Ultimate AP Biology Vocabulary Review
metabolic rate
Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time; the sum of all the energy-requiring biochemical reactions.
primary production
Amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs.
gross primary production (GPP)
Amount of light energy that is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis.
mitotic spindle
An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis.
RNA interference
Blocking gene expression by means of an miRNA silencing complex.
messenger RNA (mRNA)
Carries genetic message from the DNA to he protein-synthesizing machinery of the cell.
neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.
eukaryotic cells
Contain a nucleus and other organelles that are bound by membranes.
medulla oblongata
Contains centers that control several visceral functions, including breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, swallowing, vomiting, and digestion.
cell body
Contains most of a neuron's organelles and its nucleus.
gene expression
Conversion of the information encoded in a gene first into messenger RNA and then to a protein.
adenylyl cyclase
Converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to an extracellular signal.
coleoptile
Covers and protects the shoot as it grows upward.
capsule
Covers the cell wall in prokaryotes.
histamine
Chemical stored in mast cells that triggers dilation and increased permeability of capillaries.
cytokines
Chemicals released by the immune system communicate with the brain.
geometric isomer
Differ in arrangement around a double bond.
structural isomers
Differ in arrangement of atoms.
reproductive rate
Difference between per capita birth and per capita death rates.
geographic variation
Difference in variation between population subgroups in different areas.
sexual dimorphism
Differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics.
nonsister chromatids
Different chromatids (maternal and paternal) of the same chromosome.
cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells.
archaea
Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls lacking peptidoglycan. Like eukaryotes, DNA contains histone proteins.
the three-domain system
Domains Bacteria, Archae, and Eukarya.
reducing agent
Donates electrons and becomes oxidized.
nuclear envelope
Double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.
photomorphogenesis
Effects of light on plant morphology.
first law of thermodynamics
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
directional selection
Shift toward a favorable variation.
disruptive selection
Shift toward the extremes.
endangered species
Species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
threatened species
Species that is likely to become endangered.
repeated reproduction
Species that reproduce over and over.
cocci
Spherical bacteria.
organelles
Structures specialized to perform distinct processes within a cell.
enantiomers
Structures that are like a mirror-image.
estivation
Summer torpor. Enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water supplies.
population density
The size of the population within a particular unit of space.
glucagon
The antagonist of insulin that helps increase blood sugar. It stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose.
reception
The target cell's detection of a signal molecule coming from outside the cell.
electrochemical gradient
The combination of forces that acts on membrane potential.
chromatin
The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome.
osmoregulation
The control of water balance.
behavior
The way an organism reacts to changes in its internal condition or external environment.
oligodendrocytes
Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons in a myelin sheath.
basal metabolic rate (BMR)
The metabolic rate of a nongrowing, resting, fasting, nonstressed endotherm.
standard metabolic rate (SMR)
The metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, nonstressed ectotherm.
autonomic nervous system
The part of the nervous system of vertebrates that controls involuntary actions of the smooth muscles and heart and glands.
uniform dispersion
The pattern in which individuals are equally spaced throughout a habitat.
relative abundance
The proportion of each species.
capsid
The protein shell that encloses a viral genome. It may be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complex in shape.
cerebral hemispheres
The right and left halves of the cerebrum.
acetyl-CoA
Is formed when pyruvate first enters into the mitochondria via active transport.
B lymphocytes (B cells)
Lymphocyte that matures in the bone marrow and secretes antibodies.
T lymphocytes (T cells)
Lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and acts directly against antigens in cell-mediated immune responses.
cytoplasmic determinants
Maternal substances in egg that influence the course of early development.
carrying capacity (K)
Maximum population size that a particular environment can support.
anabolic pathways
Metabolic pathways that consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.
catabolic pathways
Metabolic pathways that release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds.
pigments
Molecules that absorb, reflect, or transmit light.
beta glucose
Monomer for cellulose and chitin.
alpha glucose
Monomer for starch and glycogen.
keystone species
Not necessarily abundant, but exert a strong control on community structure due to a pivotal ecological role.
parental types
Offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the parental phenotypes.
stromatolites
Oldest known fossils formed from many layers of bacteria and sediment.
astrocytes
Provide structural and metabolic support for neurons.
ligand-gated ion channel
Type of membrane receptor that has a region that can act as a "gate" when the receptor changes shape.
transport vesicles
Vesicles in transit from one part of the cell to another.
optimal foraging theory
Views foraging behavior as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and costs of obtaining food.
enzyme-substrate complex
When an enzyme binds to its substrate, it forms:
substrate-level phosphorylation
When an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule.
density-dependent regulation
When birth or death rates do change with population density.
density-independent regulation
When birth or death rates do not change with population density.
oxidative phosphorylation
When energy is released at each step of the chain is stored in a form the mitochondrion can use to make ATP.
chemiosmosis
When energy is stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane which is used to drive cellular work.
nonshivering thermogenesis (NST)
When hormones cause mitochondria to produce heat instead of ATP in some mammals.
logistic growth
When limiting factors restrict size of population to the carrying capacity of the environment. Forms an S-shaped curve.
graft versus host reaction
When lymphocytes in donated bone marrow react against the recipient.
metapopulation
When many populations are linked.
cellular respiration
When oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel.
ovule
A structure that develops within the ovary of a seed plant and contains the female gametophyte.
culture
A system of information transfer through influential social learning or teaching.
secondary production
Amount of chemical energy in consumers' food that is converted to new biomass.
parasympathetic division
A branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal body functions; it calms the body ever conserves energy.
synaptic terminal
A bulb at the end of an axon in which neurotransmitter molecules are stored and released.
fruit ripening
A burst of ethylene production in a fruit triggers the ripening process.
enzyme
A catalytic protein.
pedigree
A diagram that shows the occurrence of a genetic trait in several generations of a family.
concentration gradient
A difference in the concentration of a substance across a distance.
aquaporin
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that facilitates the passage of water through channel proteins.
prophage
A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome.
restriction point
A point of no return in the cell cycle; once this point passes, a cell is committed to a full round of the cell cycle.
repressor
A protein that suppresses the transcription of a gene.
glycoprotein
A protein with one or more carbohydrates covalently attached to it.
signal-recognition particle
A protein-RNA complex that recognizes a signal peptide as it emerges from the ribosome.
restriction site
A specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a cut siteby a restriction enzyme.
inducer
A specific small molecule that inactivates the repressor in an operon.
signal peptide
A stretch of amino acids on a polypeptide that targets the protein to a specific destination in a eukaryotic cell.
centrosome
A structure in animal cells containing centrioles from which the spindle fibers develop.
innate behavior
A behavior that is developmentally fixed.
maximum parsimony
"Occam's Razor." A principle that states that when considering multiple explanations for an observation, one should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts.
homeostasis
"Steady state" or "constant internal milieu".
pyramid of energy
90% of all energy is lost between trophic levels.
paraphyletic group
A monophyletic group in which some descendants of the common ancestor have been removed.
signal
A behavior that causes change in another's behavior.
nuclease
A DNA cutting enzyme that excises damaged DNA.
recombinant DNA
A DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources.
enhancer
A DNA segment containing multiple control elements that can recognize certain transcription factors that stimulate the transcription of nearby genes.
replication fork
A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing.
R plasmid
A bacterial plasmid carrying genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics.
lysosome
A cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes.
turgid
A cell with a cell wall that has a reasonable amount of pressure but is healthy.
transformation
A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.
deletion
A change to a chromosome in which a fragment of the chromosome is removed.
cytogenetic maps
A chart of a chromosome that locates genes with respect to chromosomal features distinguishable in a microscope.
catalyst
A chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
trisomic
A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has an extra copy of one chromosome, instead of the normal two.
monosomic
A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has only one copy of a chromosome, instead of the normal two.
blue-light photoreceptors
A class of light receptors in plants. Blue light initiates a variety of responses, such as phototropism and slowing of hypocotyl elongation.
phytochromes
A class of light receptors in plants. Mostly absorbing red light, these photoreceptors regulate many plant responses, including seed germination and shade avoidance.
cytokinins
A class of plant hormones that retard aging and act in concert with auxin to stimulate cell division, influence the pathway of differentiation, and control apical dominance.
activator
A protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a specific gene.
gibberellins
A class of related plant hormones that stimulate growth in the stem and leaves, trigger the germination of seeds and breaking of bud dormancy, and stimulate fruit development.
taxonomy
A classification of organisms into groups based on similarities.
expression vector
A cloning vector that contains the requisite prokaryotic promoter just upstream of a restriction site where a eukaryotic gene can be inserted.
yeast artificial chromosome (YAC)
A cloning vector that has telomeres and a centromere that can accommodate large DNA inserts and uses the eukaryote yeast as a host cell.
ganglion
A cluster of nerve cell bodies, often of similar function, located in the PNS.
photosystem
A cluster of pigments embedded into a thylakoid membrane.
cyclic AMP (cAMP)
A compound formed from ATP that acts as a second messenger.
dormancy
A condition typified by extremely low metabolic rate and a suspension of growth and development.
Downs Syndrome
A congenital disorder caused by having an extra Chromosome 21.
MPF
A cyclin-Cdk complex that causes the cell to move from interphase into mitosis.
systemic acquired resistance (SAR)
A defensive response in infected plants that helps protect healthy tissue from pathogenic invasion.
restriction enzyme
A degradative enzyme that recognizes and cuts up DNA (including that of certain phages) that is foreign to a bacterium.
barr body
A dense body formed from a deactivated X chromosome.
nucleoid
A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.
Punnett square
A diagram for predicting the allele composition of offspring from a cross between individuals of known genetic makeup.
lagging strand
A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5' to 3' direction away from the replication fork.
cell plate
A double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis.
incomplete flower
A flower in which one or more of the four basic floral organs such as sepals, petals, stamens, or carpels are either absent or nonfunctional.
complete flower
A flower that has all four basic floral organs: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels.
florigen
A flowering signal, not yet chemically identified, that may be a hormone or may be a change in relative concentrations of multiple hormones.
active immunity
A form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens.
binary fission
A form of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms by which one cell divides into two cells of the same size.
complement system
A group of about 30 blood proteins that may amplify the inflammatory response, enhance phagocytosis, or directly lyse extracellular pathogens.
simple fruit
A fruit derived from a single carpel or several fused carpels.
aggregate fruit
A fruit derived from a single flower that has more than one carpel.
multiple fruit
A fruit derived from an entire inflorescence.
regulatory gene
A gene that codes for a protein, such as a repressor, that controls the transcription of another gene or group of genes.
cystic fibrosis
A genetic disorder that is present at birth and affects both the respiratory and digestive systems.
episome
A genetic element that can exist either as a plasmid or as part of the bacterial chromosome.
linkage map
A genetic map based on recombination frequencies.
linkage map
A genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossing over of homologous chromosomes.
physical map
A genetic map in which the actual physical distances between genes or other genetic markers are expressed, usually as the number of base pairs along the DNA.
proteasomes
A giant protein complex that recognizes and destroys proteins tagged for elimination by the small protein ubiquitin.
cline
A graded change in a trait along a geographic axis.
absorption spectrum
A graph plotting a pigment light light absorption.
inflorescence
A group of flowers tightly clustered together.
cohort
A group of individuals of the same age.
tropism
A growth response that results in the curvature of whole plant organs toward or away from stimuli owing to differential rates of cell elongation.
gametes
A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm that unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.
vaccine
A harmless variant or derivative of a pathogen that stimulates a host's immune system to mount defenses against the pathogen.
character
A heritable feature that varies among individuals.
Tay-Sachs disease
A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele that leads to the accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by progressive weakening and a loss of muscle tissue.
Southern blotting
A hybridization technique that enables researchers to determine the presence of certain nucleotide sequences in a sample of DNA.
fate maps
A labor-intensive study to produce useful territorial diargams of embryonic development.
myelin sheath
A layer of electrical insulation that surrounds the axon.
cDNA library
A limited gene library using complementary DNA. The library includes only the genes that were transcribed in the cells examined.
sensitive period
A limited phase in an animal's development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned.
DNA ligase
A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.
habituation
A loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no information.
fruit
A mature ovary of a flower that protects dormant seeds and often aids in their dispersal.
entropy
A measure of disorder or randomness.
map units
A measurement of the distance between genes; one map unit is equivalent to a 1 percent recombination frequency.
double fertilization
A mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms, in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in the embryo sac to form the zygote and endosperm.
channel protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.
transport protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.
carrier protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that holds onto molecules and changes their shapes in a way that shuttles them across the membrane.
viral envelope
A membrane that cloaks the capsid that in turn encloses a viral genome.
contractile vacuoles
A membranous sac that helps move excess water out of the cell.
feedback inhibition
A metabolic pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway.
peroxisome
A microbody containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide.
punctuated equilibrium
A model of evolution in which a new species will change the most as it buds from a parent species, and then will change little for the rest of its existence.
gradualism
A model of evolution in which gradual change over a long period of time leads to biological diversity.
sepal
A modified leaf in angiosperms that helps enclose and protect a flower bud before it opens.
petal
A modified leaf of a flowering plant; petals are the often colorful parts of a flower that advertise it to insects and other pollinators.
elicitors
A molecule that induces a broad type of host defense response
nonsense mutations
A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.
nuclear lamina
A netlike array of protein filaments lining the inner surface of the nuclear envelope; it helps maintain the shape of the nucleus.
rough ER
A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins.
endomembrane system
A network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.
action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
serotonin
A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.
tetrad
A pair of chromosomes form tetrads made up of four chromatids.
fermentation
A partial degradation of sugars that occur without the use of oxygen.
lysogenic cycle
A phage replication cycle in which the viral genome becomes incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage and does not kill the host.
temperate phage
A phage that is capable of reproducing by either the lytic or lysogenic cycle.
cladistics
A phylogenetic classification system that uses shared derived characters and ancestry as the sole criterion for grouping taxa.
circadian rhythm
A physiological cycle of about 24 hours that is present in all eukaryotic organisms and that persists even in the absence of external cues.
photoperiodism
A physiological response to photoperiod, the relative lengths of night and day. An example of photoperiodism is flowering.
F factor
A piece of DNA that confers the ability form a sex pili.
triple response
A plant growth maneuver in response to mechanical stress, involving slowing of stem elongation, a thickening of the stem, and a curvature that causes the stem to start growing horizontally.
salicylic acid
A plant hormone that may be partially responsible for activating systemic acquired resistance to pathogens.
abscisic acid (ABA)
A plant hormone that slows down growth, promotes seed dormancy and facilitates drought tolerance.
long-day plant
A plant that flowers only when the light period is longer than a critical length. Usually spring or early summer.
short-day plant
A plant that flowers only when the light period is shorter than a critical length. Usually fall or winter.
day-neutral plant
A plant whose flowering is not affected by photoperiod.
hypersensitive response (HR)
A plant's localized defense response to a pathogen
G-protein-linked receptor
A plasma membrane receptor that works with the help of a G-protein.
active site
A pocket or groove on the surface of the enzyme.
natural selection
A population can change over time if individuals with more fit traits leave more offspring than less fit individuals.
norepinephrine
A precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and also released at synapses.
maximum likelihood
A principle that states that when considering multiple phylogenetic hypotheses, one should take into account the one that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time.
action spectrum
A profile of the relative performance of the different wavelengths in photosynthesis.
TATA box
A promoter DNA sequence crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex.
selective permeability
A property of a plasma membrane that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.
enzymatic activity
A protein built into the membrane with active site exposed.
gated channel
A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.
PR protein
A protein involved in plant responses to pathogens (PR = pathogenesis-related).
receptor tyrosine kinase
A receptor with enzymatic activity that can trigger more than one signal transduction pathway at once, helping the cell regulate and coordinate many aspects of cell growth and reproduction.
reducing agent
A reduces B, which accepts the donated electrons.
mark-recapture method
A sampling technique used to estimate wildlife populations.
diacylglycerol (DAG)
A second messenger produced by the cleavage of a certain kind of phospholipid in the plasma membrane.
transposable genetic element
A segment of DNA that can move within the genome of a cell by means of a DNA or RNA intermediate; also called a transposable element.
fixed action patterns (FAP)
A sequence of unlearned behavioral acts that is unchangeable and usually carried to completion.
signal transduction
A series of molecular changes that converts a signal on a target cell's surface to a specific response inside the cell.
genomic library
A set of thousands of DNA segments from a genome, each carried by a plasmid, phage, or other cloning vector.
anaphylactic shock
A severe reaction that occurs when an allergen is introduced to the bloodstream of an allergic individual. Characterized by bronchoconstriction, labored breathing, widespread vasodilation, circulatory shock, and sometimes sudden death.
ZW system
A sex determination system in fish, butterflies, birds where males are ZZ and Females are ZW. The egg determines the sex of the offspring.
haplo diploid system
A sex determination system in most species of bees and ants in which there are no sex chromosomes. Females develop from fertilized eggs (diploid) and males develop from unfertilized eggs (haploid).
XO system
A sex determination system in some insects in which O stands for the absence of a sex chromosome. Females are XX, Males are XO. Males produce two classes of sperm: X sperm and sperm with no chromosome. The sperm determines the sex of the offspring.
XY system
A sex determination system in which females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome and males have two different ones.
kinesis
A simple change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimuli.
pistil
A single carpel or a group of fused carpels in a flower.
sticky end
A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.
plasmid
A small ring of DNA that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome; also found in some eukaryotes, such as yeast.
kinetochore
A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.
promoter
A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing mRNA.
polyphyletic group
A taxonomic grouping consisting of several species that lack a common ancestor (more work is needed to uncover species that tie them together into a monophyletic clade).
monophyletic group
A taxonomic grouping that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants.
clade
A taxonomic grouping that includes only a single ancestor and all of its descendants.
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
A technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, DNA polymerase molecules, and nucleotides.
nuclear transplantation
A technique in which the nucleus of one cell is placed into another cell that already has a nucleus or in which the nucleus has been previously destroyed.
electroporation
A technique to introduce recombinant DNA into cells by applying a brief electrical pulse to a solution containing the cells. The pulse creates temporary holes in the cells' plasma membrane, through which DNA can enter.
virulent
A term describing a pathogen against which a plant has little specific defense.
avirulent
A term describing a pathogen that can only mildly harm, but not kill, the host plant.
endospore
A thick-walled protective spore that forms inside a bacterial cell and resists harsh conditions.
chromosomes
A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.
seed coat
A tough outer covering of a seed, formed from the outer coat of an ovule.
cancer
Any malignant growth or tumor caused by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division.
electrogenic pump
A transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane, causing a net separation in charge.
transposon
A transposable genetic element that moves within a genome by means of a DNA intermediate.
pollen tube
A tube that forms after germination of the pollen grain and that functions in the delivery of sperm to the ovule.
oligosaccharins
A type of elicitor that is derived from cellulose fragments released by cell wall damage
pinocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which the cell "gulps" droplets of fluid into tiny vesicles.
receptor-mediated
A type of endocytosis in which the cell acquires bulk quantities of specific substances, even though they may not be very concentrated in the extracellular fluid.
scaffolding proteins
A type of large relay protein to which several other relay proteins are simultaneously attached to increase the efficiency of signal transduction.
inversion
A type of mutation in which the order of the genes in a section of a chromosome is reversed.
positive feedback
A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will amplify the change. Takes organism away from a steady state.
negative feedback
A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will counteract the change. Maintains a steady state.
lytic cycle
A type of viral (phage) replication cycle resulting in the release of new phages by lysis (and death) of the host cell.
operon
A unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions.
bacteriophage
A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.
bacteriophages
A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.
gene-for-gene recognition
A widespread form of plant disease resistance involving recognition of pathogen-derived molecules by the protein products of specific plant disease resistance genes.
chromosome theory of inheritance
According to this theory, genes are carried from parents to their offspring on chromosomes.
pluripotent
Able to give rise to multiple, but not all, cell types.
aneuploidy
Abnormal number of chromosomes.
oxidizing agent
Accepts electrons and becomes reduced.
carotenoids
Accessory pigments that broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis.
helper T cells
Activate macrophages, B cells and T cells.
proximate questions
Address environmental stimuli, genetic, physiological, and anatomical causes of a behavior.
ultimate questions
Address evolutionary significance of a behavior.
acclimatization
Adjusting to a new range of environmental temperatures.
F2 Generation
After the self-pollenization of the F1 generation, this is produced.
life tables
Age-specific summaries of survival patterns of a population.
reproductive table (fertility schedule)
Age-specific summary of reproductive rates in a population.
protobionts
Aggregates of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by a membrane.
leaf abscission
Aging and dropping of leaves controlled by auxin and ethylene.
genomic equivalence
All cells in an organism contain the same complement of genes. These are the same set of genes that are established in the fertilized egg.
life cycle
All of the events in the growth and development of an organism until the organism reaches sexual maturity.
community
All species that inhabit an area.
gene pool
All the genes in a given population at a given time.
biotic factors
All the plant and animal life of a particular region.
macrophages
Amoeboid cells that roam connective tissue and engulf foreign particles and debris of dead cells.
retrovirus
An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses.
hemophilia
An X-linked recessive disorder in which blood fails to clot properly, leading to excessive bleeding if injured.
evolutionary adaptation
An accumulation of inherited characteristics that enhance organisms' ability to survive and reproduce in specific environments.
polygenic inheritance
An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character.
recessive allele
An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present
dominant allele
An allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present.
conformer
An animal that allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes.
regulator
An animal that uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external fluctuation.
classical conditioning
An arbitrary stimulus is associated with an award or punishment.
potential range
An area where an organism could potentially survive and reproduce.
bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)
An artificial version of a bacterial chromosome that can carry inserts of 100, 000 to 500, 000 base pairs.
proton pump
An electrogenic pump that works largely with H+ ions.
radicle
An embryonic root of a plant.
reverse transcriptase
An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.
DNA polymerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of the DNA molecule.
telomerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells.
primase
An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.
helicase
An enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands.
disturbance
An event, such as storm, fire, flood, drought, overgrazing or human activity, that changes a community and alters resource availability.
transport
An exchange of molecules (and their kinetic energy and momentum) across the boundary between adjacent layers of a fluid or across cell membranes.
clone
An identical genetically individual of the parent
jasmonic acid
An important molecule in plant defense against herbivores.
polygamous
An individual of one sex mating with several of the other.
GABA
An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
biological clock
An innate mechanism in living organisms that controls the periodicity of many physiological functions.
cognitive maps
An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.
Human Genome Project
An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome.
genetic map
An ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome.
homozygous
An organism having a pair of identical alleles for a character, either dominant or recessive.
genotype
An organism's genetic makeup.
phenotype
An organism's traits.
homoplasies
Analogous structures that have evolved independently.
systematics
Analytical approach to understanding the diversity and relationships of present and past organisms.
analogy
Anatomical similarity due to convergent evolution.
endosymbiotic theory
Ancestors of mitochondria and plastids was prokaryotes that came to live in a host cell.
endothermic
Animals that are warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism.
exothermic
Animals that gain heat mostly from external sources.
actual evapotranspiration
Annual amount of water transpired by plants and evaporated from landscape.
T cell receptor
Antigen receptors on a T cell. Unlike antibodies, T cell receptors are never produced in a secreted form.
antigen
Any foreign molecule that is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits an immune response.
ligand
Any molecule that bonds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.
somatic cell
Any of the cells of a plant or animal except the reproductive cells.
restoration ecology
Applies ecological principles in an effort to return degraded ecosystems to conditions as similar as possible to their natural state.
extremophiles
Archaea that live in extreme environments.
methanogens
Archaea that release methane, a greenhouse gas.
thermophiles
Archaea that thrive in very hot environments, such as volcanic springs.
vestigial structures
Are little or no importance to organism, but remain from an ancestor.
actual range
Area an organism actually occupies.
tendons
Attach muscles to bones.
electronegativity
Attraction of an atom for electrons in a covalent bond.
taxis
Automatic, oriented movement toward or away from some stimuli.
producer
Autotroph.
per capita offspring
Average number of offspring produced per individual during a specified period of time.
chondrocytes
Cells that secrete cartilage.
purines
Bases with a double-ring structure.
oxidizing agent
B oxidizes A by removing A's electrons.
pyrimidines
Bases with a single-ring structure.
Gram-negative bacteria
Bacteria that have complex cell walls with less peptidoglycan but with lipopolysaccharides. Very toxic and hard to treat.
Gram-positive bacteria
Bacteria that have simple cell walls with much peptidoglycan.
prezygotic barriers
Barriers that impede mating or hinder fertilization.
reproductive isolation
Barriers that impede members of two different species fro producing fertile offspring.
postzygotic barriers
Barriers that prevent the hybrid zygote from becoming a fertile adult.
nucleic acid hybridization
Base pairing between a gene and a complementary sequence on another nucleic acid molecule.
metabolic pathway
Begins with a specific molecule, which is then altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a certain product.
foraging
Behavior associated with recognizing, searching for, capturing, and consuming food.
altruism
Behavior that benefits another without benefiting oneself.
semelparity
Big-bang reproduction.
major histocompatibility compex (MHC)
Binds to a fragment of an antigen within a cell and presents it on the surface of the membrane.
single-strand binding protein (SSB)
Binds to and stabilizes single-stranded DNA until it can be used as a template.
biota
Biotic factors.
phosphodiester bonds
Bonds between phosphate group and pentose sugar in nucleic acids.
peptide bond
Bonds that connect amino acids.
osteoblasts
Bone-forming cells.
phylogenetic trees
Branching diagrams that depict hypotheses about evolutionary relationships.
glycolosis
Breaking glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate.
electron transport chain
Breaks the fall of electrons to oxygen in several energy-releasing steps.
aposematic coloration
Bright warning colors in animals with a chemical defense.
induced fit
Brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the chemical reaction.
biogeographic realms
Broad patterns of distribution due to continental drift and barriers such as deserts and mountain ranges.
veins
Bundles of xylem and phloem.
quaternary consumer
Carnivore that eats tertiary consumers.
tertiary consumer
Carnivore that eats carnivores.
secondary consumer
Carnivore that eats herbivores.
cryptic coloration
Camouflage; makes an organism difficult to spot.
facultative anaerobes
Can make enough ATP to survive using using fermentation or respiration.
cellulose
Carbohydrate component of plant cell walls.
Greenhouse Effect
Carbon dioxide and water vapor in atmosphere trap infrared radiation, re-reflecting it back toward earth.
calvin cycle
Carbon fixation process in photosynthesis. Forms sugar and other organic compounds.
foundation species
Cause physical changes in environment that affect community structure.
abdominal cavity
Cavity housing intestines.
lyse
Cell bursting.
mitosis
Cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes.
interphase
Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases.
cell differentiation
Cell specialization in structure and function.
peptidoglycan
Cell wall of prokaryotes, but NOT ARCHAEA. Made of a sugar polymer and polypeptide.
basement membrane
Cells at the base of an epithelial layer are attached to this.
glial cells
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.
columnar epithelium
Cells shaped like bricks standing on end.
totipotent
Cells that are able to develop into any type of cell found in the body.
squamous epithelium
Cells that are like floor tiles.
primary structure
Chain of amino acids.
genetic drift
Change in allele frequencies due to chance.
microevolution
Change in genetic makeup of a population from generation to generation.
heterochrony
Change in the rate or timing of a developmental event ; an organism's shape depends on relative growth rate of body parts.
translocation
Change to a chromosome in which a fragment of one chromosome attaches to a nonhomologous chromosome.
mutation
Changes in the nucleotide sequence in DNA.
voltage-gated ion channels
Channels that open or close in response to a change in the membrane potential.
discrete characteristics
Characteristics that are classified on an either-or basis, determined by a single gene locus.
quantitative characteristics
Characteristics that vary along a continuum, usually due to influence of two or more genes.
quantitative characters
Characters that vary in the population along a continuum (in gradations).
autosomes
Chromosomes that are not directly involved in determining the sex of an individual.
recombinant chromosomes
Chromosomes that carry genes from each parent.
hormones
Circulating chemical signals that are formed in specialized cells, travels in body fluids, and act on specific target cells.
Hox genes
Class of homeotic genes. Changes in these genes can have a profound impact on morphology.
exons
Coding segments of eukaryotic DNA.
transcription factors
Collection of proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription.
colonies
Collections of autonomously replicating cells.
acetylcholine
Common vertebrate neurotransmitter, especially in neuromuscular junctions.
nonequilibrium model
Communities are constantly changing after being buffeted by disturbances.
agonistic behavior
Competition that determines who wins a prize, such as food or mates.
citric acid cycle
Completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide.
Cdk
Complex of cyclin and kinase.
ribosomes
Complex particles that facilitate the orderly linking of amino acids into polypeptide chains.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Composed of a sugar ribose, nitrogenous base adenine, and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it.
dehydration synthesis
Condensation reaction where molecules are connected by loss of a water molecule.
axon hillock
Cone shaped region of an axon where it joins the cell body.
McCarty, Avery, & MacLeod
Confirmed that the transforming agent in Griffith's experiment was DNA.
blood
Connective tissue made of plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
kinetochore microtubules
Connects the centrosome with the kinetochore in the centromere region of the chromosome.
addition rule
Considering mutually exclusive events, the probability of both occurring is the sum of the probabilities of each event.
ecosystem
Consists of all the organisms living in a community as well as all the abiotic factors with which they interact.
incomplete dominance
Creates a blended phenotype; one allele is not completely dominant over the other.
sexual recombination
Crossing over and shuffling of genes during meiosis.
Type III
Curve that drops sharply at the start then levels off once individuals reach a critical age, as seen in organisms that produce large numbers of offspring.
Type II
Curve that represents constant death rate over lifespan small animals and invertebrates.
Type I
Curve that shows low death rate at early and mid-life and drops at old age, as seen in humans and large animals.
light limitation
Depth to which light penetrates limits primary production.
complementary DNA (cDNA)
DNA molecule made in vitro using mRNA as a template and the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
cloning vector
DNA molecules that can carry foreign DNA into a host cell and replicate there.
fibrous connective tissue
Dense tissue, large number of collagen fibers organized into parallel bundles. Includes ligaments and tendons.
decent with modification
Darwin's way of referring to evolution.
radiometric dating
Dating using decay of radioactive isotopes.
territoriality
Defense of a space against encroachment by other individuals.
hypertonic
Describes a solution that has a greater concentration of total solute.
hypotonic
Describes a solution that has a lesser concentration of total solute.
isotonic
Describes solutions that have an equal concentration of total solutes.
Fredrick Sanger
Determined amino acid sequence of proteins.
Meselson & Stahl
Determined that DNA replication is semiconservative.
DNA sequencing
Determining the exact order of the base pairs in a segment of DNA.
Watson and Crick
Developed the double helix model of DNA.
Hersey-Chase Experiment
Devised an experiment that showed that only the DNA of T2 phages enters a bacterial cell during infection.
ultrametric trees
Diagram in which length of a branch reflects amounts of actual time.
phylograms
Diagram in which the length of a branch reflects number of changes in a DNA sequence.
cladogram
Diagram that shows patterns of shared characteristics.
cubiodal epithelium
Dice-shaped cells.
splicosome
Different particles that recognize splice sites are compiled in a large assembly. A complex of RNA and protein subunits. Removes introns from a transcribed pre-RNA segments.
resource partitioning
Differentiation of niches that enables similar species to coexist.
sporophyte
Diploid, or spore-producing, phase of an organism. Makes haploid spores by meiosis.
Erwin Chargaff
Discovered that DNA composition varies, but the amount of adenine is always the same as thymine and the amount of cytosine is always the same as guanine.
Frederick Griffith
Discovered transformation during an experiment that involved injecting mice with smooth S cells, rough R cells, heat-killed S cells, and heat-killed S cells with living R cells.
domains
Discrete structural and functional regions of proteins.
autoimmune diseases
Diseases caused when the immune system loses tolerance for self and turns against certain molecules in the body.
solvent
Dissolving agent of a solution.
pyramids of biomass
Each on this pyramid tier represents standing crop.
trait
Each variant of a character.
secondary structure
Either an alpha helix or beta pleated sheet.
comparative embryology
Embryos of vertebrates share many anatomical homologies.
proton-motive force
Emphasizes the capactiy of the gradient to preform work.
kinetic energy
Energy associated with relative motion of objects.
net primary production (NPP)
Energy used by primary producers for respiration.
topoisomerase
Enzyme that functions in DNA replication, helping to relieve strain in the double helix ahead of the replication fork.
RNA polymerase
Enzyme that links together the growing chain of ribonucleotides during transcription.
protein phosphatases
Enzymes that can rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins.
nondisjunction
Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate.
game theory
Evaluates alternate strategies when outcome depends not only on each individual's strategy but also that of others.
evapotranspiration
Evaporation of water from soil plus transpiration from plants. Correlates with species richness.
second law of thermodynamics
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.
adaptive radiation
Evolution of many new species from a common ancestor as a result of introduction to new environments.
macroevolution
Evolutionary change above the species level.
phylogeny
Evolutionary history of a species or group of species.
shared derived character
Evolutionary novelty unique to that clade.
per capita death rate
Expected number of deaths in a population in a specified period of time.
Miller and Urey Experiment
Experiment that found that organic molecules can form in a strongly reducing atmosphere.
sign stimulus
External sensory stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern.
glycogen
Extremely branched polymer of glucose.
growth factors
Factors that stimulate the cell to divide.
memory cells
General term for lymphocytes that are responsible for immunological memory and protective immunity.
trophic structure
Feeding relationships between organisms in a community.
zygote
Fertilized egg. Carries one set of chromosomes from each parent.
reticular fibers
Fibers made of collagen fibers that are very thin and branched. Forma tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues.
collagenous fibers
Fibers made of collagen.
elastic fibers
Fibers made of elastin.
genus
First part of scientific name.
relative fitness
Fitness of a particular genotype.
thylakoid
Flattened membranes in the chloroplast where the light reactions take place.
wobble
Flexibility in the base-pairing rules in which the nucleotide at the 5' end of a tRNA anticodon can form hydrogen bonds with more than one kind of base in the third position of a codon.
bioenergetics
Flow of energy through an animal. Limits its behavior, growth, reproduction.
stroma
Fluid inside the chloroplast where the Calvin Cycle happens.
facilitators
Foundation species have positive effects on other species.
reduction
Gain of electrons.
nodes of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined.
X linked genes
Genes found on the X chromosome.
alternative RNA splicing
Genes giving rise to two or more different polypeptides depending upon which segments are treated as exons.
linked genes
Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses.
sex linked genes
Genes located on the sex chromosomes.
homeotic genes
Genes that determine basic features of where a body part is.
sickle-cell disease
Genetic disorder in which red blood cells have abnormal hemoglobin molecules and take on an abnormal shape.
Huntington's disease
Genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells. caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about the age of 30.
biogeography
Geographic distribution of species.
thymus
Gland in the thoracic cavity above the heart where T lymphocytes mature.
edocrine glands
Glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
tryiacylglycerol
Glycerol and three fatty acids.
ecological succession
Gradual recolonization of a disturbed area; species replaced by other species which are replaced by other species.
survivorship curves
Graph of the proportion of a cohort still alive at each age.
limiting nutrient
Greater limiting factor than light in oceans and lakes.
chlorophyll
Green pigment located within the chloroplasts.
population
Group of individuals of the same species living in the same area.
tissues
Groups of cells with a common structure and function.
gene families
Groups of related genes in an organism's genome.
phototropism
Growth of a plant shoot toward or away from light.
diploid cell
Has two sets of chromosomes.
autopolyploid
Having more than two sets of chromosomes from a single species.
Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
Helps measure changes in allele frequencies over time . Provides an "ideal" population to use as a basis of comparison.
primary consumer
Herbivore.
genetic variation
Heritable variations in a population.
dendrites
Highly branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons.
pilli
Hollow tubes used to move cells or exchange DNA between bacteria by conjunction.
synapsis
Homologous chromosomes pair up, aligned gene by gene.
orthologous genes
Homologous genes passed in a straight line from one generation to the next.
paralogous genes
Homologous genes that are found in the same genome as a result of gene duplication.
genetic annealing
Horizontal gene transfer between different bacteria and archae.
insulin
Hormone produced by the pancreas that helps to decrease blood sugar.
artificial selection
Humans modifying species for desired traits through selective breeding.
hybrid breakdown
Hybrid is fertile, but when they breed the next generation is sterile.
sister chromatids
Identical copies of a chromosome; full sets of these are created during the S subphase of interphase.
dioecious
If staminate and carpellate flowers are on different plants.
monoecious
If staminate and carpellate flowers are on the same plant.
coenzyme
If the cofactor is an organic molecule.
secondary immune response
Immune response after the body has already been exposed to a specific antigen. Response is faster, of greater magnitude, and more prolonged.
primary immune response
Immune response the first time the body is exposed to a particular antigen. Does not peak until 10-17 days after exposure.
passive immunity
Immunity conferred by transferring antibodies from an individual who is immune to a pathogen to another individual.
innate immunity
Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens.
acquired immunity
Immunity that is present only after exposure and is highly specific.
noncompetitive inhibitors
Impede enzymatic reactions by binding to another part of the enzyme (other than the active site).
dopamine
Important neurotransmitter in the CNS that acts on the sympathetic nervous system.
anther
In an angiosperm, the terminal pollen sac of a stamen, where pollen grains containing sperm-producing male gametophytes form.
endosperm
In angiosperms, a nutrient-rich tissue formed by the union of a sperm with two polar nuclei during double fertilization. Provides nourishment to the developing embryo in angiosperm seeds.
centriole
In animal cells, a cytoplasmic organelle that organizes the mitotic spindle fibers during cell reproductions.
conjugation
In bacteria, the direct transfer of DNA between two cells that are temporarily joined.
fibroblasts
In connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers.
countercurrent heat exchanger
In ectotherms, a circulatory adaptation that is an arrangement of blood vessels that warm or cool the blood.
ovary
In flowers, the portion of a carpel in which the egg-containing ovules develop.
polyploidy
In plants, the result of an extra set of chromosomes during cell division.
terminator
In prokaryotes, a special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene.
denaturation
In proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. In DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix.
apoptosis
Programmed cell death.
photolysis
In the thylakoid membranes of a chloroplast during light-dependant reactions, two molecules of water are split to form oxygen, hydrogen ions, and electrons.
imprinting
Includes both learning and innate components, generally irreversible.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Includes the brain and spinal cord.
behavioral isolation
Incompatible courtship rituals, pheromones, or bird songs.
vasodialation
Increases in the diameter of superficial blood vessels; cools the body.
mate choice copying
Individuals in a population copy mate choice of others.
fitness
Individuals whose inherited traits confer an advantage have a better chance of surviving in a given environment and will leave more offspring.
auxin
Indoleacetic acid (IAA), a natural plant hormone that has a variety of effects, including cell elongation, root formation, secondary growth, and fruit growth.
top-down model
Influence moves from top trophic levels to bottom. (V <-- H)
cristae
Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.
commensalism
Interaction between species that benefits one but neither helps or harms the other. (+/0)
epigenetic inheritance
Inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence.
inflammtory response
Innate response with the purpose of containing a site of damage, localizing the response, eliminating the invader and restore tissue function.
parasitoidism
Insects that lay eggs on or in living host; larvae feed on body of host, eventually killing it. (+/-)
integral proteins
Integral proteins that span the membrane.
transmembrane proteins
Integral proteins that span the membrane.
conservation biology
Integrates ecology, physiology, molecular biology, genetics and evolutionary biology to conserve biological diversity.
chitin
Polysaccharide found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.
cerebral cortex
Interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
antibiotics
Interfere with production of peptidoglycan; harm bacteria but not eukaryotes.
transfer RNA (tRNA)
Interpreter of a series of codons along a mRNA molecule.
mutualism
Interspecific interaction that benefits both species. (+/+)
variation
Is demonstrated by the differences in appearance that offspring show from parents and siblings.
island equilibrium model
Islands great for study due to isolation and limited size; can study species diversity and extinction rates.
radioisotopes
Isotopes that have unstable nuclei and undergo radioactive decay.
cooperativity
It amplifies the response of enzymes to substrates.
ligaments
Join bones to bones at joints.
thermal energy
Kinetic energy associated with the random movement of molecules or atoms.
ecological footprint
Land and water area appropriated by each nation as a resource to consume or to absorb the waste it generates.
cerebrum
Largest part of the brain; responsible for voluntary muscular activity, vision, speech, taste, hearing, thought, and memory.
operant conditioning
Learning based on the consequences of responding.
social learning
Learning through observing others.
energy hypothesis
Length of a food chain is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer.
r-selected species
Life history traits maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments. Many small offspring that mature quickly, little if any parental care.
K - selected species
Life history traits sensitive to population density. Small number of large offspring, extensive parental care, repeated reproduction.
food web
Linked food chains.
nitric oxide (NO)
Local regulator that regulates blood oxygen levels, A gas produced by many types of cells that functions as a local regulator and as a neurotransmitter.
dynamic stability hypothesis
Long food chains are less stable than short chains.
axon
Long nerve fiber that conducts away from the cell body of the neuron.
hibernation
Long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity.
oxidation
Loss of electrons.
cartilage
Made of collagenous fibers in matrix of chondroitin sulfate.
steroids
Made of four rings of carbon.
heterozygous advantage
Maintains recessive alleles in a population,
thalamus
Major input center for sensory information going to the cerebrum and the main output center for motor information leaving the cerebrum.
biome
Major types of ecological association that occupy broad geographic regions.
cloning
Making a genetically identical copy of DNA or of an organism.
free energy
Measures the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell.
glycolipids
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids.
glycoproteins
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.
mucous membrane
Membrane that secretes mucus that lubricates the surface of organs and keeps them moist.
liposomes
Membrane-bound droplets that form when lipids are added to water.
synaptic vesicles
Membrane-bounded compartments in which synthesized neurotransmitters are kept.
thylakoids
Membranous structures within a chloroplast that serve as the site for light harvesting in photosynthesis.
catabolism
Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.
anabolism
Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.
MRSA
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
stomata
Microscopic pores in the leaf which lets CO2 in and O2 out. Also where water is lost.
asters
Microtubules and fibers that radiate out from the centrioles.
bone
Mineralized connective tissue.
M phase
Mitosis and cytokinesis.
intermediate disturbance
Moderate levels of disturbance can create conditions that foster greater species diversity.
poly-A tail
Modified end of the 3' end of an mRNA molecule consisting of the addition of some 50 to 250 adenine nucleotides.
prostaglandins
Modified fatty acids that are produced by a wide range of cells.
polar
Molecule with partial charges. Mixes with water.
amphipathic
Molecules are said to be this when it has regions that are both hydrophilic and hydrophobic.
mechanical isolation
Morphological differences prevent fertilization.
neutrophils
Most abundant white blood cell., The most abundant type of white blood cell. Phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days.
missense mutations
Most common type of mutation, a base pair mutation in which the new codon makes sense in that it still codes for an amino acid.
demographic transition
Movement from a high birth rate, high death rate to a low birth rate, low death rate.
species transplant
Movement of a species to areas where it was previously absent.
dispersal
Movement of individuals away from centers of high population density or their area of origin.
emigration
Movement out of population. Decreases population size.
taxis
Movement toward or away from a stimulus.
kin selection
Natural selection that favors altruistic behaviors by enhancing reproductive success of relatives.
stratified epithelium
Multiples tiers of cells.
effector cells
Muscle cells or gland cells that carry out the body's response to stimuli.
cardiac muscle
Muscle that is branched, striated, singe nucleated.
smooth muscle
Muscle that is not striated, is single nucleated.
skeletal muscle
Muscle that is striated, multinucleated.
frameshift mutation
Mutation occurring when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, resulting in improper grouping of nucleotides into codons.
stabilizing selection
Shift that favors the mean.
endorphins
Natural analgesics that decrease pain perception.
sexual selection
Natural selection for mating success.
corpus callosum
Nerves that enable communication between the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
cytoskeleton
Network of protein filaments within some cells that helps the cell maintain its shape and is involved in many forms of cell movement.
sensory neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system.
motor neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.
neurosecretory cells
Neurons that secrete neurohormone rather than neurotransmitter.
epinephrine
Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline.
immigration
New individuals moving into population. Increases population size.
nonpolar
No partial charges. Do not mix with water.
promiscuous
No strong pair bonds or lasting relationships.
cofactor
Non-protein helpers that may be bound tightly to the enzyme as a permanent resident, or may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate.
introns
Noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding sequences.
abiotic factors
Nonliving components of environment.
detritus
Nonliving organic maters such as remains of dead organisms, feces, fallen leaves, dead wood.
crossing over
Nonsister chromatids exchanging DNA segments.
infant mortality
Number of infant deaths per thousand live births.
pyramids of numbers
Number of organisms at each trophic level.
detritivores
Obtain energy from detritus.
anaerobic
Occurs by fermentation, which generate ATP solely by substrate-level phosphorylation.
exocytosis
Occurs when a cell secretes certain biological molecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.
endocytosis
Occurs when a cell takes in biological molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane.
potential energy
Occurs when an object is not moving, but may still posses energy.
recombinant types
Offspring who have inherited new combinations of genes and have phenotypes that don't match either parental phenotypes.
polyandry
One female, several males.
monogamous
One male mating with one female.
polygyny
One male, several females.
allele
One of the alternative forms of a gene that governs a characteristic, such as hair color.
enteric division
One of three divisions of the autonomic nervous system; consists of networks of neurons in the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder.
asexual reproduction
One parent produces a genetically identical offspring by mitosis.
haploid
One set of chromosomes.
10% rule
Only 10% of the total energy produced at each trophic level is available to the next level. The amount of energy passed up to the levels of the food pyramid reduces as you go up.
cyclic photophosphorolation
Only Photosystem I works. ATP is made, no oxygen is produced, no water is split, no NADPH is made.
chlorophyll a
Only pigment that can participate directly in the light reactions.
chloroplasts
Organelles that capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy in a process called photosynthesis.
chemoautotrophs
Organisms that use hydrogen sulfide or other chemicals as energy source instead of light.
photoautotrophs
Organisms that use light as a source of energy to synthesize organic substances.
true-breeding
Organisms that, when reproducing, create offspring of all the same variety.
speciation
Origin of new species and the source of biological diversity.
light reaction
Part of photosynthesis that involves light. ATP and NADPH are produced. Takes place on the thylakoid membrane.
homologous chromosomes
Pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same appearance and same genes.
ectoparasites
Parasites that feed on external surface of host.
endoparasites
Parasites that live within the body of their host.
monohybrids
Parents that are heterozygous for one character.
dihybrids
Parents that are heterozygous for two characters.
facilitated diffusion
Passive diffusion that is aided by transport proteins, but that does not require cellular energy.
dispersion
Pattern of spacing among individuals.
macroclimate
Patterns on the global, regional and local level.
trophic efficiency
Percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next.
karyotype
Photograph of chromosomes grouped in order and in pairs.
photoautotrophs
Photosynthetic bacteria.
noncyclic photophosphorolation
Photosystem II performs photolysis to provide electrons for the electron transport chain that drives a chemiosmotic gradient that produces ATP.
torpor
Physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases.
metaphase plate
Plane midway between the two poles of the cell where chromosomes line up during metaphase.
etiolation
Plant morphological adaptations for growing in darkness.
exponential growth
Population increase under ideal conditions, when r > 0. Forms a J-shaped curve.
life expectancy at birth
Predicted average length of life at birth.
aminocentesis
Prenatal diagnostic technique that involves inserting a needle to obtain a sample of amniotic fluid that surrounds the fetus.
chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
Prenatal diagnostic technique that involves taking a sample of tissue from the chorion.
climate
Prevailing weather conditions of an area.
coefficient of relatedness
Probability that if two individuals share common parent or ancestor, a particular gene present in one will be present in other.
chemiosmosis
Process by which a Hydrogen pump pumps protons into the thylakoid membrane. H+ passively flows through the ATP synthase which leads to the creation of ATP.
RNA splicing
Process by which the introns are removed from RNA transcripts and the remaining exons are joined together.
phagocytosis
Process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell.
crossing over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.
phosphoralation
Process of adding a phosphate group.
thermoregulation
Process of maintaining an internal temperature within a tolerable range.
inositol triphosphate
Produced by cleavage of a certain kind of phospholipid in the plasma membrane.
spores
Produced by meiosis. Grow into haploid organisms by mitosis.
allele frequency
Proportion of an allele in a gene pool.
allometric growth
Proportioning that gives a body a specific form.
ozone layer
Protective layer in atmosphere that shields earth from UV radiation.
interferon
Protein produced by cells in response to being infected by a virus; helps other cells resist the virus.
antibodies
Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches to a specific antigen.
heat-shock proteins
Proteins that help maintain integrity of other proteins that would normally be denatured in extreme heat.
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
RNA molecules that construct ribosomal subunits.
ribozymes
RNA molecules that function as enzymes.
siRNAs (small interfering RNAs)
RNAs of similar size and functions as miRNAs that inhibit gene expression.
nucleic acid probe
Radioactively labeled nucleic acid molecule used to tag a particular DNA sequence.
mutations
Random errors in gene replication that lead to a change in the sequence of nucleotides. The source of all genetic diversity.
random dispersion
Random spacing of individuals of the same species within an area.
Rh factor
Refers to the presence or absence of the Rh antigen on red blood cells.
p680
Reaction center chlorophyll in the photosystem II.
p700
Reaction center cholophyll in the photosystem I.
endergonic reaction
Reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings.
exergonic reaction
Reaction that proceeds with a net release of free energy.
hydrolysis
Reaction where water split into two hydrogens and one oxygen; this breaks a polymer.
reading frame
Reading mRNA nucleotides in the correct groupings.
coevolution
Reciprocal evolutionary adaptations of two interacting species.
competitive inhibitors
Reduce the productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering active sites.
vasoconstriction
Reduces blood flow and heat transfer by decreasing the diameter of superficial blood vessels.
human disturbance
Reduces species diversity in all communities.
midbrain
Region between the hindbrain and the forebrain; it is important for hearing and sight.
operator
Region of DNA that controls RNA polymerase's access to a set of genes with related functions.
recticular formation
Registers and controls activity level, increases excitement, and helps generate sleep.
growth factors
Regulatory proteins that ensure that the events of cell division occur in the proper sequence and at the correct rate.
disulphide bridges
Reinforce tertiary structure.
age structure
Relative number of individuals at each age.
migration
Relatively long-distance movement of individuals, usually on a seasonal basis.
telomeres
Repeated DNA sequences at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes.
iteroparity
Repeated reproduction.
antibiotic resistance
Resistance evolving rapidly in many species of prokaryotes due to overuse of antibiotics, especially in agriculture.
tertiary structure
Results from interactions between side chains.
quaternary structure
Results from two or more polypeptide subunits.
repolarization
Return of the cell to resting state, caused by reentry of potassium into the cell while sodium exits the cell.
bacilli
Rod-shaped bacteria.
mesenteries
Sheets of connective tissue in moist or fluid-filled body cavities.
isomers
Same atoms but different arrangement.
homologous structures
Same structure, different function. Comes from common ancestor.
bionomial nomenclature
Scientific name.
genetics
Scientific study of heredity and variation.
turnover
Seasonal changes in warm and cool water layers in lakes.
specific epithet
Second part of scientific name.
immunoglobulins
Secreted antibodies.
serial endosymbiosis
Sequence of endosymbiotic events that led to an ancestral eukaryote.
cell cycle
Series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide.
eutrophication
Sewage and fertilizer runoff adds nutrients to lakes; phytoplankton decreases and cyanobacteria increases.
paracrine signaling
Signal released from a cell has an effect on neighboring cells.
communication
Signals among animals that include sounds, odors, visual displays, and touches that produce responses.
homology
Similarity resulting from common ancestry.
simple epithelium
Single layer of cells.
ribosomal P site
Site that holds tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain.
ribosomal A site
Site that holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the chain.
Ribosomal E site
Site where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome.
origins of replication
Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides.
Okazaki fragments
Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.
vesicle
Small membrane-bound sac that functions in moving products into, out of, and within a cell.
plasmids
Small rings of DNA found naturally in some bacterial cells in addition to the main bacterial chromosome. Can contain genes for antibiotic resistance, or other "contingency" functions.
epitope
Small, accessible portion of an antigen that can be recognized.
nucleolus
Small, dense region within most nuclei in which the assembly of proteins begins.
second messengers
Small, non-protein water soluble molecules or ions that send messages throughout the cells by diffusion.
solute
Something dissolved in a solution.
anticodon
Specialized base triplet at one end of a tRNA molecule that recognizes a particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule.
endocrine signaling
Specialized cells release hormone molecules into vessels of the circulatory system, by which they travel to target cells in other parts of the body.
primary electron acceptor
Specialized molecule that shares a reaction center with the chlorophyll a molecule in the light reaction. traps high energy electron before it can return to ground state in the chlorophyll.
sympatric speciation
Speciation without a divided population.
interspecific competition
Species compete for a limiting resource. (-/-)
equatorial-polar gradients
Species diversity highest at equator, decreases toward poles.
invasive species
Species generally introduced by humans, that take hold outside of their native range.
biological species concept
Species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to produce fertile offspring.
Batesian mimicry
Species mimics the appearance of an unpalatable or harmful.
outgroups
Species or group of species closely related to the ingroup.
dominant species
Species that are the most abundant or have the most biomass.
big-bang reproduction
Species that have only a single reproductive opportunity, such as agave and salmon.
spirilla
Spiral bacteria.
mesophyll
Spongy tissue in the interior of the leaf where most chloroplasts are found.
Golgi apparatus
Stack of membranes in the cell that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum.
granum
Stack of thylakoids.
turnover time
Standing crop biomass compared to production.
totipotent
Stem cells with the potential to differentiate into any type of cell.
allopolyploid
Sterile hybrid is changed to a fertile polyploid due to mutation ; fertile with each other, but not parent species.
reduced hybrid fertility
Sterile hybrids due to uneven chromosome number.
cholesterol
Steroid common in cell membranes, also in many hormones.
starch
Storage polysaccharide of plants.
polyribosomes
Strings of ribosomes that work together to translate a RNA message.
competitive exclusion
Strong competition can lead to local elimination of one of the species.
cell wall
Strong layer around the cell membrane in plants, algae, and some bacteria.
neuron
Structural and functional unit of nervous system.
fluid mosaic model
Structural model of the plasma membrane where molecules are free to move sideways within a lipid bilayer.
population genetics
Study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of evolutionary processes.
reproductive rates
Study of females to determine reproductive output and how it varies with age of female.
ecology
Study of interactions between organisms and the environment.
physiology
Study of the functions an organism performs.
anatomy
Study of the structure of an organism.
demography
Study of vital statistics of a population and how they change over time.
primary succession
Succession that begins in a virtually lifeless area.
secondary succession
Succession when an existing community has been cleared, but soil left intact.
-in
Suffix of a protein.
-ose
Suffix of a sugar.
ecological niche
Sum total of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources.
niche
Sum total of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources; an organism's "role".
transcription
Synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template.
smooth ER
Synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid sex hormones-help detoxify drugs and poisons (liver cells).
cytotoxic T cells or "killer T cells"
T cells that directly attack infecting organisms; these cells attack antigen labeled foreign or host tissue.
biomanipulation
Technique for restoring eutrophic lakes that reduces populations of algae by manipulating higher-level consumers.
character displacement
Tendency of characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations than allopatric populations.
Green World Hypothesis
Terrestrial herbivores consume relatively little plant biomass because they are held in check by predators, parasites and disease.
cerebellum
The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance.
circadian rhythms
The 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species.
5' cap
The 5' end of a pre-mRNA molecule modified by the addition of a cap of guanine nucleotide.
template strand
The DNA strand that provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an mRNA transcript.
self-incompatibility
The ability of a seed plant to reject its own pollen and sometimes the pollen of closely related individuals.
tonicity
The ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water; depends partly on concentration of nonpenetrating solutes relative to inside of cell.
cognition
The ability of an animal's nervous system to perceive, store, process, and use information gathered by sensory receptors.
associative learning
The ability of animals to associate one feature with another.
DNA methylation
The addition of methyl groups to bases of DNA after DNA synthesis; may serve as a long-term control of gene expression.
alteration of generations
The alteration of two or more different forms in the life cycle of a plant or animal.
critical load
The amount of added nutrient that can be absorbed by plants without damaging ecosystem.
activation energy
The amount of energy needed to push the reactants over an energy barrier.
B cell receptor
The antigen receptor on B cells: a Y-Shaped, membrane-bound molecule consisting of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains linked by disulfide bridges and containing two antigen-binding sites.
density dependent inhibition
The arrest of cell division that occurs when cells grown in a laboratory dish touch one another.
transcription initiation complex
The assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase.
histone acetylation
The attachment of acetyl groups to certain amino acids of histone proteins.
receptacle
The base of a flower; the part of the stem that is the site of attachment of the floral organs.
transduction
The binding of the signal molecule changes the receptor protein in some way.
de-etiolation
The changes a plant shoot undergoes in response to sunlight; also known informally as greening.
therapeutic cloning
The cloning of human cells by nuclear transplantation for therapeutic purposes, such as the generation of embryonic stem cells to treat disease.
membrane potential
The voltage of a plasma membrane.
humoral immune response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids.
cell-mediated immune response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells.
cotransport
The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its own concentration gradient.
hybridization
The crossing of two true-breeding parents.
immunization
The deliberate exposure of a pathogen to produce memory cells.
pattern formation
The development of a spatial organization of tissues and organs.
dialysis
The diffusion of small solutes through a selectively permeable membrane.
osmosis
The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
genetic engineering
The direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes.
phosphorylation
The metabolic process of introducing a phosphate group into an organic molecule.
ATP synthase
The enzyme that make ATP from ADPand inorganic phosphate.
protein kinase
The enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to protein.
differential gene expression
The expression of different sets of genes by cells with the same genome.
G1 phase
The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.
intercellular joining
The function of membrane proteins in which membrane proteins of adjacent cells hook together, as in gap junctions or tight junctions.
cell-cell recognition
The function of membrane proteins in which some glycoproteins serve as ID tags that are recognized by membrane proteins of other cells.
forebrain
The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.
cleavage furrow
The first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.
pioneer species
The first species that colonize new area, such as lichen and mosses.
stroma
The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.
production efficiency
The fraction of energy stored in food that was not used for cell respiration.
restriction fragment
The fragment of DNA that is produced by cleaving DNA with a restriction enzyme.
F1 Generation
The hybrid offspring of true-breeding parents.
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
The infectious agent that causes AIDS. HIV is a retrovirus.
carbon fixation
The initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds.
primary transcript
The initial mRNA transcript that is transcribed from a protein coding gene. Also called pre-mRNA.
synapse
The junction between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle.
species-area curve
The larger the geographic area, the greater the number of species.
host range
The limited range of host cells that each type of virus can infect and parasitize.
reaction center
The location of the first light driven chemical reaction of photosynthesis.
leaf
The major sites of photosynthesis in most plants.
biotechnology
The manipulation of living organisms or their components to produce useful products.
plasma membrane
The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, thereby regulating the cell's chemical composition.
resting potential
The membrane potential of a neuron that is at rest.
gene cloning
The production of multiple copies of a gene.
threshold potential
The minimum membrane potential that must be reached in order for an action potential to be generated.
spatial learning
The modification of behavior based on experience with the spatial structure of the environment.
learning
The modification of behavior based on specific experiences.
RNA processing
The modification of mRNA before it leaves the nucleus that is unique to eukaryotes.
positional information
The molecular cues that control pattern formation.
rubisco
The most abundant protein on earth. Performs Carbon Fixation in the Calvin Cycle.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
The most advanced, and fatal, stage of an HIV infection.
glutamate
The most common neurotransmitter in the brain. Excitatory.
clumped dispersion
The most common pattern of dispersion; individuals aggregated in patches.
cytoplasmic streaming
The motion of cytoplasm in a cell that results in a coordinated movement of the cell's contents.
P generation
The name for the true-breeding parents.
synaptic cleft
The narrow gap that separates the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic cell.
postsynaptic cell
The neuron, muscle, or gland cell that receives the signal from a neuron.
leading strand
The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' to 3' direction.
realized niche
The niche species actually occupies.
fundamental niche
The niche species could potentially occupy.
brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.
ethylene
The only gaseous plant hormone. Among its many effects are response to mechanical stress, programmed cell death, leaf abscission, and fruit ripening.
genome
The ordering of genes in a haploid set of chromosomes of a particular organism.
mitochondria
The organelles in which nutrients are converted to energy.
carpel
The ovule-producing reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of the stigma, style, and ovary.
hypocotyl
The part of a plant embryo directly below the cotyledons, forming a connection with the radicle.
sympathetic division
The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats.
water potential
The physical property predicting the direction in which water will flow, governed by solute concentration and applied pressure.
F plasmid
The plasmid form of the F factor.
determination
The point during development at which a cell becomes committed to a particular fate due to cytoplasmic effects or to induction by neighboring cells.
stamen
The pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of an anther and a filament.
grey matter
The portions of the central nervous system that are abundant in cell bodies of neurons rather than axons. Unmyelinated.
hindbrain
The posterior portion of the brain including cerebellum and brainstem.
one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis
The premise that a gene is a segment of DNA that codes for one polypeptide.
turgor pressure
The pressure inside of a cell as a cell pushes itself against the cell wall.
signal transduction pathway
The process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted into a specific cellular response.
antigen presentation
The process by which an MHC molecule binds to a fragment of an intracellular protein antigen and carries it to the cell surface, where it is displayed and can be recognized by a T cell.
morphogenesis
The process by which an organism takes shape and the differentiated cells occupy their appropriate locations.
induction
The process by which neighboring cells can influence the determination of a cell.
depolarization
The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.
cell division
The process in reproduction and growth by which a cell divides to form daughter cells.
cleavage
The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane; specifically.
peripheral proteins
The proteins of a membrane that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer; they are appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane.
independent assortment
The random distribution of the pairs of genes on different chromosomes to the gametes.
chromatin
The readily stainable substance of a cell nucleus consisting of DNA and RNA and various proteins.
cytoplasm
The region of the cell between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
centromere
The region of the chromosome that holds the two sister chromatids together during mitosis.
genetic recombination
The regrouping of genes in an offspring that results in a genetic makeup that is different from that of the parents.
testcross
The result of breeding a recessive homozygote with an organism of dominant phenotype but unknown genotype.
ethology
The scientific study of how animals behave, particularly in natural environments.
G2 phase
The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.
hormone
The secretion of an endocrine gland that is transmitted by the blood to the tissue on which it has a specific effect.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
gel electrophoresis
The separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.
insertion sequence
The simplest kind of transposable element, consisting of inverted repeats of DNA flanking a gene for transposase, the enzyme that catalyzes transposition.
cytosol
The soluble portion of the cytoplasm, which includes molecules and small particles, such as ribosomes, but not the organelles covered with membranes.
locus
The specific site of a particular gene on its chromosome.
gametophyte
The stage in the life cycle of a plant in which the plant produces gametes, or sex cells.
style
The stalk of a flower's carpel, with the ovary at the base and the stigma at the top.
stigma
The sticky part of a flower's carpel, which receives pollen grain.
bioenergenetics
The study of how organisms manage their energy resources.
biosphere
The sum of all ecosystems.
translation
The synthesis of a polypeptide, which occurs under the direction of mRNA.
S phase
The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.
endocrine system
The system of glands that produce endocrine secretions that help to control bodily metabolic activity.
inclusive fitness
The total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to increase the production of their offspring.
response
The transduced signal finally triggers a specific cellular response.
presynaptic cell
The transmitting neuron in a synapse.
energy coupling
The use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one.
vernalization
The use of cold treatment to induce a plant to flower.
membrane potential
The voltage across a cell's plasma membrane.
natural killer (NK) cells
These cells kill cancer cells and cells infected with viruses. They bind to their targets and deliver a lethal burst of chemicals to produce holes in the target cell's membrane leading to its destruction.
local regulators
These regulators influence cells in the vicinity of them.
crenation
This happens when a cell shrinks and shrivels; can result in cell death if severe.
plasmolysis
This happens when a cell shrinks inside its cell wall while the cell wall remains intact.
cytolysis
This happens when a cell swells until pressure bursts it, resulting in cell death.
flaccid
This happens when water moves, but the amount within the cell is constant; no pressure builds.
solute potential
This measurement has a maximum value of 0; it decreases as the concentration of a solute increases.
pressure potential
This measurement has a minimum value of 0 (when the solution is open to the environment); it increases as pressure increases.
chromosomes
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
triplet code
Three-nucleotide long set that specifies a specific amino acid for a polypeptide chain.
brown fat
Tissue in neck and between shoulders of some mammals that is specialized for rapid heat production.
muscle tissue
Tissue made of cells capable of contracting.
glandualar epithelia
Tissue that absorbs or secretes chemical solutions.
loose connective tissue
Tissue that binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place. Contains collagenous, elastic, and recticular fibers.
epithelial tissue
Tissue that covers outside of the body and lines organs and cavities.
connective tissue
Tissue that functions mainly to bind and support other tissues.
nervous tissue
Tissue that senses stimuli and transmits signals.
adipose tissue
Tissue that stores fat.
organs
Tissues are organized into:, group of tissues that work together to perform closely related functions.
digestion
To break apart.
multiplication rule
To determine the probability, we multiply the probability of one event by the probability of another.
synthesis
To put together.
biomass
Total dry mass of all individuals in a population.
species richness
Total number of different species.
biological magnification
Toxins become more concentrated in successive trophic levels.
shared primitive character
Trait shared beyond the taxon.
life history
Traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival.
heredity
Transmission of traits from one generation to the next.
passive transport
Transport of a substance across a cell membrane by diffusion. No cell energy required.
The Law of Segregation
Two alleles separate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes because they are on on homologous chromosomes.
Müllerian mimicry
Two or more unpalatable species resemble each other.
Competitive Exclusion Principle
Two species competing for same limiting resource cannot coexist in one place; one species will have an advantage that will eventually lead to competitive exclusion
semiconservative model
Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand.
Schwann cells
Type of glia in the PNS, Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.
bottom-up model
Unidirectional influence from lower to higher trophic levels. (V --> H)
fertilization
Union of gametes.
genes
Units of heredity made up of DNA.
stem cell
Unspecialized cell that can both reproduce itself indefinitely and differentiate into specialized cells of one or more types.
bioremediation
Use of living organisms such as prokaryotes, fungi, or plants to detoxify polluted ecosystems.
Gram stain
Used to classify prokaryotes based on cell wall composition. Important for antibiotics; some antibiotics work on one but not the other.
biological augmentation
Uses organisms to add essential materials to degraded ecosystems.
reproductive cloning
Using a somatic cell from a multicellular organism to make one or more genetically identical individuals.
genomic imprinting
Variation in phenotype depending on whether an allele is inherited from the male or female parent.
species diversity
Variety of different kinds of organisms that make up a community.
microclimate
Very fine patterns of climate influenced by features of the environment such as shade ares and wind patterns.
provirus
Viral DNA that inserts into a host genome.
virulent
Viruses that reproduce only by the lytic cycle.
cohesion
Water molecules sticking to each other.
adhesion
Water molecules sticking to other surfaces.
interstitial fluid
Watery, internal environment of vertebrates.
active transport
When a cell gets materials or excretes them by using its own energy, usually through ATP; going against a concentration gradient.
gene flow
When a population gains or loses alleles., movement of alleles into or out of a population due to the migration of individuals to or from the population.
bottleneck effect
When a population has been dramatically reduced, and the gene pool is no longer reflective of the original population's.
allopatric speciation
When a population is divided; leads to speciation.
allosteric regulation
When a protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site.
founder effect
When a small number of individuals colonize a new area; the new gene pool is not reflective of original population.
diffusion
When a substance moves from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Due to entropy.
zero population growth (ZPG)
When per capita birth and death rates are equal. (r = 0)
alcohol fermentation
When pyruvate is converted to ethanol in 2 steps.
lactic acid fermetation
When pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactic as am end product, with no release of carbon dioxide.
gametic isolation
When sperm can't fertilize the eggs.
reduced hybrid viability
When the genes of different species interact and impair hybrid development.
plasmolyze
When the membrane shrinks away from the cell wall as a result of water loss.
complete dominance
When the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are indistinguishable.
redox reactions
When there is a transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another.
sexual reproduction
When two parents give unique combination of genes to offspring.
temporal isolation
When two species breed at different times of day, season, or years.
habitat isolation
When two species encounter each other only rarely.
codominance
When which the phenotypes of both alleles are exhibited in the heterozygote.
lymphocytes
White blood cells.
white matter
Whitish nervous tissue of the CNS consisting of neurons and their myelin sheaths.
sex chromosomes
X and Y chromosomes.
chiasmata
X-shaped regions where crossing over occurred.
thoracic cavity
cavity housing lungs and heart
point mutations
chemical changes in just one base pair of a gene
restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
differences in the restriction sites on homologous chromosomes that result in different restriction fragment patterns.
daily torpor
in small mammals and birds, daily lowering of metabolism that allows them to survive on stored energy
codons
mRNA base triplets.
mutagens
physical and chemical agents that interact with DNA to cause mutations
control elements
segments of noncoding DNA in eukaryotic genes that help regulate transcription by binding to certain proteins.
micro-RNA (miRNA)
small single stranded RNA molecules that bind to mRNA and can degrade mRNA or block its translation.
cell differentiation
the process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific structure or function.
one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis
there is one gene that codes for one polypeptide
Hamilton's rule
when C < r x B C = cost to the altruistic party r = genetic relatedness B = fitness benefit to recipient of altuism
