions - "i exercise so much it doesn't matter I smoke" 4) Denying the cognitions - denying any relations between the cognitions - "there's no evidence smoking and cancer are linked"

A man comes into the ER room wearing steel-toed boots, a mesh hat and a RAM 1500 t-shirt, and is carrying his detached finger with him in a toolbox. Is it more likely that he is a construction worker, or a truck-driving construction worker? How might this be an example of the Conjunction Fallacy?

Despite any context clues, it is statistically more likely that the patient falls under just the label of "construction worker" than both "construction worker" and "truck driver". This is a clear example of the Conjunction Fallacy.

What are some ways people can cope with stress?

Develop a sense of perceived control over a situation Social support Nurturing an optimistic attitude

How does the auditory system break down complex sound waves into its component parts?

Different sound waves of different frequencies travel different distances in the cochlea and move different hair cells.

Hormones can also be classified by target tissue. Differentiate between *direct hormones* and *tropic hormones*

Direct hormones - secreted and act directly on target tissue - e.g. insulin released by pancrease induces glucose uptake by muscles. Indirect hormones - require intermediary action - e.g. GnRH stimulates LH and FSH

Differentiate between direct and indirect therapy. Which approach typically subscribes to which one?

Direct therapy refers to treatment that acts directly on the individual such as medications and periodic meetings with the psychologist. Indirect therapy aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of affected individual. The biomedical approach uses direct therapy; biopsychosocial uses both.

Differentiate between drive-reduction theory and the theory that motivation is based on needs.

Drive-reduction theory explains that motivation is based on the goal to eliminate uncomfortable stress. Need based theories state that motivation is explained by how we allocate energy and resources to satisfy our needs.

Describe the drive-reduction theory of motivation

Drives are internal states of tension that induce particular activity. The drive-reduction theory states drives help humans survive by creating an uncomfortable state ensuring motivation to eliminate this state or relieve internal tension. Primary drives (need for food, water, warmth) motivate us to sustain bodily temp in homeostasis. Homeostasis is controlled by negative feedback.

Considering the proximity of the receptors for different flavors. How does the Labelled Lines Model account for the 5 flavors not mixing?

Each one of the specialized taste cells has dedicated axons that remain separate all the way to the brain and synapse at dedicated spots in the brain without mixing.

How does a taste bud distinguish between different tastes?

Each taste bud has all the different types of cells specialized to each of the tastes. They all have dedicated axons that lead to the brain and remain separate all the way, and synapse at different parts of the brain. (This is known as the labelled lines model)

What is encoding?

Encoding refers to the process of putting new info into memory.

The adrenal medulla is responsible for production of sympathetic hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine (catecholamines) - specialized nerve cells in the medulla allow for direct release of these hormones into circulatory system. What do each do?

Epinephrine increases breakdown of glycogen -> glucose (glycogenolysis) and increases basal metabolic rate. Both hormones increase heart rate, dilate bronchi, and alter blood flow to certain internal organs. In sympathetic response- vasodilation of blood vessels to heart, lungs, skeletal muscle and brain to increase blood flow to these organs; vasoconstriction of vessels to decrease blood flow to the gut, kidneys and skin

What are some ways people manage stress?

Exercise and meditation Religious beliefs/faith Cognitive flexibility to change perspective

The pancreas has exocrine and endocrine functions. What is its exocrine function?

Exocrine tissues in pancrease secrete substances directly into ducts - numerous digestive enzymes

Compare Exogenous vs. Endogenous Cues.

Exogenous cues are external to our goals, will capture attention anyways (loud noise, bright colours). Endogenous cues are more internalized and require higher order thought (seeing an arrow and knowing it means to look/go that direction).

True or false: with age, fluid intelligence tends to increase or remain stable, while crystallized intelligence decreases dramatically

FALSE: crystallized intelligence remains stable or increases with age, while fluid intelligence tends to decrease

True or false: the id is responsible for our system of right or wrong, which substitudes for parental rewards and punishments.

FALSE: the *superego* is responsible for our system of right or wrong, which substitudes for parental rewards and punishments.

True or False? At the end of each projection that the olfactory bulb sends through the cribriform plate to the olfactory epithelium are receptors that sensitive to many molecules each.

False. At the end of each projection that the olfactory bulb sends through the cribriform plate to the olfactory epithelium are receptors that sensitive to ONLY 1 MOLECULE each.

True or False. Attitudes are something innate and unchangeable as they are closely intertwined with one's personality.

False. Attitudes are defined as "learned tendencies."

True or False? Object Permanence describes how older children can know that two cups hold equal volumes of water, even if the cups are different shapes, if the water is poured in front of them.

False. CONSERVATION describes how older children can know that two cups hold equal volumes of water, even if the cups are different shapes, if the water is poured in front of them.

True or False. The sooner a reward is given after an accomplishment/action, the less likely it is to occur again. Behavior is best rewarded at random and inconsistently as in variable-ratio conditioning.

False. The sooner a reward is given after an accomplishment/action, the more likely it is to occur again.

True or False? There is a certain personality type that is more likely to obey and conform than others.

False. There isn't a certain personality type that is more likely to obey and conform than others. However, different socioeconomic and cultural groups may be a little more likely.

True or false: Sodium channels in the rod cells require GMP to be bound in order for them to be open and allow flow of Na+ ions into the cell.

False. They require cGMP to be bound; conversion of cGMP to GMP by phosphodiesterase (PDE) causes a decline in cGMP concentration, closing the sodium channels.

True or False? To have an effect, hormones must be very concentrated in the blood (almost as concentrated as White Blood Cells).

False. To have an effect, hormones can be at very low concentrations in the blood (picograms/mL can be enough!)

True or false: Aging usually leads to significant memory loss.

False: contrary to popular belief, aging does not do this as many elderly retain vivid semantic and prospective memories.

True or false: Hypnosis has had little to no success in real world medicine or therapy.

False: hypnosis has been used successfully for pain control, psych- therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, smoking cessation - the success or effectiveness, however, highly depends on how willing the subjects personality is + lack of skepticism

True or false: the tympanic membrane is part of the middle ear

False: it is considered part of the external ear

True or false: Between these three, semantic encoding is the weakest form of encoding: - Semantic encoding - Visual encoding - Auditory encoding

False: semantic encoding is the strongest while visual is the weakest.

True or false: when someone tells you their IQ score, they are telling you their practical intelligence (from Sternberg's 3 intelligences)

False: the IQ test measures what would be analytical intelligence on Sternberg's theory (or linguistic and logical-mathematical on Gardner's) The Stanford-Binet IQ test is: IQ=mental age/chronological age x100

True or false: the image projected on the retina is upright

False: the image is inverted

True or false: extremely vivid and emotional memories are not susceptible to memory reconstruction.

False: these memories (flashbulb memories) are indeed still susceptible to memory reconstruction

True or false: during meditation the EEG sees beta waves from the brain

False: theta and alpha waves are seen, resembling Stage 1 of sleep.

True or false: when we are awake, cortisol levels tend to be lower

False: when we are awake, there is a physiological level of arousal and cortisol levels tend to be HIGHER.

If Freddie has a strong attraction to Hannah Montana, how might he use the Reaction Formation Defense Mechanism to deal with this?

Freddie might actively voice disgust with her and say that he hates her music. In Reaction Formation, an individual expresses the opposite emotion to the one they actually have.

Differentiate between free recall, cued recall and recognition.

Free recall is when you recall information without any cues or hints. Cued recall is when you are given some form of a cue to recall a piece of information, e.g. when recalling the word 'planet' from a list and you are given 'pl_____' Recognition is the process of merely identifying a piece of info that was previously learned - far easier than recall itself.

There are several types of anxiety disorders. Describe Generalized Anxiety disorder

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) - defined as disproportionate and continuous feeling of anxiety/worry and tension about many things for at least six months. People tend to be very tense with an unclear source. Physical symptoms may include fatigue, muscle tension, sleep problems. 2/3 patients are female.

Describe glucocorticoids and how they work + e.gs

Glucocorticoids regulate blood glucose levels and raise them via gluconeogenesis and decreasing protein synthesis. Examples are cortisol and cortisone - cortisol is responsible for increasing glucose levels for fuel during stress and fight-or-flight modes. Glucocorticoid release is under control of ACTH

T3 and T4 are synthesized by iodination of AA tyrosine in the follicular cells of the thyroid. The numbers 3 and 4 correspond to the number of iodine atoms attached to each tyrosine. Increased levels of T3 and T4 leads to cellular respiration - what does this entail?

Greater amounts of T3 and T4 leads to greater amount of protein and fatty acid turnover by speeding of synthesis and degradation. High plasma levels of thyroid hormones leads to decreased TSH and TRH synthesis - negative feedback in excess of T3 and T4

A group of closet racists and a group of closet feminists are placed in a room to discuss issues about racism for an hour. After the discussion, it was found that in the first group, members became overt and more racist than they were before, whereas the other group members became even less so. What explains this?

Group polarization - tendency for group ideas to shift more to an extreme than individual ideas of members within the group.

Group interactions can shape an outcome. What is group polarization?

Group polarization is a phenomenon in which group decision making amplifies original opinions of group members. Group ideas have a tendency to polarize towards an extreme, more so than individual ideas or inclinations of members within a group. Some factors: -All views do not have equal influence - viewpoint shared by majority -Arguments made tend to favour popular view, criticism is directed to minority view (confirmation bias)

Group interactions can shape an outcome. What is groupthink?

Groupthink is the social phenomenon where the desire for harmony and minimizing conflict results in a group of people potentially coming to a poor decision. The desire to eliminate conflict drives consensus decisions without presenting of alternative views/ideas, and the desire to agree causes a loss of independent critical thinking. Many factors influence groupthink, including: illusion of invulnerability, collective rationalization, illusion of morality, pressure of conformity, self censorship, illusion of unanimity, mindguards

Compare and contrast hueristics and algorithms in terms of processing speed and guarantee of correctness.

Heuristics are mental tricks used to break complex problems into simpler problems using mental tricks, but do not guarantee right answers. Algorithms are methodical approaches that are guaranteed to get the correct answer, but can take a very long time.

A deficiency of iodine or inflammation may result in hypothyroidism - what characterizes this condition?

Hypothyroidism is characterized by lethargy, decreased body temp, slow respiratory and heart rate, weight gain, cold intolerance.

Put the Auditory Ossicles in order from first to vibrate to last to vibrate? I. Incus II. Malleus III. Stapes (A) I > II > III (B) II > I > III (C) III > II > I (D) III > I > II

II > I > III malleus -> incus -> stapes

Why is answer choice B wrong in the following question: Two siblings could be born with the same combination of genes that can lead to depression, but the environment only activates those genes for one of the siblings. Which of the following scenarios is this most like? (A) Ben and Chrissy both have a dream to win a reality TV show, but only Ben achieves this dream. (B) Devon and Mike grew up having very different looks, and because Devon was more handsome, he received more positive attention. (C) Ashley and Alan both have a predisposition for panicking under stress, and Alan has a panic attack after he gets in a car accident. (D) Lauren and Desi grew up with very different lifestyles, so that only Lauren enjoys working outdoors.

In this answer choice (B), one sibling ends up receiving more attention and affection from the surroundings and so may end up growing up happier and more optimistic, but this does not suggest any predisposition to depression or any sort of mental disorder, thus assuming the other child would become depressed would not be entirely accurate. If a predisposition was mentioned, then (B) would have more of an option.

What is L-DOPA? How is it useful for Parkinsons?

L-DOPA is a precursor that is converted to dopamine once in the brain - it is therefore useful for partially managing Parkinsons by replacing what is lost due to the disease.

Parts of the eye: cornea

Light passes through the cornea first, which gathers and focuses incoming light. Entering light is bent with an index of refraction = 1.4 (while air = 1.0)

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is the most well known motivation theory based on needs, and breaks down needs into categories on a pyramid. Describe his theory and hierarchy.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - classifies needs into five groups of different importance on a pyramid, with the bottom being the most important. His needs, in order of importance, were: - Physiological (breathing, food, water, air, sex, homeostasis) - Safety (security of: body, employment, health, property) - Love/Belonging (friendship, family, intimacy) - Esteem (self-esteem, confidence, respect) - Self-actualization (morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving, accomplishment)

Describe the term and what kind of cue it is: motion parallax

Motion parallax is relative motion - it is a monocular cue. When looking at something far while moving, it appears to move slow, whereas something nearby or adjacent seems to be moving fast.

Cluster B (dramatic/emotional) is defined by four types of personality disorder. Describe narcissistic personality disorder

Narcissistic personality disorder - characterized by sense of grandoise and self importants, feelings of entitlement and constant need for admiration and attention. Ego-centric.

What does the Nature versus Nurture debate claim about motor development.

Nature: Since kids all around the world and blind kids all have similar timelines, it may not be learned from watching/nurture. Nurture: Allowing more space and time with parents to develop motor skills and practice can help.

What kind of light do rods detect?

Only light and dark - they have one pigment, which is rhodopsin - low sensitivity to detail but permits night vision

What mechanistically differentiates PTSD from other anxiety disorders?

PTSD can have a clear trigger that causes the onset of the disorder, while others have more ambiguous or trivial beginnings.

There are several types of anxiety disorders. Describe Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and the sort of symptoms it has (intrusion, avoidance, negative-cognitive, arousal).

PTSD is a stress anxiety disorder that occurs after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. Unlike other anxiety disorders, it usually has a trigger to onset the disorder. PTSD has intrusion, avoidance and negative cognitive and arousal symptoms: Intrusion symptoms include recurrent reliving the event through flashbacks, nightmares and prolonged distress. Avoidance symptoms include deliberate attempts to avoid memories, people, places, objects etc. associated with the trauma. Negative cognitive symptoms include inability to recall the key features of the incident, negative mood and world views, feeling distanced. Arousal symptoms include increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, destructive or reckless behaviour, insomnia.

There are several types of anxiety disorders. Describe panic disorders

Panic disorders consist of repeated panic attacks - symptoms of a panic attack include fear and apprehension, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation, and a sense of impending doom. Panic attacks tend to be sudden bursts of short-lived but very severe, intense episodes.

Peptide hormones are charged while steroids aren't (derived from nonpolar molecules) - what does this entail about their water solubility and travel through the bloodstream?

Peptide hormones can travel through the bloodstream without carriers because they are water soluble. Steroid hormones are nonpolar and thus not soluble in water - they require protein carriers to travel through the bloodstream. They are generally inactive when attached and must dissociate from the carrier protein to function. Carrier proteins can be specific or nonspecific.

Peptide hormones are charged - how do they function if they cannot pass through the plasma membrane (due to charge)?

Peptide hormons cannot pass through the plasma membrane and hence function as a *first messenger* and bind to the receptor (usually G-protein coupled) to release a second signal called a *second messenger*. At each step there is a possibility of amplification. The connection between the hormone and the effect of its second messenger - referred to as *signalling cascade*. Common peptide hormones are insulin, ADH; common second messengers are cAMP, IP3 and Calcium

Symptoms of schizophrenia include positive and negative symptoms. What are examples of each?

Positive symptoms refer to presence of symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, speech or behaviour. They have a psychotic dimension (delusions/hallucinations) and a disorganized dimension (disorganized activity). Negative symptoms refer to the absence of normal or desired behaviour, such as disturbance of affect or avolition (lack of engagement in goal-driven actions)

Each of the tropic hormones causes release of another hormone from an endocrine gland that has a negative feedback effect. What does this mean about receptors on the hypothalamus and pituitary?

Receptors for end hormones like cortisol must be present on the hypothalamus and pituitary for negative feedback to be possible. CRF from hypothalamus causes release of ACTH from pituitary gland - ACTH causes the adrenal cortex to release cortisol. When cortisol levels get too high, it must have negative feedback capabilities - therefore receptors for cortisol must be present on the hypothalamus and pituitary.

Describe the following retrieval cues: Serial position effect

Retrieval cue referring to how learning lists. Learners will have much higher recall for the first and last few items on a list than any other - tendency to remember early and late items is known as the *primacy* and *recency* effect (respectively)

Describe the following retrieval cues: State-dependent effect

Retrieval cue referring to people who learn facts or concepts in an altered state of mind, will recall the information best when in that state of mind.

What is retrieval?

Retrieval is the process of demonstrating that something learned has been retained. Many think of it as recall.

Compare retroactive and proactive interference in terms of memory.

Retroactive interference is when some new piece of information makes it harder to recall previously learned information/memories. Proactive interference is when something learned in the past interferes with learning or retrieving something learned after.

Differentiate retrograde and anterograde amnesia.

Retrograde amnesia - loss of previously formed memories Anterograde amnesia - inability to form new memories

Describe the second step of the phototransduction cascade. Rhodopsin has changed it's shape, and there's a molecule of interest attached to it. What happens?

Rhodopsin changes shape after 11-cis retinal -> all trans retinal. A G-protein molecule, Transducin, is attached to rhodopsin, and subsequently breaks off. Transducin has an alpha, beta and gamma subunits, and the alpha subunit binds to PDE (phosphodiesterase).

What happens when light hits a rod cell? Is it turned off or on?

Rod cells are normally turned on, in the absence of light. So when light hits a rod cell, it turns it off.

What happens when light strikes a rod cell in the rhodopsin proteins? How are they turned off?

Rod cells have disc like structures within, that contain rhodopsin proteins. Rhodopsin contains a small molecule retinal, which exists in a particular conformation called 11-cis retinal. When light hits rhodopsin, it causes the 11-cis retinal molecule to change conformation to become all trans-retinal, and subsequently rhodopsin also changes shape. Rhodopsin has a molecule called transducin, (a G-protein which has α, β and γ subunits) that then breaks off, and the alpha subunit goes and binds to a protein phosphodiesterase (PDE) on another part of the disc. PDE converts cyclic GMP to GMP. The increase in [GMP] results in inability of Na+ channels along the cell to remain open, as they require cGMP to be bound to remain active. As less sodium enters the cell, the cell hyperpolarizes and causes the rod cells to turn off. These will be divided into other cards - look out for them!

When you walk out from the bright sunlight into a dark room, you are unable to see at first, but after a few minutes your eyes adjust and you can begin to see clearly. What causes this on a molecular level?

Rods account for dark and light (or B/W) vision. Rods have slow recovery or adjustment times - in bright light, they are hyperpolarized to allow activation of bipolar cells; for them to return to resting membrane potential and fire another action potential, it takes more time than it does for cone cells. Hence, when you go into a dark room from bright, it takes time for rods to reactivate to be able to clearly see in the dark

The retina has two types of photoreceptors in particular- what are they?

Rods and cones

Compare Assimilation and Accommodation, in terms of mental Schema.

Schemas can be defined as frameworks we create in order to organize and understand new information (e.g. schema for 4 legged animals). Piaget theorized new information is processed via adaptation, which has two complementary processes: assimilation and accomodation. Assimilation is the process of classifying new information into existing schemas. Accomodation is the process by which the EXISTING schemas are modified to incorporate new information.

Cluster A (Odd and eccentric) is defined by three types of personality disorder. Describe schizoid personality disorder

Schizoid personality disorder is a pervasive pattern of emotional detachment from social relationships + restricted emotional expression Little social interactions + poor social skills

Cluster A (Odd and eccentric) is defined by three types of personality disorder. Describe schizotypal personality disorder

Schizotypal personality disorder refers to a pattern of odd or eccentric thinking - individuals may have ideas of reference (similar to delusions of reference) as well as magical thinking (supersticious, belief in clairvoyance)

An individual experiences symptoms of major depressive disorder, but for some reason only during the winter season. What sort of disorder might this be categorized as? How might this be treated?

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD). Best explained as major depressive disorder with seasonal onset, with symptoms present only in the winter months. Believed to potentially be related to abnormal melatonin metabolism, and often treated with bright light therapy (patient exposed to bright light for specified amount of time each day).

What is sensory memory?

Sensory memory is a temporary register of all the senses your body is taking in. The most studied are iconic memory (visual) and echoic memory (auditory)

What are the two important classes of steroids in the body?

Sex hormones - estrogen, progesterone, androgens Adrenal cortex steroids - cortisol, cortisone, aldosterone

What is the benefit of basilar tuning?

Specific frequencies send specific signals allowing the brain to distinguish between different sounds of high or low frequencies. Otherwise, if all hair cells responded to all frequencies, one large signal would be sent to brain without ability to distinguish.

When eating spicy foods, people can feel pain as their TrpV1 receptors are activated. Why can capsacin and similar chemicals activate these receptors?

Spicy foods contain chemical molecules like capsacin which bind to TrpV1 receptors in your tongue, causing it to fire an action potential, which causes the brain to interpret it as pain and heat. Over time, the receptors become desensitized to capsacin.

Describe the sympathetic NS vs. parasympathetic NS in terms of: - Pupil dilation - Salivation - Breathing (respiratory) rate - Heart rate - Glucose release (blood sugar) - Adrenaline release - Digestion

Sympathetic NS: Pupils dilate; decreased salivation and digestion; increased breathing and heart rates, glucose release/blood sugar, and adrenaline/epinephrine release. Parasympathetic: Pupils constrict; increased salivation and digestion; decreased heart and breathing rates, adrenaline release and glucose release (or increased glucose storage)

Why is the hypothalamus referred to as the "control center"?

The Hypothalamus plays a key role in integrating the CNS and Endocrine System because of its duality as an endocrine gland and as part of the forebrain. Because of this, the hypothalamus can be considered the Control Center.

Describe Frued's element of the Id

The Id is the most unconscious part of our mind that develops at birth. It operates under a *pleasure principle* which demands instant gratification. The *primary process* is the id's response to frustration, which is to seek satisfaction immediately.

You are really craving ice cream. Describe how the Id, Ego, and Superego might interact within your mind as you face this temptation.

The Id wants immediate gratification and would drive you to just eat the ice cream NOW. The Superego is moral oversight and represents the values of society, which would tell you to never eat ice cream because it is not good for your body. The Ego acts as a mediator would balance out the two, resulting in a compromise where you eat some ice cream after patiently waiting for it.

What is the Just World Phenomenon?

The Just World phenomenon is the idea that the universe is fair and people must get what they deserve. "Good things happen to good people, while bad things happen to bad people". In terms of Milgram's experiment, some of the participants who felt ashamed for what they did still justified their actions somewhat by sort of blaming the victims, stating if they got more answers correct and were smarter, they wouldn't have gotten shocked as much.

Draw or visualize an example of The Law of Continuity. Describe this law.

The Law of Continuity - lines are seen as following the smoothest path.

Draw or visualize an example of The Law of Pragnanz. Describe this law.

The Law of Pragnanz states that reality is usually reduced to its simplest form. In this image, you see five circles instead of more complex potential shapes.

Draw or visualize an example of The Law of Proximity. Describe this law.

The Law of Proximity states that objects that are close to each other are usually grouped together.

Draw or visualize an example of The Law of Similarity. Describe this law.

The Law of Similarity - items or objects that are similar are grouped together.

Describe the Lazarus theory of emotion. How is it different from the Schachter-Singer theory?

The Lazarus theory of emotion proposed that the experience of emotion depends on how the experience is cognitively appraised (where you label the situation). It is different from the Schachter-Singer theory because once an event happens, the situation is labelled by the brain, and depending on that label comes the emotional response. So if the situation is labelled as bad or frightful, the emotion experience thereafter is negative and a physiological response occurs (simultaneously).

Right now, you are preparing for the MCAT. Is the MCAT a Well-Defined or Ill-Defined problem, and why?

The MCAT is a well-defined problem, because it has a clear beginning and end. Especially with the structure and organization of the MCAT Self Prep eCourse! ;) An Ill-defined problem lacks that clarity.

Stanley Milgram was inspired by his background (Jewish parents who immigrated to the US) and by the Holocaust to conduct his experiment regarding obedience. Describe his experiment.

The Milgram experiment was conducted to observe the obedience of participants who were asked to give an individual for answering questions wrong. Individuals did as they were told and administered high level shocks in order to obey the authority, despite having to give up to 'lethal' shocks. It found that stark authority usually overuled peoples morals and people would go to any extent under authority.

Abnormalities in neural pathways for certain NTs may cause increased or decreased activity in certain parts of the brain, leading to depressive symptoms. Discuss these pathways: - Raphe system - Locus Coeruleus - VTA pathway

The Raphe system - pathway begins in the Raphe nuclei of the brainstem, responsible for secreting serotonin into projections leading up to the cerebrum (including frontal lobe and limbic system) - the pathway seems to be abnormal in patients with depression. Locus Coeruleus - also begins in the brainstem, releasing norepinephrine into the cerebrum - also abnormal in patients with depressive disorders VTA - in the brainstem - supplies much of the dopamine to the brain via the mesocorticolymbic pathway - also abnormal in depressive patients. Medications that affect these different NTs often better some of the symptoms of depressive disorders.

The *Rorschach inkblot test* and *thermatic apperception test* both are used to identify individual undesired feelings via projection as a defense mechanism. Describe the tests.

The Rorschach inkblot test - relies on assumption that the client projects his or her unconscious feelings onto the shape Thermatic Apperception test - series of pictures presented to client who is asked to make up a story for each - will elucidate client's own unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Describe the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion. (hint: cognitive appraisal)

The Schachter-Singer theory (aka cognitive-arousal theory or two-factor theory) states that BOTH arousal and the labelling of arousal based on the environment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced. E.g. "I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy" This theory uniquely incorporates cognitive appraisal into causation of emotion

What does the activation-synthesis theory of dreams state?

The activation-synthesis theory states dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry in our brainstem - this activation can mimic incoming sensory information, and may consist of stored pieces of memories, current or previous desires, and met or unmet needs. By this theory, dreams have no prominent meaning.

What happens when a benzene molecule (or aromatic compound) enters a nasal passage and hits one of the receptors on a nerve projection?

The benzene ring hits the receptor - those sensitive to benzene will trigger a cascade of events and fire an action potential into a particular location in the olfactory bulb called a glomerulus. From there, they synapse into a mitral (or tufted) cell, which projects the signal to the brain.

Describe Jung's *collective unconscious* and what elements it has

The building blocks of the collective unconscious are images of common experiences, referred to as *archetypes* - examples of archetypes: The *persona* - a personality mask we wear in public that is adaptive to social interactions The *anima* (feminine) and *animus* (masculine) - referring to sex-inappropriate qualities - feminine qualities in males, masculine qualities in females The *shadow* - appearance of socially reprehensible and unpleasant thoughts, feelings, emotions in our consciousness.

What is sensory adaptation?

The change in the sensitivity of your perception of a sensation Senses of hearing, touch, smell, even proprioception (sense of balance) all adapt to changes in perception by desensitizing

When at a rock concert, your friend whispers something in your ear and you have no clue on Earth what he said. However, when he whispered the same thing the next day in the library, you had no issues understanding what he said. What concept explains this?

The concept of JND (just noticeable difference). By Weber's Law (ΔI/I=K), the threshold for the JND would be very different compared to the surroundings of the two environments. Relationship between intensity and incremental threshold is linear.

What is the relative density and location of the rod and cone cells in a human eye?

The cones are very densely populated and centered in the fovea, while scarcely present in the periphery of the retina. The rods are densely populated in the periphery of the retina, but decline rapidly when approaching the fovea.

Nativists believe in a certain time frame between the ages of 2 and puberty for learning language, beyond which later training is largely ineffective. What is this timeframe called?

The critical period - period of time in which a child is most able to learn a language. Theoretically, LAD only operates during this period.

Describe Frued's element of the superego

The ego and superego both have conscious and unconscious elements. The superego also aims to achieve desires, but unlike the id (which desires basic needs), the superego has refined and focused desires on the ideal self - personality perfectionist that judges our actions and responds with pride or guilt. Two elements: the *conscience* - collection of punishable improper actions from childhood; the *ego-ideal* - proper actions rewarded from childhood. These eventually transform into a system of right or wrong.

You probably noticed that when you spun around too much like an idiot when a child, you got pretty dizzy after. What goes on in the vestibular system when that happens?

The endolymph in the ear canals doesn't stop moving right when we do when we're spinning around vigorously and then stop. As a result, the shifting endolymph continues to send signals and action potentials to your brain that you are still moving, when when at halt. This results in dizziness. When the fluid eventually stops moving is when the dizziness stops.

The olfactory bulb is a bundle of nerves that sends thousands and thousands of nerve projections through the cribriform plate into the olfactory epithelium. What is at the ends of these projections?

The ends of these nerve projections have tiny receptors that are each sensitive to only one molecule each. This accounts for how we smell distinct odors.

Describe the evolutionary approach of motivation

The evolutionary approach is based on the instinct theory - people are driven to do certain behaviours based on evolutionary programmed instincts. Described motivation in reference to Darwinian evolution. William James was the first to write about instincts.

Describe the foot-in-door phenomenon on how behaviour influences attitude.

The foot in door phenomenon states we are much more likely to do a large, attitude changing task if we agree to perform a small one first. This is one way people get 'brainwashed' into doing things. "foot in door" or "dipping feet into water". E.g. trying our SARMS before going to full-fledged steroids; gateway drugs

What is the general intelligence (G factor) theory?

The general intelligence theory proposes there is one underlying intelligence accounting for our mental abilities and capabilities, and ability in one area = higher ability in another

When you eat a piece of cake, how do the glucose molecules interact with taste buds?

The glucose molecule binds to a receptor for glucose in the sweet cell of a taste bud, which triggers a cascade and fires an action potential all the way to the brain. Also: for sweet tastes, the molecule binds to a GCPR and causes the G-protein to dissociate from the receptor, beginning the cascade.

Describe the hierarchal model of semantic memories and spreading activation.

The hierarchal model (which is the old model) was a simplistic hierarchal network of things into general categories.

What is the function of the hippocampus in the limbic system?

The hippocampus works to form new memories - converts short-term memories into long-term memories

Describe the *humanistic theory* (or phenomenological)

The humanistic theory takes a person-centered approach in stating individuals have free will and the ability to strive towards self-actualization (which remember, is max potential in Maslow's hierarchy!) The theory states we are inherently good and strive to self improve. Maslow was the first humanist.

The hypothalamus connects to the pituitary gland through a stream of blood vessels to release hormones that bind to receptors in the pituitary, triggering release of other hormones. What is the name of the blood vessel system?

The hypophyseal portal system. The hypothalamus sends tropic hormones through the hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary gland, where they bind to receptors and signal release of other hormones.

Describe the role of the hypothalamus and how it regulates hormones and maintains homeostasis.

The hypothalamus is the control center that links the CNS and endocrine system - located in the forebrain and can have organism-wide effects. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary through paracrine hormones (regionally acting) into a hypophyseal portal system, and can receive input from a variety of sources. It regulated the release of hormones and maintains homeostasis via negative feedback.

What is the role of the hypothalamus in the limbic system?

The hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system - fight/flight or rest/digest - via secreting hormones into your body (epinephrine, norepinephrine, adrenaline)

Alfred Alder also formed a psychoanalytical theory - he was the originator of the *inferiority complex*. How did his theory describe personality?

The inferiority complex refers to individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection and inferiority (physically & socially). Alder's theory stated striving for superiority enhances and drives personality.

Sensory adaptation can protect your ears (via the tympanic reflex) from damage during a long fireworks display. How does this work?

The inner ear muscle contracts after an increased, sustained stimulus, decreasing ossicle vibration and downstream sensitivity.

B. F. Skinner proposed that operant conditioning and reinforcement account for an infants ability of language development. Which theory does this refer to?

The learning (behaviouralist) theory of language development. Over time infants perceive sounds that are reinforced as having value, whereas those that aren't do not. Does not explain how children can learn new words or form sentences they haven't heard before

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the Learning theory

The learning theory of attitudes states that our attitudes are developed from different forms of learning - can be influenced by direct contact, direct instruction from others, subjective norms, and/or classical, operant conditioning or observational learning.

What is the absolute threshold of a sensation?

The minimum stimulus needed to activate a sensory system and reach the CNS - it is a threshold in sensation but not perception. A stimulus below this would not reach the CNS. It can also be described as the minimum intensity of a stimulus to be able to detect a stimulus ~50% of the time - lowest level of a stimulus we can generally detect.

The hypothalamus also releases PIF (prolactin-inhibiting factor) into the anterior pituitary - what is different about this hormonal release?

The other hormones release all stimulated the release of their respective hormones. However, PIF (which is actually dopamine) inhibits the release of Prolactin secretion (stimulates mammary glands in females to produce milk)

What is the purpose of the otolithic organs (utrical and saccule)?

The otolithic organs help determine the acceleration and head positioning. They have calcium carbonate crystals attached to hair cells. These crystals pull on the hair cells, depending on our head positioning, which results in an action potential, allowing us to detect acceleration and position.

How are sound waves transmitted along in the inner ear?

The oval window (or eliptical window) is attached to the cochlea. After the ear drum vibrates and the stapes causes the oval window to vibrate. This causes fluid inside to go all the way around the cochlea until reaching the tip, and flow back until it hits the circular (round) window and pushes it out. This continues to happen until the energy of the sound wave has dissipated, and hair cells inside the cochlea are being pushed back and forth, which transmits an electrical impulse via the auditory nerve --> brain.

How does the phototransduction cascade affect rod cells, the downstream bipolar and ganglion cells, and the optic nerve?

The phototransduction cascade deactivates rod cells that typically inhibit downstream cells. In response, a bipolar cell is activated, which activates a retinal ganglion cell that sends signals to the optic nerve, which finally leads to processing in the Brain.

What is the first part of sound waves hit when entering the body for transduction?

The pinna, portion of the outer ear

What does the pre-frontal cortex do in relations to emotions?

The prefrontal cortex is the anterior portion of the frontal lobes - associated with planning intricate cognitive functions - problem solving, decision making, expressing personality.

Explain the concept and mechanism of synaptic plasticity and long-term potentiation.

The presynaptic neuron releases NTs to the postsynaptic neuron, which opens channels to allow cations (Na+, Ca^2+) to flow into the postsynaptic charge. Each neuron have a surrounding membrane, with the interior having a different charge than the exterior - diff in charges called neurons potential, and the flow of ions affects that potential. Strength of synapse is measured by how much post synaptic potential changes with presynaptic stimulus. With practice, the synaptic plasticity improves at opening channels and the strength of synapse increase - this is called Long term potentiation, and this is why we can learn better with practice.

What does the problem solving theory of dreams state?

The problem-solving theory states dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping - untethered by real world rules, and allow interpretation of obstacles differently than when alert and awake.

Before schizophrenia is diagnosed, a patient often goes through a phase characterized by poor adjustment called the Prodromal phase - describe this phase

The prodromal phase is exemplified by clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal and isolation, impairment of role functioning, peculiar behaviour, unusual experiences, and inappropriate affect.

Remaining in stress and overdrive for too long puts your body in a system of overdrive. What are some of the physical effects of stress on the reproductive system?

The reproductive system requires lots of energy, and so part of acute stress response (like fight or flight) the reproductive system is inhibited or shut down. However, with chronic stress (which accompanies psychosocial stressors) - hormones like LH and FSH, estrogen and progesterone involved in reproduction in women can be inhibited; erectile dysfunction is a problem in men with inhibited testosterone and less blood flow.

Drug addiction is highly related to the mesolimbic reward pathway. What is this pathway and what does it include?

The reward pathway is a dopaminergic pathway that includes the ventral tegmental area (VTA) or the brain which releases dopamine in response to a pleasurable stimulus, to the nucleus accumbens (NAc), amygdala, prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. The pathway counts for motivation and emotion, and positive reinforcement of substance use. Stimuli can include food, sex, social interactions, drugs, gambling, even love.

Describe the first step of the phototransduction cascade. Light hits the rod cells, what happens? (think rhodopsin)

The rod cells have membrane bound structures called optic discs which contain proteins, one of which is rhodopsin. When light hits the rod cell, and strikes rhodopsin, it causes a conformational change in a molecule within - 11-cis retinal becomes all trans retinal. Subsequently, rhodopsin also changes shape.

When it comes to behaviour influencing attitudes, what is role-playing phenomenon?

The role-playing phenomenon states that people alter their behaviour when in a new role to fit that role, which may eventually influence their attitudes and normalize that role. E.g. first time parents feel unusual at it initially but eventually develop new attitudes, "mature"; new professional behaviours in a new job, making you eventually having a new attitude

What is the sleep cycle? How does it go typically?

The sleep cycle refers to a single progression through the stages of sleep - the makeup of sleep cycle changes through the night, as early on SWS (slow wave sleep) predominates as the brain falls into deep sleep and then more wakeful states. Later at night, REM sleep predominates. The cycle goes from N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM -> back to N1 and repeat.

What is the essence of the biological perspective of personality theories?

There is variation amongst biological theorists but in essence, the biological perspective holds that personality can be explained by the result of genetic expression in the brain and behaviour. The biological theory suggests that important components of personality are [[inherited]]

What does the social interactionist theory of language development state?

The social interactionist theory accounts for interplay between biological and social processes in language development. States children's have a desire to communicate with others, which drives their language development as brain circuits are reinforced through these interactions.

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the social-cognitive theory

The social-cognitive theory of attitudes states people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing behaviours of others. According to this - behaviour is not learned by trial and error, but develops via direct observation and replication of actions. 3 factors of behaviour, personal factors and environment are not independent, but rather influence each other.

What is the purpose of the anterior, posterior and lateral/horizontal canals (aka semicircular canals)? By what mechanism do they work?

The three ear canals are at right angles to each other and each are in line with one of the axes along our head (x, y or z). The canals are filled with a fluid called endolymph, and rotations of our head along particular axes causes the endolymph in the corresponding semicircular canal to shift - allows us to sense what plane out head is rotating along, as well as strength of the said rotation. Works towards our proprioception (sense of balance and position).

Why doesn't fluid flow back around the cochlea and hit the eliptical window? Why only the circular window?

There is a membrane that runs along the length of the cochlea known as the organ of corti, which prevents this from happening. It consists of two different membranes, the basilar membrane and tectorial membrane.

A reflex is an involuntary behavioural response to a stimulus without higher cognitive input. Infants are equipped with a variety of reflexes that may help and ensure survival. Describe the following primitive reflexes that disappear with age: - Rooting reflex - Sucking and swallowing reflex - Moro reflex - Babinski reflex - Grasping reflex - Galant reflex - Swimming reflex

These primitive reflexes that disappear with age are called neonatal reflexes. Rooting reflex - baby turns its head in response to stroking of cheek (~first few weeks) Sucking and swallowing - when object placed in mouth (~3-4 months) Moro reflex - infant reacts to abrupt movements of the head by flinging out arms and crying (disappears ~ 4 months) Babinski reflex - curling of toes when something touches foot Grasping reflex - wrapping fingers around an object Galant reflex - when stroked on the side, baby will roll to that side Swimming reflex - infants move arms and legs in swimming fashion and hold breaths when placed in water (~6 months)

Theta waves are experienced in the drowsy state, essentially Stage 1 of sleep - low frequencies of 4-7Hz, high voltage, irregular waveforms. Delta waves are low frequency (0.5-3Hz), high voltage waves experienced in Stage 3 and 4 of sleep - usually REM sleep or coma.

Depressants and stimulants seem to have opposite effects. Why don't combining stimulants and depressants cancel each other out? (Hint: think mechanistically)

They do not work on the same Neurotransmitters or neurochemical pathways, so effects on both ends of the spectrum are felt.

In the second version of the experiment, the children were shown a man getting punished after he beat up the Bobo Doll. Some children still copied the man, but other children didn't. These children still learned the behavior, though, as evidenced by their ability to imitate the behavior after being bribed with candy. What did this reveal about the *Learning-performance Distinction*?

This experiment revealed that just because you learn something doesn't mean you are going to actually perform what you learned. This is the essence of the *Learning-performance Distinction*.

Jack looks back on the Holocaust, and thinks to himself, "If I were in that situation, I may have done the same thing." Is this an example of the Self-serving Bias?

This is not an example of the Self-serving Bias. Jack would have said, "I would have never done something like that", asserting his actions or morals would be superior.

What happens when you look at a map with directions and street names? Where in the working memory is this dealt with?

This requires *coordination of the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad and the Phonological Loop* - *a role done by what is called the Central Executive*. It causes them to create an integrated representation stored in the Episodic Buffer (which is a connection to Long term memory)

Describe Piaget's sensorimotor stage

This stage comes where the child is an infant ~0-2 years old - two different types of circular reactions referring to sensorimotor functions: Primary circular rxns are repitition of body movements that occus by chance, e.g. thumb sucking; secondary circular rxns are those when manipulation is focused on something outside the body, like toys. Through this stage the idea of object permanence develops, which is the understanding that objects continue to exist when outside of view

What was Triesmans's Attenuation theory? How does it alter the selective filter idea?

This theory changed the idea of a selective filter to an attenuator, which would weaken but not eliminate other information that is not receiving selective attention. Instead of a complete filter, the attenuator that will not amplify the not-attended information. This focus could then be switched.

What is the expectancy-value theory of motivation?

This theory states that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is proportional to both the individuals expectations of success + degree to which they value succeeding at that goal

Broadbent's early selection theory

This theory's idea was that all the information from your environment goes into your sensory register which stores all sensory input you get (e.g. words, sirens, etc.) - then this input gets transferred to the selective filter which identifies what its supposed to be attending to through basic physical cues (voice, pitch, speed, accent etc.) and everything else is filtered out. Perceptual processes assign meaning to the words/noise/etc. Then, cognitive processes can occur.

What is top-down processing?

Top down processing uses your background knowledge to influence your perception e.g. in the following image, there are only circles with lines inside, but we can see a cube in it due to our previous knowledge. Even though there is no cube, we perceive one due to our background knowledge

How do trait theories define personality?

Trait theories of personality use clusters of behavioural patterns to describe individuals - the combination and interaction of various traits defines a personality unique to each individual. No two people by these theories have the same personality.

How we sense our five senses boils down to one similar mechanism pattern

Transduction: SENSORY CELLS translating chemical, electromagnetic and mechanical stimuli into ACTION POTENTIALS that our NERVOUS SYSTEM can make sense of

True or false: Studies showed that a Type A personality, associated with anger and hostility, was linked to elevated blood pressure and heart levels associated with chronic stress

True

True or false: people who sleep normally after sleep deprivation often experience REM rebound, which is earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep

True

True or false: prolonged beta waves can induce higher stress and/or anxiety and restlessness

True

True or false: there is a fifth EEG wave that corresponds to REM sleep

True

True or False? The retina sends information to the back of the eye through fibers that form the optic nerve, which ultimately leads to the brain for comprehension.

True.

True or false? The environment someone is raised in can cause epigenetic changes that will affect function for the rest of their life.

True.

True or false: stigmas can expand to affect others associated with particular individuals

True. e.g. family members of an alleged murdere or rapist

True or false: a big factor for participants in the Milgram experiment was the passing of responsibility of actions to others.

True. A big factor for participants in the Milgram experiment was the passing of responsibility of actions to others. Think of the term "I was just following orders"

True or False? A downstream hormone could inhibit multiple upstream endocrine glands, and this redundancy shows the importance of feedback inhibition.

True. A downstream hormone could inhibit multiple upstream endocrine glands, and this redundancy shows the importance of feedback control.

True or false? An example of accommodation would be introducing a foreigner to darts as a competitive sport, and the foreigner altering their Schema related to sports to include a less physically involved sport.

True. Accommodation is modifying an existing schema to incorporate new information.

True or false: in a hypnotized state, brain waves show alpha waves on an EEG

True. Alpha waves are seen showing an awake but relaxed state.

True or False? At the tissue level, there have been no consistent findings that are "typical" of depression sufferers.

True. At the tissue level, there has been no consistent findings that are "typical" of depression sufferers.

True or False? Because Nature and Nurture do not act independently, it is more correct to think of the two as "Nature through Nurture".

True. Because Nature and Nurture do not act independently, it is more correct to think of the two as "Nature through Nurture".

True or False? Children in the Pre-operational Stage are often egocentric, not allowing them to consider other's perspectives.

True. Children in the Pre-operational Stage are often egocentric, not allowing them to consider other's perspectives.

True or false: Mental disorders affects higher functions of the NS performed by the brain like cognition, consciousness and emotions. They can even shorten a persons life span through many ways including suicidal tendencies.

True. Mental disorders affects higher functions of the NS performed by the brain like cognition, consciousness and emotions. They can even shorten a persons life span through many ways including suicidal tendencies.

True or false: PTH increases bone resorption to release Ca and Ph by increasing osteoclast activity and decreasing osteoblast activity.

True. Osteoblasts use up calcium to make bones; bone resorption is the breakdown of bone matrix to release Ca and Ph, which is courtesy the activity of osteoclasts.

True or false: Oxytocin is different from other hormones in that it has a positive feedback loop (instead of negative)

True. Oxytocin has a positive feedback effect - released to promote uterus contractions as well as milk production by mammary glands - definitive endpoint exists, usually delivery.

True or false: PTH increases gut absorption of Ca by producing Vitamin D in the kidneys, which helps reabsorption of calcium in small intestine

True. PTH increases gut absorption of Ca by producing Vitamin D in the kidneys, which helps reabsorption of calcium in small intestine

True or false: Insomnia can lead to dependence on sleep medication

True. People who take medication will develop a tolerance to it, causing the need for more and thereby dependence on the medication.

True or False? Psychoactive drugs have the ability to alter our consciousness, perceptions, increase our mood, calm us down, and make us feel more alert.

True. Psychoactive drugs have the ability to alter our consciousness, perceptions, increase our mood, calm us down, and make us feel more alert.

True or false: dreaming is most likely to occur during REM sleep

True. REM sleep is the stage dreaming is most likely to occur in.

True or false: some antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia aim to target elevated levels of dopamine neurotransmitters.

True. Schizophrenia can be accompanied with elevated levels dopamine NTs, and some antipsychotic drugs aim to target these increased levels.

True or false: disruption of SWS and REM sleep can lead to diminished memory

True. Sleep deprivation also causes drop in cognitive performance and negatively affects mood, problem solving and motor skills.

True or False? the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion claims that you must identify the reason behind the physiological response and/or event before registering an emotion.

True. The Schachter-Singer claims you must identify the reason behind the physiological response and/or event before registering an emotion.

True or False? The encoding strategy of Spacing explains that learning occurs best when spread out over time, not cramming.

True. The encoding strategy of Spacing explains that learning occurs best spread out over time, not cramming.

True or false: Individuals with sensorineural hearing loss are unable to convert sound waves into electrical impulses

True. They are unable to trigger hair cells to do so. "nerve deafness"

True or false: representativeness heuristic can lead to base rate fallacy (also called conjunction fallacy)

True. Using representativeness heuristic can lead to using proto/stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information, which is base rate/conjunction fallacy. E.g. Linda is a smart, studious college graduate and works in anti-discrimination volunteer programs. You would assume she's more likely a feminist bank teller over a bank teller, but the numbers show she is more likely to be a bank teller.

True or false: gene regulation states that ~95% of our genes aren't even protein encoding genes, but rather regulators for activation

True: gene regulation states that ~95% of our genes aren't even protein encoding genes, but rather regulators for activation Sort of like "if we experience..(sugar consumption)...then we activate and encode..(insulin)..."

Sensory adaptaton by your sight senses when it's very dark out - what kind of regulation is this?

Up regulation. When it's dark out, pupils dilate, and rods and cones start synthesizing light sensitive molecules.

What would happen if the cribriform plate were completely solid (no holes)?

We would have impaired sense of smell, as the olfactory bulb would be unable to connect to the olfactory epithelium.

What is the purpose of Weber's Law?

Weber noticed that the ratio of the increment threshold to the background intensity is constant. Weber's law quantified the JND for tactile and auditory sensations.

Both nociception and thermoception (pain and temperature sensation, respectively) use TrpV1 receptors. How do these receptors convert cellular damage into neural signals?

When a cell is damaged, it releases chemical signals that diffuse to the nearest TrpV1 receptor and activate it to fire an action potential.

A major problem in recovering from drugs is the dependence that the nervous system can develop for outside sources of dopamine and/or serotonin. What happens in the neural synapses to cause this natural decrease in dopamine/serotonin production?

When the drug is taken initially, the synapses are flooded by excess dopamine/serotonin. With this overstimulation, the brain acts by shutting down some membrane receptors - can lower production of these neurotransmitters and/or the number of channels in the membrane, decreasing sensitivity.

What is selective attention?

When you exercise your attention to focus on only one thing - can be thought of as a flashlight beam on some area of interest in your environment, with things around it being "dimmer"

Describe attention

When you pay attention to something, you focus on it exclusively relative to the environment around

There are no axons that run behind the cones in the fovea, creating an indentation. What is the functional purpose of this lack of axons?

With no nearby axons blocking the light, a higher resolution of light will hit the cones, giving more clarity of vision.

On a very foggy day, a driver can have trouble seeing the traffic light. How could this be an example of Signal Detection Theory?

With thick fog, the driver will guess when the light is green (a decision made with uncertainty).

If a Split Brain patient looks at an object on their right visual field, could they verbally describe the object? Why or why not?

Yes, if a Split Brain patient sees an object in their right visual field, it will be processed on the left side of their brain, where the language center is found. If the object were on the left side, however, the patient could not verbally express the object!

In an autopsy of someone who committed suicide, fewer than normal serotonin and norepinephrine receptors have been found in tissue staining. Is this characteristic of clinical depression?

Yes, studies have shown fewer than average NE and serotonin receptors in patients with depression.

Crystal spent the last calendar year noticeably tense and it was affecting her schoolwork. She often had twitching eyelids and a furrowed brow. Could she have been suffering from General Anxiety disorder (GAD)?

Yes. Since Crystal has had a deficit in her work and her symptoms for over six months from an unclear source, this could be diagnosed as General Anxiety Disorder.

How would your perception change if you only had one eye?

You wouldn't be able to use binocular cues such as convergence or retinal disparity. As a result, you would be less able to accurately perceive depth.

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