trans english week 3

context clues

In this lesson, you will learn how to find the meaning of unknown words in a reading by using context clues. Context clues will expand your vocabulary by helping you guess the meaning of a word based on how it is used in a sentence or paragraph. This allows you to keep reading an article or essaywithout stopping to look words up in a dictionary, which saves you time while still allowing you to understand what you are reading. There are two advantages to using context clues to expand your vocabulary and improve your reading comprehension. First, if you skip over words you don't understand, the meaning of what you are reading becomes a little unclear. Depending on how many words you have to skip over or how important each word is in the passage, it can seem as if you have just looked at a bunch of words on the page and have no idea what they mean. Second, if you go to a dictionary every time you don't understand a word, it is not only frustrating to repeatedly interrupt the flow of reading, but the word might actually have many ways of being defined. This could leave you a little closer to understanding what the word means but no closer to understanding what the author is trying to say. Fortunately, there is a four-step process for using context clues to define unfamiliar words in a reading. Step 1: Look for examples of the unknown word in the sentence.Writers often provide examples of words as a way of making sure people understand exactly what they mean; this is the easiest way to use context clues. Example: People generally use coniferous trees, such as pine, fir, and blue spruce, as Christmas trees. You see here that "fir" and "blue spruce" are two examples of "coniferous trees." If you don't know anything about coniferous trees - which are trees that do not lose their color and leaves - you can safely assume that they share the same characteristics as pines, firs, and blue spruces. Step 2: If there are no examples of the word in the sentence, look for antonyms or synonyms of the word somewhere in the sentence.Synonyms are words that share a similar meaning. For example, in a sentence, you could use the words "decrease," "reduce," "cut," or "lessen" and still make the same point. Antonyms, on the other hand, are words that have opposite meanings. "Competent" and "inept" are examples of antonyms. Writers use both synonyms and antonyms in their writing, so if you find an unfamiliar word in the sentence, look for a synonym or antonym that you recognize, and allow it to lead you to the definition. Example: I was so infuriated by the pointless, ineffectual instruction manual that my typical good humor had escaped me all day long. Here, you see that the word "ineffectual" has the word "pointless" right before it and both are used to describe the instruction manual. It is safe to assume that "pointless" is a synonym for "ineffectual." You can also see that "infuriated" is presented as the opposite of "good humor," which tells that the two are antonyms. You may not know the exact meaning of "infuriated," but you know that a general definition would be "bad humor." Step 3: If the word has no examples and there are no antonyms or synonyms, try substituting a familiar word for the one you don't know.Example: Riding the roller coaster was exhilarating, and my heart raced like it did when I was kid. If you don't know what the word "exhilarating" is, take it out of the sentence - "Riding the roller coaster was __________ and my heart raced like it did when I was kid." - and then start substituting words until you find one that fits with everything else in the sentence. In this case, "fun" would work, but "thrilling" would work even better because it matches more closely with "my heart raced." Step 4: Rely on your own knowledge and experience.Your own knowledge and experience also provide clues that you can use to figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Example: Johnny's mom commended him for cleaning up his room without being told. If you do not know what "commended" means, put yourself in Johnny's or his mom's shoes. If your son cleaned up his room without your asking, what would you do? You probably wouldn't complain or criticize; instead, you would praise and applaud him. You were able to determine the meaning of the word without any examples, synonyms, or antonyms. This step is more useful when you are reading about something that you know more about. You may find that it is not helpful when you first enter an anthropology, psychology, or sociology class and begin reading your text.

identifying word parts

In this lesson, you will learn to how to find the meaning of words you don't know in a reading by using word parts. When you come across an unfamiliar word in a passage, one of the ways to determine its meaning is to break the word down to smaller parts. These are known as word parts and there are three types: root words, prefixes, and suffixes. Just as context clues help you define a word by applying what you know about the key words around it, word parts help you define a word by applying what you know about the key parts of the word itself. Root words are basic words that cannot be reduced to a smaller word and have a meaning all on their own. They can often stand alone as independent words although there are some core roots that help form many of the words people use. A prefix is a word part that is attached to the beginning of a root word to enhance or change its meaning. It cannot stand on its own as an independent word. A suffix is a word part added to the end of a root word that can sometimes enhance or change its meaning, but mostly it can change a word's part of speech or changes a singular word into a plural one. Like a prefix, it cannot stand on its own as an independent word. For example, the word "bicycling" is made up of the root word "cycle," which means circle or wheel, the prefix "bi," meaning two, and the suffix "ing," which makes it a participle. There are two ways to approach word parts. First, you can memorize the word parts. Decipheringunknown words becomes easier with each word prefix, root, and suffix that you learn. The "Common Word Parts List" below does not list every possible word part, but it will give you a good place to start. Consider creating flash cards for each word part and have your friends and family quiz you. Another strategy to use to discover a word's meaning is to think of familiar words that have the same roots as the new word. Since English is a mixture of many Latin- and German-based languages, you can also think of foreign words. Then you can deduce what the new word means based on the familiar words that you know.

Coherence

LESSONCoherence is an important element in good writing and happens when all the elements of an essayor paragraph successfully work together to reinforce the main idea. Coherent writing makes that piece of writing much easier for a reader to understand. In this lesson, you will learn how to use referents and transitions to create coherence in your own writing. ReferentsOne way that writers create coherence between sentences in a paragraph is by using referents in each sentence to connect it to the paragraph's main idea. A referent can be any number of words or phrases that refer back to the main idea. When you scatter references to your main idea throughout your writing, you remind readers what you are writing about. Restatements, synonyms, antonyms, pronouns, and enumeration are all types of referents that you can use to keep the main idea fresh in readers' minds. A restatement is exactly what it sounds like—stating the main idea repeatedly with the same words. For example, if you are writing an essay that outlines the effects of childhood obesity, you might want to reuse the words "childhood obesity" and "effect" more than once because it reinforces the idea that you are discussing the effects of childhood obesity. This is a good technique to a certain point; however, you should not overuse it because readers can get tired of too much repetition. To add variety in your writing, you can also utilize synonyms and/or antonyms of your main idea. In the example of writing about the effects of childhood obesity, you could use the words "result," "consequence," and "outcome" because they are synonyms for "effect." You could also use "juvenile" and "heaviness" or "unhealthy weight" to refer to childhood obesity. Also consider using antonyms like "healthy weight" or "slimness." These two techniques help you stay on topic as you write and assist your readers in clearly following your thoughts. Pronouns are another way to refer back to your topic. A pronoun is a way to restate a noun. Examples of Pronouns He She It They In the example about the effects of childhood obesity, you could use pronouns to refer to the effects as "they" and childhood obesity as "it." Again, this breaks up the monotony that could occur by repeating "childhood obesity" multiple times. The last major type of referent is enumeration. Enumeration is the process of listing where each sentence in the list relates back to the topic. Such lists use transitional words like "first," "second," and "third," and often use restatements as a companion strategy. For example, when writing about the effects of "childhood obesity," you could state that there are three main effects of obesity in childhood and then describe those effects in order. Example of a paragraph lacking sufficient referents Childhood obesity has a number of very negative effects. The first effect of childhood obesity is physical. Obese children are at a much higher risk for diabetes, and some children are so obese that the children are experiencing heart disease, a condition normally associated with adults. The second effect of childhood obesity is social. Obese children can be made fun of by their classmates and excluded from activities. The last effect of childhood obesity is psychological. Obese children tend to have much lower self-esteem than their peers. This affects them not only in their childhood, but adults who were obese as children generally are less happy. To avoid these effects, parents and teachers need to help children avoid obesity. The paragraph above works to a certain extent. It certainly discusses the effects of childhood obesity, but it is very repetitive, which bores readers, and also lacks nuance. Now look at the same paragraph that uses referents and see how it is even more coherent. Example of a paragraph using sufficient referents Childhood obesity has a number of dire consequences. To begin with, kids who are even moderately overweight are at a much higher risk for diabetes, and some children are so heavy that they are experiencing heart disease, a condition normally associated with adults. In addition to the physical effects, heavier kids are also impacted socially. They can be made fun of by their classmates and excluded from activities. Lastly, kids who can't reach a healthy weight suffer psychologically. Obese children tend to have much lower self-esteem than their peers. This affects them not only in their youth, but also as adults. Those who had an unhealthy weight as children generally are less happy even if they are able to become more fit later in life. To avoid these effects, parents and teachers need to help children reach and maintain a healthy weight. In the above paragraph, notice the various referents that make it richer and more interesting to read. Restatements: Childhood obesity and effectsSynonyms: heavy, overweight, unhealthy weight, kids, youthAntonyms: healthy weight, fitPronouns: they, thisEnumeration: To begin, In addition, Lastly TransitionsIn addition to using referents, writers can also include transitions to guide readers from one idea to the next. Without transitions, readers have difficulty navigating through an essay. Here are a few examples of transitions. Examples of Transitions First, second, third... For example In addition On the other hand Another Similarly In contrast In fact Ultimately The last example paragraph used a number of transitions. Read through the version below and notice how it is more difficult to read when the transitions are removed. Example of a paragraph lacking transitions Childhood obesity has dire consequences. Kids who are even moderately overweight are at much higher risk for diabetes, and some children are so heavy that they are experiencing heart disease, a condition normally associated with adults. Heavier kids are impacted socially. They can be made fun of by their classmates and excluded from activities. Kids who can't reach a healthy weight suffer psychologically. Obese children tend to have much lower self-esteem than their peers. This affects them in their youth, but also as adults. Those who had an unhealthy weight as children generally are less happy even if they are able to become more fit later in life. Parents and teachers need to help children reach and maintain a healthy weight.

authors point of view

LESSONWhen you read a text and try to understand its meaning, you must consider various items, including the topic and purpose of the piece. Two additional items that are also important to consider are the author's point of view and the cultural context of the reading. Point of ViewPoint of view refers to the perspective used by the writer in a story, article, or essay. It lets the reader know who is telling the story or making the argument. Point of view can be broken down into three types: first person, second person, and third person. Each type has its own perspective about the events within the writing. First-Person Point of ViewIn the first-person point of view, the writer uses the word I when writing. You, as the reader, get to read the story from the perspective of one person—the narrator. When the narrator shares his or her thoughts of what is happening, he or she has a limited point of view because that story is coming only from that person's perspective. First person is usually used in autobiographical or other personal writing, such as a journal. Second-Person Point of ViewIn the second-person point of view, the writer uses the pronouns you or your, which generally refer to the reader. It is most often used for instruction manuals and lessons, such as this course, where the writer directly refers to the reader. An author may also choose to write in a second-person point of view to purposely draw the reader into the story. Although it is not seen as often as first- or third-person, second-person point of view can be a very effective type of writing when the writer has a specific purpose in mind. Third-Person Point of ViewFinally, in the third-person point of view, the writer uses the pronouns he, she, it, and/or they and can write from either an omniscient (all knowing) perspective or from a limited perspective. Using third-person omniscient, the writer takes on the "God's eye" perspective and shares information about all characters and all the action taking place. The third-person limited point of view follows the perspective of one person. As a reader, you know you are reading third-person omniscient when the writer lets you know what is going on inside the mind of multiple characters in the text. In third-person limited, the writer lets you inside the mind of only one character. Most formal academic writing is written in the third person. Cultural ContextThe cultural context of a text helps the reader understand what is happening and why. It is made of up several factors including setting/location, background, cultures, beliefs, and community. Each of these items affects how a reader looks at and understands what is happening in that text. For example, to understand the plot of the book To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, the reader must think about where the story is taking place (setting/location), when the story is taking place (year/time), who is involved (the characters), and what values and beliefs those characters have. The setting of the book is in the racially divided Deep South of the United States during the Great Depression in the 1930's. The main character, Atticus Finch, is a lawyer who is also a widowed father of two children. Mr. Finch is called upon to defend an African-American man who is accused of raping a white woman. Knowing the cultural context of the book makes the plot and what Mr. Finch is doing all the more significant, given how African-Americans were viewed and treated at that time and place. In this way, cultural context becomes just as important to understanding the plot of the novel as is knowing about the characters and from what point of view the story is being told.

past present future

LESSONWhenever you use a verb in a sentence, you need to be sure that it agrees with the subject, meaning that the subject and verb match each other in both number and person, and is the correct tense. Tense refers to time. For example, at what time did something happen, is happening, or will happen? There are different types of verb tenses; each one of them focuses on a specific element of time. This lesson focuses on the three tenses most often referred to—past, present, and future. Past TensePast tense refers to situations that have already happened. Verbs that are written in past tense often end in -ed like showed and laughed, although there are verbs that are classified as irregular like ran or sang that are past tense but do not end in -ed. Past tense verbs are also created when a verb is combined with a helping verb like were, was, has, have, had, or did. Examples: He showed her his schedule. / He has shown her his schedule. Present TensePresent tense refers to situations that are happening right now. These may be verbs that end in an -sor an -ing. They may also include a helping verb like "to be" verbs such as is and are. Examples: He shows her his schedule. / He is showing her his schedule. Future TenseFuture tense refers to situations that will happen sometime in the future. These often use the helping verb will or the verb phrase is going to (verb) or are going to (verb). Examples: He will show her his schedule. / He is going to show her his schedule. As you can see, each of these tenses shows when something happens. It is very important to be consistent with the verb tense that you choose to use when communicating to your readers. Readers create a timeline in their heads of the events described in a reading; the verb tense helps them keep track of the sequence of events being described. Using consistent verb tense will help you create coherence in your writing.

implied main ideas

Often when you read a text, you can find the main idea clearly stated in the thesis statement; however, that is not always the case. Sometimes the main idea of a passage is not clearly stated, but rather it is "implied." An implied main idea is one where you have to read closely and use clues to understand what the author is trying to say. You can determine the implied main idea of a reading by asking four questions: Does the author repeat any words, phrases, or ideas throughout the text? Who or what is the passage about? (What is the topic?) What is the central point the author is trying to make about that topic? Does the information in the passage support the answers to questions #2 and #3?

subject verb agreement

Sentences contain subjects and verbs, and these must agree with each other when using Standard English. What does it mean for them to agree? Subject-verb agreement happens when a writer uses subjects and verbs that match each other in both number (singular or plural) and person (first, second, or third). For example, when you use a singular subject in the first person (I ), you should use a singular verb in the first person (run to the park). In this lesson, you will learn how to use correct subject-verb agreement to create coherence in your writing. SubjectsIt is important to think about subjects in terms of whether they are singular, plural, or compound. Singular Subjects: show one person or item. For example: "student" Plural Subjects: show more than one person or item. For example: "students" Compound Subjects: two or more persons or items joined by a conjunction such as and, or, nor,and but. For example: "Mike and Tom" When you have a singular subject, you should use a singular verb for the subject and the verb to agree. For example: The boy is on time. In this sentence, you see one boy (singular subject). To find the verb, ask what the boy did or how he was being; the answer is he "is" (singular "to be" verb). If you were to write, The boy are on time, you would have used a plural verb with a singular subject, which is incorrect. If the subject is plural, you will need to use a plural verb for the subject and the verb to agree. For example, The boys are on time. In this sentence, you see more than one boy (plural subject). Here if you write, The boys is on time, you have combined a plural subject with a singular verb, which is incorrect. When you use a compound subject, you must take special care to ensure that it agrees with the verb. A compound subject that is joined by and always uses a plural verb, even if the second person or item is singular. For example: The boys and Sally are always late. When the persons or items in the compound subject are joined by or or nor, make the verb agree with whichever subject is closest to the verb. If it is singular, make it singular. If it is plural, make it plural. For example: Eric or the twins are well behaved if they are not together. In this sentence, the subject that comes closer to the verb (the twins) is plural, so the verb should also be plural (are). Now consider this sentence: The twins or Eric is well behaved if they are not together. In this example, the subject that comes closer to the verb (Eric) is singular, so the verb should be singular for them to agree (is). There are a number of nouns that may sound plural but are always singular and require a singular noun. These words are called indefinite pronouns.

implied thesis statement

To write an implied thesis statement in response to a narrative prompt, follow these steps: Step 1: Brainstorm. Brainstorm possible ideas from your life experience that could potentially answer or respond to the prompt. Step 2: Choose a topic and write a paragraph. Choose one of the topics and write a brief paragraph explaining how that particular topic applies to the prompt. Step 3: Write an implied thesis statement. Using the topic sentence of the paragraph as a guide, write an implied thesis statement that explains why the details of the paragraph are important. Step 4: Develop the topic sentences. Begin outlining the essay by developing topic sentences from the supporting details in the paragraph. This ensures that the implied thesis works as the guiding idea for the narrative. There are many approaches to writing a narrative essay, but using the steps above can help you respond effectively to a typical narrative prompt in a college class.

major and minor supporting details

When you read an article or any other type of reading, you will notice that in addition to having a thesis statement, the document will also have points that support that thesis. The thesis provides the author's topic and purpose for writing. The supporting details help the author make that topic and purpose clear to the reader. The supporting details of a reading can be divided into major supporting details and minor supporting details, and they are found in the supporting paragraphs, or body paragraphs, of an article or essay. Distinguishing between major and minor supporting details will help you break down the paragraphs in a reading, making it easier to understand. In this lesson, you will learn how to identify both major and minor supporting details in a reading. When looking at a full reading such as an article or essay, the major and minor details relate to the thesis statement like this: Major supporting details: topic sentences in each body paragraph that support the thesis statement. Minor supporting details: sentences that support the major supporting details. When reading a longer essay, the thesis is included in an introductory paragraph and the major supporting details become topic sentences for distinct supporting paragraphs. However, if the essay is only one paragraph long, the thesis becomes a topic sentence. When looking at an individual paragraph, the major and minor details relate to the topic sentence like this: Major supporting details: support the topic sentence. Minor supporting details: support the major supporting details. Let's look at an example. Sample essay thesis: Students should consider many variables when choosing classes. Major supporting details: Time of day Whether it is required or not How much reading/writing may be involved Minor supporting details: Time of day: You can choose classes that meet early in the morning, mid-morning, early afternoon, mid-afternoon, early evening, or evening. Whether it is required or not: You may not want to take classes that do not qualify as credit toward your degree. How much reading/writing may be involved: You may not want to take several classes at the same time that will involve a lot of reading, such as novels, or that require writing multiple papers.