Ultimate List CMY3701

Labelling theorists have contributed a number of unique ideas to the literature of criminology. Schmalleger (1996:277) lists the following:

(+) Deviant behaviour is the result of social processes that include the definition of such behaviour and is not the result of any characteristic that is inherently part of human behaviour. (+) An individual is awarded the status of "deviant'' as a result of social definition, rather than because he or she possesses certain inherent characteristics. (+) Society's response to deviant behaviour and to deviants is the key element in determining the criminality of the person and the behaviour in question. (+) A negative self-image is the result of the formal mechanisms of the criminal justice system, and does not precede delinquency. (+) Labelling by society and treatment by the criminal justice system tend to encourage, rather than discourage, crime and delinquency.

Suitability of target is dependent on 4 criteria, VIVA

(+) Value: calculated from the subjective rational perspective of the offender, what is the target worth? (+) Inertia: the extent to which the article or target can be realistically removed, taken, robbed or moved (+) Visibility: how visible the target is to the offender? (+) Accessibility: how easy it is to gain access to the target?

when growing up in a disorganised area, it is this combination of

(1) a breakdown of control and (2) exposure to a criminal culture that lures individual youngsters into crime and, across all juveniles, creates high rates of delinquency.

Bandura argued that there are three main aspects to social learning theory:

(1) external reinforcement, which is the basis of operant conditioning; (2) vicarious reinforcement, which is gained by observing other people's behaviour (either being reinforced or punished); (3) self-reinforcement, which relates to feelings of pride and achievement in one's own behaviour. Self-reinforcement will encourage people to behave in a similar way in the future.

psychoticism

(P scale). This dimension could well be referred to as a psychopathic dimension since it is generally evidenced by aggressive, cold and impersonal behaviour. Other characteristics of psychoticism are antisocial, creative, egocentric, impulsive, tough-minded and lacking empathy. The individual who is high on the psychoticism scale will tend to be solitary, uncaring, and cruel and will not fit in with others. Eysenck associates extremes of this dimension with criminality; the higher the P score, the higher the level of offending.

Cornish and Clarke summarise the basis of their rational choice perspective in the following six basic propositions:

(i) Crimes are deliberate acts, committed with the intention of benefit (ii) Offenders try to make the best decisions they can, given the risks and uncertainty involved. (iii) Offender decision making varies considerably according to the nature of the crime. (iv) Decisions about becoming involved in particular kinds of crime ("involvement decisions'') are quite different from those relating to the commission of a specific criminal act ("event decisions''). (v) Involvement decisions comprise the following three stages: Initiation/ Habituation/ Desistance = Background factors are likely to be the most important at the initiation stage and current life circumstances at the habituation stage and desistance stage. (vi) Event decisions involve a sequence of choices made at each stage of the criminal act: preparation/ target selection/ commission of the act/ escape/ and aftermath.

Cornish and Clarke (Newburn, 2007:281-282) summarise the basis of their rational choice perspective in the following six basic propositions:

(i) Crimes are deliberate acts, committed with the intention of benefiting the offender. (ii) Offenders try to make the best decisions they can, given the risks and uncertainty involved. (iii) Offender decision making varies considerably according to the nature of the crime. (iv) Decisions about becoming involved in particular kinds of crime ("involvement decisions'') are quite different from those relating to the commission of a specific criminal act ("event decisions''). (v) Involvement decisions comprise the following three stages (Newburn, 2007:283): [Initiation: whether the person is ready to begin committing crime in order to obtain what he or she wants/ Habituation: whether, having started offending, he or she should continue to do so/ Desistance: whether, at some stage, he or she ought to stop.] (vi) Event decisions involve a sequence of choices made at each stage of the criminal act. For example, preparation (when to do the crime, i.e. reduce risks), target selection (which house to burgle), commission of the act, escape, and aftermath.

person's lifestyle definitely influences the opportunity for crime because it controls a person's:

(i) proximity to criminals (ii) the time he or she is exposed to criminals (iii) attractiveness as a target (iv) ability to be protected

labelling perspective

(like structure and process theories) regards society as functional in nature, and emphasises how the actions of the agents of social control (e.g. the police and the courts) may actually contribute to criminal behaviour.

Nutrition diet:

- tendency to antisocial behaviour can result from a biochemical imbalance arising from nutrition. - Biocriminologists maintain that minimum levels of vitamins and minerals are needed for normal brain functioning and growth - People with vitamin deficiency tend to manifest a number of physical, mental, and behavioural problems, including lower intelligence test scores. - studies have revealed that an insufficiency of certain chemicals and minerals, including sodium, potassium, and calcium, can lead to depression, cognitive problems, memory loss and abnormal sexual activity - studies have found correlations between nutrition and antisocial or aggressive behaviour; the most commonly studied substances are sugar and cholesterol consumption and lead toxicity - low blood sugar levels (hypoglycaemia), which is partly caused by an excessive sugar intake, to be common in habitually violent offenders - Research has also indicated that there is a link between blood cholesterol and violent behaviour. However, the methodological shortcomings of these studies on sugar and cholesterol make it difficult to conclude that causal relationships exist. - Exposure to lead in diet and the environment has been shown to negatively affect brain functioning, bring about learning disabilities and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children, and may increase the risk of antisocial behaviour - Food allergies and food additives have been associated with attention deficit hyperactivity - deficiency of vitamin B complex is linked with aggression and erratic behaviour

Burke (2005:28±29) identifies the following central attributes of the classical and neoclassical schools, which laid down the foundations of the rational actor model:

. A fundamental concentration on the criminal law and the legal definition of crime. . The central concept that the punishment should fit the crime rather than the offender. . The doctrine of free will, according to which all people are free to choose their actions. From this perspective, it is assumed that there is nothing ''different'' or ''special'' about offenders that differentiate them from other people. . The use of non-scientific methodology coupled with a lack of empirical research.

THE RATIONAL ACTOR MODEL> ATTRIBUTES

. Legal definition of crime . Punishment should fit the crime . Doctrine of free will . Non-scientific methodology

Psychologists and psychiatrists can possibly concentrate on some of the following:

. Statements to the police . Hospital records . Witness accounts of the accused's behaviour . Past criminal record . Past psychological tests . Employment records

Cornish and Clarke argue that the choice process occurs in two major stages.

1 Firstly, decide whether they are willing to become involved in crime to satisfy their needs (initial involvement stage). This is influenced mainly by their previous learning experiences, including any experiences with crime, contact with law enforcement, moral attitudes, self-perception, and the degree to which they can plan ahead. These learning factors are shaped by various background factors. 2 Secondly, once decided; they need to adopt a crime-specific focus. need to decide what offence they will probably commit. This decision is heavily influenced by the individual's current situation.

Biosocial theories, these approaches distinguish themselves from earlier approaches in a number of ways:

1) the most recent biological theorists, known as biosocial theorists, focus on a vast spectrum of biological factors, including genetic inheritance, environmental factors (i.e. head injuries and toxins such as lead poisoning), and reproductive factors. 2) biosocial theorists do not claim that biology leads to crime. Instead, they assert that biological factors influence crime by shaping the development of particular traits that are more conducive to crime than others. 3) Finally, biosocial theorists recognise the importance of the social environment in relation to individual development. They maintain that the social environment shapes the development of certain traits and determines whether these traits will lead to crime (Cote, 2002:36). In short, biosocial theorists believe that physical, environmental, and social conditions work "in concert'' to produce human behaviour.

two main branches of social process theory.

1. learning theory=which contends that criminal behaviour is learnt by means of the close relationships formed with other people. The techniques for committing crime and the necessary reinforcing attitudes are acquired via these close relationships. 2. social control theory. This theory is based on the argument that people who commit crime feel isolated from the significant institutions in society, namely, the family, the peer group and the school. The ties with these institutions have been severed and subsequently the conventional societal control over people is absent. This then makes the individual feel that he or she is free to indulge in antisocial behaviour.

Rational choice

= 1986, Cornish and Clarke = assume that people are not "empty vessels'' when they approach a situation in which a crime might be committed = bring with them background factors that include many of the influences articulated by other theories of crime, such as temperament, intelligence, cognitive style, family upbringing, class origin, neighbourhood context, and gender. = These factors create criminal motivations - deep-rooted inclinations or dispositions to commit crime = From a rational choice perspective, the problem with other theories is that it is at this point that their analysis of crime ceases. However, in the end, crime is not simply due to underlying motivations or predispositions, it also involves a sequence of choices that must be made if these motivations are to result in an actual criminal act

Burke (2005:28-29) identifies the following central attributes of the classical and neoclassical schools, which laid down the foundations of the rational actor model:

= A fundamental concentration on the criminal law and the legal definition of crime. = The central concept that the punishment should fit the crime rather than the offender. = The doctrine of free will, according to which all people are free to choose their actions. From this perspective, it is assumed that there is nothing "different'' or "special'' about offenders that differentiate them from other people. = The use of non-scientific methodology coupled with a lack of empirical research.

Skinner, Cassel and Bernstein (2007:87) emphasised three elements in operant learning:

= Antecedent conditions (the things that precede or trigger behaviours) = The behaviour itself = The consequences of the behaviour

Skinner, Cassel and Bernstein emphasised three elements in operant learning:

= Antecedent conditions (the things that precede or trigger behaviours) = The behaviour itself = The consequences of the behaviour

Labelling as a cause of crime

= Becker attempted to explain how some rules carry the force of legislation, while other rules carry less weight or apply only within the context of marginal subcultures = Once a person has been labelled as deviant, opportunities for conforming (law- abiding) behaviour become limited. Instead, the behavioural opportunities that are available are largely deviant. = Continued deviant behaviour is therefore not a matter of choice, but because a person's choices have been limited by society. = Becoming a ``successful'' offender then requires techniques and the resources to carry out the deviant (criminal) act = Labelling is a cause of crime because society regards the actions of the offender as deviant and this forces the offender further in the direction of continued crime.

But what social process could account for this persistent spatial distribution of delinquency?

= Borrowing heavily from Burgess and other Chicago sociologists, Shaw and McKay emphasised the importance of neighbourhood organisation in preventing or permitting juvenile delinquency. = more affluent communities, families fulfilled youths' needs and parents carefully supervised their offspring. = in the transition zone, families and other conventional institutions (e.g. schools, churches, voluntary associations) were strained, if not broken apart, by rapid and concentrated urban growth, people moving in and out (transiency), the mixture of different ethnic and racial groups = As a result, social disorganisation prevailed. = Left to their own devices, slum youths were free of the type of social controls operative in more affluent areas; there was no guiding force to stop them from seeking excitement and friends

Social disorganisation theory

= Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay (1942) set about statistically testing the assumption that crime was greater in disorganised areas than elsewhere in the city. = plotted data on where juvenile delinquents lived on a map of Chicago that had been divided into concentric zones, radiating from the city centre to the outer commuter zone = focused, in particular, on one zone, the zone in transition, which is an area of a city characterised by low rents and deteriorating buildings adjacent to the city centre; = this zone there had a concentration of delinquents.

Radical criminology and policy implications

= Contemporary writers of radical criminology point out that Marxist criminology has been rejected as a utopian view which had no applicable policy implications other than revolution. = revolution is regarded as an extremely impractical approach to the crime problem. = The focus falls on a gradual transition to socialism and socialist government activities. = Attention is paid to a more equitable application of bail conditions, abolition of compulsory penalties, prosecution of corporate crime, improved employment opportunities, and promotion of community alternatives to imprisonment. = Other strategies that are receiving attention include programmes aimed at reducing overcrowding in prisons, attempts to highlight injustices within the current system, eliminating racism and other forms of inequality in dealing with both victims and offenders, as well as greater equity in the criminal justice system. = Radical criminology has been criticised for almost exclusively emphasising methods of social change at the expense of developing a carefully thought-out theory. = There is also the point that radicalists ignore the public consensus that crime is undesirable. = crime is an activity that is condemned by everybody, which is why criminal activities must be controlled. = If criminal activities were the true expressions of the sentiments of those who have been denied their civil rights, why does public opinion not support at least some of these criminal activities? = Radicalists confuse personal politics and social reality. Political convictions influence their view of criminology as a whole, and in the process they lose their objectivity. = Marxist and radical theorists build on the tradition of sentimentality towards those who violate social rules. = Radicalists furthermore deny the multiplicity of problems that contribute to the problem of crime = Society simply does not consist of only two social classes. = Mannheim points out, the development of semi-skilled workers, together with highly schooled workers, creates multiple classes and a more even distribution of the available wealth in society, and this necessarily reduces the likelihood of a revolution.

Durkheim (Walsh & Hemmens, 2008:111) made two important statements about crime:

= Crime is a normal phenomenon in any society. = Crime is therefore functional.

Shoemaker (2000:77) shows that social disorganisation and anomie share the following common assumptions:

= Crime is caused primarily by social factors such as poverty and economic inequality. This does not mean that individual factors should be ignored, but that social factors are dominant. = The structure and institutions of society are regarded as a condition of disorder and disorganisation. The social disorganisation theory emphasises group processes and the way in which this influences the occurrence of crime in a specific area. Anomie theory focuses on how feelings of alienation, anger and frustration lead to criminal behaviour. = The uncertainty or confusion which goes hand in hand with social disorganisation and anomie is precisely what makes people interested in, and receptive to, crime. Stable social conditions help to keep crime under control, but when these conditions are absent, crime becomes more prevalent. = The disintegration of stability in a social structure is particularly found in minority groups, lower-class groups and "drop-outs''. Structure theory was developed to explain the high level of crime in less affluent areas.

As an assumptions of process theories = Crime is not necessarily a class phenomenon

= Crime is not approached as being primarily a lower-class phenomenon. = Process theorists claim that not all people who are subjected to social disorganisation become offenders, and they challenge the assumption that there is a value gap between the different social classes that make up a society. = young people from the lower class do experience economic difficulties, strain (in the family itself), inadequate education and a poor self-image, the majority of them are willing to abide by the rules (laws) of society = Those who do succeed in coping with all this and who remain law abiding are those who tend to have the support of a happy family, and law-abiding friends and teachers who take an active interest in them. = according to process theorists, misconduct and crime occur in any social class, rich or poor, if the socialisation process is inadequate and/or destructive.

Lombroso came to two main conclusions:

= Criminals were genetic throwbacks or atavistic. They were primitive people in a modern era. = Criminals could be identified by their physical features. Lombroso's studies of executed criminals led him to assert that the "criminal type'' could be identified by distinguishing physical features Lombroso's conclusions were compatible with the view that criminals were "born bad''.

Although there are differences regarding the way in which social control theories explain criminal behaviour, they all share the following basic thinking:

= Delinquency and crime are unavoidable. Hirschi who was a major proponent of control theory, did not view crime as the expression of free will, but simply as normal behaviour. This argument is a reflection of Durkheim's influence, who regarded crime as a normal phenomenon in any society. = It is necessary to explain why people obey rules (and not why they break them). = The essential component of all social control theories is, in short, their attempts to identify those factors that prevent people from engaging in delinquency and crime.

Bounded rationality

= Even in cases which, may seem irrational there is still some degree of rationality involved, although it may be limited. = for Cornish and Clarke (Newburn, 2007:282) behaviour is rational, but bounded = limited in its understanding of possibilities, potentials and consequences = Offenders are generally doing the best they can within the limits of time, resources, and information available to them. = all offenders think before they act, even if this is only momentary and is based on some immediate assumptions and hoped-for benefits rather than any longer-term strategic thinking.

aggressive acts are usually modelled on three principle role models

= Family members: children who use aggressive tactics have parents who use similar behaviours when dealing with others. = Mass media: Films and television commonly depict violence graphically. = Environmental experiences

The main assumptions of Lemert's Interactionist approach are explained by Hunter and Dantzker (2002:111):

= Individuals enter into a criminal career after they have been labelled, especially if the labelling is done by people important to the individual. = Labelling creates a stigma and influences an individual's self-image. = Labelled individuals see themselves as deviant and will increasingly commit criminal behaviour.

William Chambliss

= Law, order and power, was published in 1971. = bridge between the earlier conflict theorists (conservatives or traditionalists) and the more radical approach of the Marxists. = emphasis is on social class, class interests and class conflict. = The more economically stratified a society becomes, the more necessary it becomes for the dominant groups in society to enforce the behavioural norms that guarantee their supremacy. = it would be more probable for offenders from the middle and upper classes to escape detention and punishment by the criminal justice system. = The reason for this is not that these offenders are cleverer or better able to disguise their crimes, but that it suits the law to ignore those offenders who may cause difficulties for others in the middle and upper class. = Prosecuting offenders from the lower class, on the other hand, will lead to the community praising the law for taking action. = Criminal law will expand in an attempt to force the proletariat to surrender. = Socialist societies, according to Chambliss, should have a lower crime rate because the class struggle in such societies will not be as intense and this should reduce the power of those forces that lead to crime and the functioning of crime. = Chambliss established the intellectual base for radical criminology, = =

Learning theories

= Learning theorists believe that poverty and social class are not sufficient, by themselves, to explain crime and misconduct. = emphasise that the norms, values and behaviour associated with criminal activities need to be learnt. = Young offenders have to learn how to become criminals = how to handle the consequences of their actions = The values, norms and motives associated with committing criminal acts are learnt via interaction with significant others, such as family members or peer group members.

Interactionist approach

= Lemert's theory can be described as the ``model'' of the interactionist approach. = focused on the process that leads juveniles to describe themselves as delinquent. = explained this phenomenon partly by referring to the juvenile's social class and interaction with the formal decision-making powers = critical of rehabilitation ± in his opinion, such attempts merely encourage recidivism. = "primary deviance'' and "secondary deviance''. = not all people who have been labelled, assume these roles. Some offenders resist labelling by denying or downplaying the seriousness of their actions = The labelling perspective emphasises the process of labelling and does not see deviance as a state of being, but as an outcome of social interaction.

Bartollas (2006:79) points out that Lombroso made two significant contributions to the study of criminal behaviour, namely:

= Lombroso provided the impetus for criminologists to study the individual offender rather than the crimes committed by the person. = His manner of studying the offender by involving control groups and his desire to have his theories tested impartially influenced the development of the scientific method. Lombroso established the basis for a positivistic school of criminological study and, with it, the requirements for a scientific foundation of our knowledge of criminal behaviour.

Decisions about committing an offence can be summarised as follows

= Offenders are rarely in possession of all the necessary facts about the risks, efforts and rewards of crime. = Criminal choices usually have to be made quickly - and revised hastily. = Instead of planning their crimes down to the last detail, offenders might rely on a general approach that has worked before, and then improvise when they are confronted by unforeseen circumstances. = Once they have embarked on a crime, offenders tend to focus on the rewards of the crime rather than its risks; and, when considering risks, they focus on the immediate possibilities of being caught, rather than on the punishments they might receive.

The choice process

= Offenders seek to benefit themselves by their criminal behaviour; process involves the making of decisions and choices, however elementary = exhibits a measure of rationality, although the process may be constrained by limitations of time and ability and the availability of relevant information = Cornish and Clarke (Cote, 2002:291) argue that the choice process occurs in two major stages. ------> 1st) offenders must decide whether they are willing to become involved in crime to satisfy their needs; decision to become involved in crime is influenced mainly by their previous learning experiences, including any experiences with crime, contact with law enforcement, moral attitudes, self-perception, and the degree to which they can plan ahead. These learning factors are shaped by various background factors. ------> 2nd) once individuals decide to become involved in crime, they need to adopt a crime-specific focus; decision is heavily influenced by the individual's current situation; Crime, according to this perspective, is regarded as "deliberate''; it is never "senseless''. In other words, the crime always has some anticipated or intended benefit for the offender.

Classical conditioning

= Pavlov gave meat to dogs accompanied by another stimulus, the ringing of a bell. After a while, he simply rang the bell without presenting the food, but the dogs still salivated. = Pavlov concluded that the dogs' salivation was an automatic response and that they could, therefore, be conditioned to respond to other stimuli. = classical conditioning refers to the process by which a learnt reaction becomes automatic and internalised. = finding was significant because it demonstrated that criminal behaviour could be modified by manipulating associations with external changes in the environment. = According to classical conditioning theory, the subject is passive and learns what to expect from the environment = The feeling of fear is an example of a response which often results from conditioned responses to pain felt early in life.

Classical conditioning (Pavlov)

= Pavlov who was a Russian physiologist = dogs' salivation was an automatic response and that they could, therefore, be conditioned to respond to other stimuli. = classical conditioning refers to the process by which a learnt reaction becomes automatic and internalised. = demonstrated that criminal behaviour could be modified by manipulating associations with external changes in the environment. = subject is passive and learns what to expect from the environment = As far as crime and punishment are concerned, however, classical conditioning is of little significance, since punishment by the criminal justice system does not immediately follow the criminal act.

Lilly et al (2007:164±165) explained the five propositions of Chambliss's argument as follows:

= People's life situations influence their values and norms. Complex societies are composed of groups with different life situations. = Complex societies are therefore composed of divergent and conflicting sets of norms. = The normative systems of different groups are not equally represented in the law. = The stronger a group's economic or political position, the greater the likelihood that such a group's views will be reflected in the law.

Environmental contaminants

= Pollution or environmental contaminants are believed to contribute to criminal behaviour. = Substances such as lead, copper and inorganic gases such as chlorine have been linked to emotional and behavioural disorders = Lead poisoning has also been found to contribute to hyperactivity in children and to antisocial behaviour = Deborah Denno investigated the behaviour of more than 900 African American youths and found that lead poisoning was one of the most significant predictors of male delinquency and persistent adult criminality. = High lead ingestion is related to lower IQ scores, a factor also linked to aggressive behaviour

Assumptions of process theories

= Process theories are micro theories = Crime is not necessarily a class phenomenon = Emphasis on social interactions

Richard Quinney

= Quinney formulated the following six propositions = Quinney argued in his work Class, state and crime (1980) that virtually all crime committed by members of lower classes is essential for the survival of individual members of those classes. = crime is unavoidable under capitalist conditions, because crime is the reaction to the material conditions of life. = Permanent unemployment and the acceptance of such conditions may lead to a lifestyle where crime is an appropriate response. (Unemployment is a very real and intractable problem in South Africa, of course.)

The radical (Marxist) conflict perspective

= Radical criminology, which came to the fore in the 1970s, originated in the works of 19th century social utopian thinkers, and in particular in the works of Karl Marx. = According to Marx the economic means of production (the way in which people develop and produce material goods) is the core of any society, since it determines the nature of people's social, political and spiritual existence. = The economic structure of society moulds and shapes human consciousness (what we think and believe). = contradictions within the system. A capitalist society, for Marx, is one in which property and wealth become progressively concentrated in fewer and fewer hands. = Society polarises into two groups (or classes) whose interests are fundamentally in opposition. = the contradictions of capitalism will become so serious that, following revolution, it will be replaced by a whole new social system - communism = Marx identified two fundamental social classes within any capitalist society, namely the proletariat (the "have-nots'') and the bourgeoisie (the "haves''). = proletariat represent the masses, who have less education and no power. = while the bourgeoisie are the capitalists who are the wealthy owners of the means of production = The proletariat owns no capital or means of production and earns money by working. = bourgeoisie, on the other hand, are the capitalist class whose members are locked, by virtue of their privileged position in society, in an ongoing class struggle with the proletariat. = ruling class controls production and therefore also controls labour. The workers are therefore pawns in the game of competition and profit maximisation. = In Marx's critical thought it is important that he did not separate people from society. People were a social product and therefore cannot be studied in isolation from society. = Willem Bonger, a Dutch criminologist, attempted to apply a number of Marx's arguments to crime in capitalist societies. = Bonger remarks that capitalist societies appear to have more crime than other types of societies and that crime rates increased as capitalism developed. = Bonger argued that the capitalist economic system encouraged everybody to be greedy and selfish and to pursue their own benefits without regard for the welfare of their fellow human beings. = Crime is concentrated in the lower classes because the justice system criminalises the greed of the poor while it allows legal opportunities for the rich to pursue their selfish desires. = Bonger argued that a socialist society would ultimately eliminate crime because it would encourage a concern for the welfare of society as a whole and would remove the legal bias that favours the rich. = Criminal legislation is seen as an instrument of coercion and is used by the ruling class to protect their position and interests. = The working class is further demoralised because they are exploited by the ruling class ± long hours of work, monotonous work, poor housing conditions and absolute poverty. = Although a lot of crime is the result of poverty, it is not wealth as such which is meaningful, but how wealth is distributed in society.

Akers' social learning theory

= Reformulation of differential association = also known as differential reinforcement = Akers argues that both law-abiding behaviour and criminal behaviour can be explained by means of his social learning theory.

The Chicago School of Sociology

= Robert Park's theory of human ecology = Park argued that the development of urban areas was shaped by certain patterns of social process. = Different kinds of human beings share the same environment and are dependent on each other. =urban environment can therefore be examined in a scientific way, through the careful and detailed observation of social life in different parts of the city = By comparing the results of such observations, one can establish causal explanations for crime = Ernest Burgess=> produced a model of the city that provided a framework for understanding the social roots of crime.; argued that, as cities expand in size, the development is patterned socially; cities grow in a series of concentric zones or rings = Burgess=> outlined 5 different zones and claimed that a competitive process decided how people were distributed spatially among these: commercial enterprises were located in the central business district in close proximity to the transport systems; the most expensive residential areas were in the outer zones, away from the bustle of the city centre, the pollution of the factories and the homes of the poor.; ``zone in transition'' ± containing rows of deteriorating houses and often built in the shadow of ageing factories ± that was the particular focus of Burgess's study. = outward expansion of the business district led to the constant displacement of residents. As the least desirable living area, this zone of transition was the focus for the influx of immigrants who were too poor to reside elsewhere. = these social patterns weakened family and communal ties and resulted in social disorganisation. Social disorganisation was therefore presented as the primary explanation of criminal behaviour.

Williams and McShane identify the following as the main assumptions of Hirschi's theory:

= Self-preservation and reward are the major concerns of human nature, which means that human behaviour tends to be self-centred. = Given the above argument, human behaviour has to be controlled and regulated for the benefit of everybody. = Society's rules and regulations constitute the moral order. = A person bonds with the moral order of society initially by way of socialisation (as a child) and later by means of social institutions. = The bond formed with the moral order consists of elements that maintain and reinforce conformity (obedience to the law). = The elements of the bond are identified as: attachment/ commitment/ involvement/ belief = All these elements are present to varying degrees. If the elements become weaker or absent, individuals feel they have greater freedom to pursue their own interests by means of delinquency and crime.

Evaluation and policy implications of Hirschi's theory

= Social control theory is amenable to empirical examination. = Concepts such as ``attachment to parents'' and ``involvement in school'' are clearly defined and measurable. = Social control theory has given us valuable insights into delinquent behaviour = The importance of the intra-family relationship, for example, has been substantiated. = Researchers are increasingly using this theory to develop integrated theories of delinquent behaviour. = Why is it important to move away from single theory explanations to the development of integrated theories? One reason is that a variety of theories gives us a wider understanding of the dynamics of criminal behaviour. = Questions have been asked, in particular, about the causal sequence of Hirschi's bonding elements or dimensions. For example: would the strong presence of three elements and the absence of one element mean that a person will commit crime? What is the relationship between the elements? = The origin of the social bond is also vague. = Hirschi also states that the strength of this bond varies and that we need to be able to account for this. = The policy implications of social control theory are less direct than in the case of strain theory and focus more on childhood education. = Some critics believe that social control theory is supported by only one type of data, namely, self-report studies. = The theory does give us a good explanation for certain types of crime, namely, juvenile delinquency and street offences. = Social control theory does not, however, really address the issue of how to prevent and control professional, organised, corporate and white-collar crime = As far as prevention is concerned, social control theory offered considerable support for programmes aimed at reinforcing family ties and effective childhood education.

Learning by means of observation (Bandura)

= Social learning theorists argue that people are not actually born with an inclination to act violently, but that they learn it = view violence as something learnt through a process called behaviour modelling or imitation = three principle role models: Family members/ Mass media/ Environmental experiences = three main aspects to social learning theory: (1) external reinforcement, which is the basis of operant conditioning; (2) vicarious reinforcement, which is gained by observing other people's behaviour (either being reinforced or punished); and (3) self-reinforcement, which relates to feelings of pride and achievement in one's own behaviour. = physical skills necessary for the commission of a crime are learnt either from observing or being taught by others.

Social organisation

= Social organisation occurs when people's behaviour is guided by uniform norms and expectations. People also develop social organisation to regulate their own behaviour and the behaviour of others.In other words, in societies characterised by social organisation, people learn what to expect from themselves, what to expect from others and what others can expect from them.

As an assumptions of process theories = Process theories are micro theories

= Social process theories attempt to explain how individuals (micro) become offenders. = focus is on social interactions or processes as experienced by the individual rather than the social structure (macro)

Crime as a normal phenomenon

= Societies are complex structures made up of people who often have very diverse values. = one socially acceptable behaviour may be a breach of the rules or norms of the greater group. = For this reason some actions (e.g. drug abuse) are described as criminal or illegal by those who control group norms. = Durkheim: crime is the result of the creation and application of norms. = Crime is therefore a normal phenomenon because, while there are people in every society who obey the norms and laws, there are always others who disobey them = believed that crime is both inevitable and necessary. For him, crime is a social fact, and a stable suicide rate (for example) is just that: a social fact. = a complete absence of crime would depend on all members of a society being in total agreement with each other about what constituted acceptable norms and values.

In order to gain a better understanding of crime, Quinney formulated the following six propositions (Williams 2004:405):

= Societies such as America (and South Africa?) are based on an advanced capitalist economy. = The state is organised to serve the interests of the dominant economic class, namely, the capitalist ruling class. = Criminal law is an instrument of the state and the ruling class aimed at maintaining the existing social and economic order. = Crime control in a capitalist society is brought about by means of a variety of institutions and agencies established and administered by government elite. This elite represents the interests of the ruling class and its aim is to establish internal order. = The subservient classes are oppressed in whatever way necessary, but especially by means of coercion and the sheer power of the legal system. = Only the collapse of capitalist society and the creation of a new society based on socialist principles will provide a solution to the problem of crime.

According to Schmalleger (1996:312), the conflict perspective may be described in terms of the following six key elements:

= Society is made up of diverse social groups. The distinction between groups is reflected in gender and social class. = Each group has different definitions of right and wrong. Moral considerations and standards of behaviour vary from one group to the next illustrate the grey area between right and wrong. = Conflict between groups is unavoidable and conflict is based on differences that are socially significant (e.g. ethnicity, gender and social class). Groups that are distinguished on the basis of these characteristics will compete for power, wealth and other forms of recognition. = The fundamental nature of group conflict focuses on the exercise of political power. Political power is the key to obtaining wealth and other forms of power. = The law is a tool of power and promotes the interests of the powerful. Laws provide those in control with access to scarce resources, and the same laws keep others from gaining access to power. = Those with power are invariably interested in retaining such power.

Structure theories: premises

= Structure theories represent the purest form of sociological explanation. = acc to structure theories, crime is a product of defects in the social structure = Social structure theories are macro-theories. = theories have been designed to account, in particular, for the higher incidence of crime among the less advantaged or lower class members of society. = Crime is regarded as being largely a lower-class phenomenon which breeds criminal behaviour that begins in youth and continues into young adulthood = Shortcomings in the social structure increase the likelihood of people in the lower social strata resorting to illegal actions. = assumption here is that there is a link between a person's socioeconomic situation and the likelihood of him or her resorting to misconduct and crime. = Structural issues contribute to poverty, unemployment, poor education and racism, all of which are regarded as the root causes of high crime rates among members of socially deprived groups. = Structure theorists are not concerned to find out why an individual commits crime. The argument is that misconduct and crime are functions of a person's position in the socioeconomic structure of that particular society. The focus, therefore, is on certain ecological areas = Social structure theories reflect a fundamental trust in the social system and assume that there is consensus among all people in society about the validity of laws, but that shortcomings in society must be pointed out and rectified

Ongoing research and policy implications of differential association

= Sutherland believed that he had formulated a general explanation of criminal behaviour = His investigations were therefore not limited to delinquency and crime among juveniles in poor neighbourhoods. = compiled the familiar life history of a professional thief. This study showed how differential association among thieves is the critical factor in determining whether a person will become a purse-snatcher or, say, a shoplifter. = Sutherland claimed that differential association can account for offences committed by people with a high social status = "white-collar crimes''. His investigation revealed that lawlessness is common in the business, political and professional world. = The research into white-collar crime reinforced Sutherland's argument that crime cannot be attributed to poverty, because most white-collar criminals were not poor, and neither were they raised in slum neighbourhoods. = As far as policy is concerned, Sutherland's theory has implications for the treatment and even the study of alternative types of crime. = concerted efforts are being made not to detain juveniles together with adult offenders; hence the establishment of juvenile detention units. = Conditions for parole may also include warnings to stay away from criminal associations, especially syndicate members.

elements that increase or decrease the likelihood that persons will be victims of personal (direct contact) or property crime are:

= The availability of suitable targets in the form of a person or property, = The absence of capable guardians, such as police, homeowners, neighbours, friends, and relatives. = The presence of motivated offenders, such as young males, drug users and unemployed adults.

Sutherland's theory has two basic elements:

= The content of what is learnt includes specific techniques for committing crimes, appropriate motives, drives, rationalisations and attitudes and more general "definitions favourable to law violation''. All these are cognitive elements; that is, they are all ideas rather than behaviours. = The process by which the learning takes place involves associations with other people in intimate personal groups.

Bartollas (2006:78±80) identifies two periods during which biological positivism became prominent in criminological studies.

= The first period was dominated by the debate about whether human behaviour was a product of nature (inborn traits such as genes) or nurture (acquired traits such as environmental factors). Behaviour was primarily attributed to inherited predispositions and genetic influences were given as the reason for a variety of complex human behaviours. = The second period is referred to as "contemporary biological positivism'' or "sociobiology''. Sociobiology stresses the interaction between biological factors within an individual and the influence of the particular environment.

Those in positions of power protected their own interests by controlling the behaviour of the lower class or the disadvantaged. As a result of this critical investigation, two essential issues came to the fore:

= The law and the criminal justice system were not applied equitably in the American society. = Those who had been involved in the criminal justice system were labelled as deviants, and this put them on the road to a career in crime.

Becker distinguishes three types of deviants, and this typology helps explain labelling:

= The pure deviant = The falsely accused deviant = The secret deviant

Differences in which social control theories explain criminal behaviour

= Theories of social control all rely on social factors to explain how people are restrained from acting in ways that harm others = Social control theories specifically attribute delinquency and crime to social variables such as family structure, education and peer groups. =Strain and differential association presuppose that the environment within which a person develops creates both the motivation and the opportunity to commit crime. = Social control theory rejects this assumption and regards crime as a morally neutral concept. It assumes that people are, by nature, inclined to break the law. The motivation for crime forms part of human nature, and all individuals will commit crime if left to their own devices. For this reason, people need to be controlled and the restraining forces of society need to be examined.

Merton explained the higher incidence of crime among the lower classes as follows:

= Those in the lower class (or disadvantaged minority groups) want to achieve wealth and financial success just as much as people from the middle and upper classes. = However, people from the lower classes do not have access to the legal institutionalised means (e.g. education and career opportunities) to realise their ambitions. = The resulting anomie leads to strain and pressurises these groups into using any effective means to obtain an income, including illegal means (e.g. theft). This is particularly true of societies in which there is little emphasis on obeying the law. According to Merton, it is the structure of society itself that is anomic. This does not mean that anomic conditions remain constant. The degree of anomie will vary according to changes in society

Impact of the Chicago School

= Versions of the ecological model developed by the Chicago School dominated studies of urban crime undertaken between the 1920s and 1960 = As a result of theoretical and methodological developments in the 1980s and 1990s, environmental criminology has given way to research on how crime is spatialised. =

Reactions to anomie

= When a society finds itself in a state of anomie, a number of reactions or modes of adaptation are possible. Each of these adaptations is a way of coping with the balance (or imbalance) between goals and means =Conformity: the cultural goals and institutionalised means of achieving are accepted. People simply accept the status quo and continue their pursuit of success within the constraints of the conventional (accepted) means available = Innovation: most common deviant reaction. In an anomic society, innovators (deviants) get the opportunity to act. The overriding principle is that the end justifies the means. = Ritualism: involves the acceptance of institutionalised means and the rejection of cultural goals. These people are no longer trying to get ahead, but are concentrating purely on keeping what they have obtained already ± by rigidly following the rules and norms.; include many lower middle-class people who have abandoned any dreams of bettering their lot in life, =Retreatism: escapist reaction. Here, both the cultural goal of progress and the approved means are rejected. This category includes vagrants, drunkards, drug addicts and the mentally ill. =Rebellion: rejection of the system as such. Both the goals and the means are rejected and replaced by new ones. deliberately damaging property and a more extreme example may be a revolutionary who attempts to overthrow a government by force. In this category are street gang members, terrorists and/or freedom fighters. When trying to explain crime, it is innovation, rebellion and, to a lesser extent, retreatism (withdrawal) that are relevant.

Williams contends that the link between crime and areas of social disorganisation is more or less accepted. He indicates the broad signs of disintegration as being:

= a move towards rented and multiple occupancy dwellings = an increase in the number of households, creating communities of individuals who are unrelated and unknown to each other = an increase in the turnover of residents = increase in number of empty properties = more unskilled or unemployed occupants

neoclassicists,

= a person is still accountable for his or her actions, but with certain minor reservations = it is acknowledged that the offender's past history and present situation both influence the likelihood of reform = sane adults were still considered fully responsible for their actions, and all equally capable of either criminal or law-abiding behaviour. = that children (and in some circumstances the elderly) were less capable of exercising free choice and were therefore less responsible for their actions = insane and ``feeble-minded'' might be even less responsible = admitted into the courts for the first time non-legal "experts'' including doctors, psychiatrists and, later, social workers. = purpose of this intervention was to determine the extent to which offenders were responsible for their actions. = outcome was that sentences became more individualised, depending on the perceived degree of responsibility on the part of the offender and on whether there were mitigating circumstances

As an assumptions of process theories = Emphasis on social interactions

= a person who engages in misconduct and crime is someone whose personality and behaviour (which are shaped by key social relationships and social processes) are out of line with conventional society. = Process theorists focus, in particular, on the social interactions of individuals with intimate groups such as the family and the peer group. = Special attention is paid to the family as the primary socialising agent. = there is some debate about which elements of the parent-child relationship are the most important, there is general consensus that family relationships have a crucial influence on antisocial behaviour. = influence of peer group relationships is also considered to be important. = Misconduct and crime are also linked to factors such as underachievement at school and inadequate educational facilities.

Evaluation of differential association

= adequacy of Sutherland's argument can only be assessed in the context of general theories and research about human learning. = main strength of the theory of differential association, is that it showed that crime was not just a product of poverty, but that it could occur in all settings, ranging from slum areas to large business operations. = valid criticism is the argument that differential association alone is not sufficient to explain crime. = If this were the case, one could expect officials of correctional services, for example, to become criminals because of their constant and continued association with prisoners. = Schmalleger's criticism is that differential association does not really make provision for freedom of choice in individual circumstances. = Another criticism is that the theory cannot be tested empirically. Concepts such as definitions and associations are vague and, as a result, researchers attach their own interpretations to these concepts. = theory has also been criticised as being too wide, for although it attempts to explain all forms of crime, the theory does not succeed in explaining any specific offence. = Haynie discovered that the proportion of delinquent friends in a person's network had a strong positive effect on the person's subsequent delinquency ± indeed, stronger than the absolute level of the friend's delinquency.

Limitations of classicism: the neoclassical school of thought

= aggravating or mitigating circumstances sometimes meant that similar crimes differed in significant ways. = concept of free will was not abandoned, people recognised that there were sometimes circumstances in which freedom of choice was limited = Rationality might be constrained by factors such as poverty, insanity or immaturity. = classical theorists had completely ignored differences between individuals. First offenders and repeat offenders were treated exactly alike, solely on the basis of the particular act that had been committed = According to neoclassicists, a person is still accountable for his or her actions, but with certain minor reservations ± it is acknowledged that the offender's past history and present situation both influence the likelihood of reform

Social response approach

= attention is focused on the response to behaviour (the social response perspective), as highlighted by the contribution of Howard Becker. = In Outsiders Becker describes the deviant subculture of jazz musicians and the process whereby an individual becomes a user of marijuana (dagga) = Becker's contribution can be divided into the following three segments: labelling as a cause of crime / the process of labelling / the typology of deviants

Elements that increase or decrease the likelihood that persons will be victims of personal (direct contact) or property crime:

= availability of suitable targets in the form of a person or property = Suitability of target is dependent on four criteria (VIVA) - Value: calculated from the subjective rational perspective of the offender, what is the target worth? - Inertia: the extent to which the article or target can be realistically removed, taken, robbed or moved - Visibility: how visible the target is to the offender? - Accessibility: how easy it is to gain access to the target? = absence of capable guardians, such as police, homeowners, neighbours, friends, and relatives. = presence of motivated offenders, such as young males, drug users and unemployed adults.

Control theories

= based on the view that various forms of misconduct, such as drug abuse and truancy, are attractive to virtually all teenagers. = According to control theorists, the answer to this question should be sought in young people's ties to conventional groups, individuals and institutions and, in particular, in the strength of these ties. = According to control theorists, the answer to this question should be sought in young people's ties to conventional groups, individuals and institutions and, in particular, in the strength of these ties. = Those who have a close relationship with their parents, family and teachers and who maintain a positive self-image will be able to resist the temptations of misconduct.

Freudian personality

= best-known contribution to psychology is his emphasis on the unconscious and the part the unconscious plays in people's mental functioning = human personality contains a three-part structure. = individuals are biologically provided with specific pleasure-seeking and destructive tendencies. = basic drives or instincts, such as to eat, to avoid pain and obtain sexual pleasure, derive from the unconscious part of the mind and are expressed in an energy which Freud referred to as the identity = identity requires instant gratification without concern for the rights of others and is only subject to the pleasure principle = second structure is the ego, which develops early in life, when a child begins to learn that his or her wishes cannot be instantly gratified. The ego is the conscious state of the personality, and operates on the reality principle, which orientates the person toward = ego takes into account the practical and the conventional according to prevailing social norms = superego is the force of self-criticism and conscience. It is the moral aspect of our personalities and we use the superego to judge our own and other people's behaviour = The superego is divided into two parts: conscience and ego-ideal = the identity, the ego and the superego are constantly at odds with one another, and thus create struggles known as intra-psychic conflict. = Unresolved conflicts will increase the likelihood of problem behaviour in later years. = Defence mechanisms can be adaptive in that they help people to function in society, but if people rely too heavily on them, they may lead to certain problems. = problems can range from seemingly irrational symptoms of anxiety, worry, and guilt to substance abuse and interpersonal conflict, physical dysfunctions, and even severe mental disorders. = Freud believed that the type, number, and intensity of intra-psychic conflicts and the defence mechanisms required to deal with them shaped the personality and, in extreme cases, led to mental disorders

Social learning

= branch of behaviour theory most relevant to criminology = claims that behaviour is reinforced not only by rewards and punishments as in operant learning, but also by observing the behaviour of others, by using others as models = Social learning theorists argue that people are not actually born with an inclination to act violently, but that they learn to be aggressive through their life experiences. = People learn to act aggressively when, as children, they model their behaviour on the violent acts of adults. Later in life, these violent behaviour patterns persist in social relationships. = Social learning theorists view violence as something learnt through a process called behaviour modelling or imitation

Describe Kohlberg's moral development theory.

= classified people according to the stage on this continuum at which their moral development ceases. = conducted studies that showed criminals to be significantly lower in their moral development compared with non-criminals with the same social background. = The development of moral reasoning does not take place in a vacuum. = To develop law-abiding tendencies, children need to see patterns of moral behaviour in parents and peers that is at least at the conventional stage = decision not to commit crimes may be influenced by one's stage of moral development = People at the lowest levels report that they are deterred from crime simply because of their fear of punishment. Those in the middle consider the reactions of family and friends. Those at the highest stages refrain from crime because they believe in the concept of a duty to others and universal rights

Describe the Cognitive perspective

= cognitive perspective focus on the mental process ± the way people perceive and mentally represent the world around them and how they solve problems. = cognitive theorists, people learn not only as a result of operant and classical conditioning and observation, but also through the way in which they interpret information about the world = interpretations are guided, in turn, by what they attend to, perceive, think about, and remember. = cognitive theories suggest that how people take in, process, and decide what to do with information is crucial in whether they act in a law-abiding or criminal manner = influential cognitive theory that is particularly relevant to our understanding of criminal behaviour is Lawrence Kohlberg's moral development theory. = Kohlberg found that all people, from the time that they are children, and continuing throughout their lifespan, go through various stages of moral development; = during these various stages that their decisions and judgments about what is right and wrong are made, albeit for different reasons.

Routine activities theory

= developed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson. = certain changes in the modern world have provided motivated offenders with a far greater number of opportunities to commit crime. = marked increase in the availability of crime targets (coupled with the absence of capable guardians) = As people spent more time at large in society - they were likely to come into contact with motivated offenders in circumstances where there was inadequate guardianship. = The focus on opportunity suggests a pragmatic approach to preventing crime: decrease opportunities for offending, and crime will be reduced. = Advice to reduce crime opportunities often leads to a focus on aspects of the environment that are most easily altered, = most violent and property crimes involve direct contact between the offender and the target. = for a personal or property crime to occur, there must be at the same time and place a perpetrator, a victim, and/or an object of property.

Akers identified four key elements which form part of the complex learning process that influences human behaviour:

= differential association = definitions = differential reinforcement = imitation

According to Bonger, economic conditions promote egoism, together with a system where the creation and enforcement of laws are controlled by the capitalist class. These circumstances account for the following (Barlow, 1993:511):

= higher crime rates in capitalist societies than in other societies = crime rates that increase with industrialisation = the working-class character of official crime, as reflected in crime statistics.

Evaluation of Rational choice theory

= hold a promising approach to reducing crime, that of situational crime prevention = studying how offenders make decisions to, say, commit burglaries, steps can be taken to reduce opportunities that make these offences possible. = crime is prevented not by changing the offenders themselves in some way, but by changing certain aspects of the situation = focus is on making crime more difficult to commit or less profitable, so that it becomes a less attractive choice = danger in rational choice theory, however, is that offenders will be treated as though they were only rational decision makers. = context that influences their decision to break the law is ignored, = they ignore the offender's social context = Routine activity theory focuses on the necessary conditions for crime to occur, = theory suggests that the social context within which crime occurs is critical to understanding how victims become susceptible to the risks of crime and the factors that motivate the offender to commit crime. = underlying assumption of rational choice theory suggests that rational, selfish and pleasure-seeking individuals make personal choices and decisions about their future behaviour by weighing both the consequences of punishment (should they get caught) and the costs in specific situations of criminal opportunity. = the notion of deterrence is prominent: individuals will be deterred from committing crime if they think that the cost (i.e. punishment) outweighs the benefits of committing the crime. = Rational choice & routine activity theory, both concerned with how the combination of circumstances shapes individual acts (rational choice) or acts of a particular class (routine activities).

Felson suggests that managers and city planners can implement a variety of strategies in order to prevent crime.

= increased surveillance (informal supervision); = limiting pedestrian access to certain streets; = keeping schools visible from buildings where there are adults; = encouraging the presence of resident caretakers in schools.

The three-part structure of the personality (Freud)

= individuals are biologically provided with specific pleasure-seeking and destructive tendencies. = identity: basic drives or instincts, derive from the unconscious part of the mind and are expressed in an energy = identity(ID) requires instant gratification without concern for the rights of others and is only subject to the pleasure principle =ego: develops early in life, when a child begins to learn that his or her wishes cannot be instantly gratified, the conscious state of the personality, and operates on the reality principle, = ego takes into account the practical and the conventional according to prevailing social norms. = ego has the task of balancing the demands of the identity against the inhibitions imposed by the the superego = superego: the force of self-criticism and conscience. It is the moral aspect of our personalities and we use the superego to judge our own and other people's behaviour = superego is divided into two parts: conscience and ego-ideal. = Conscience tells us what is right and wrong. It forces the ego to control the identity and directs the individual towards morally acceptable and responsible behaviour ego-ideal, which may not be pleasurable = identity, the ego and the superego are constantly at odds with one another,

Crime is functional

= is functional in a society because, according to Durkheim, it forms the basis of social change. = highlights those aspects and processes that need to be changed = crime is functionally useful; it helps to maintain a healthy society. Crime fulfils an adaptive function and a boundary maintenance function. = Adaptive function: Crime's adaptive function is to introduce new ideas into society, thereby preventing society from stagnating. = Boundary maintenance function: Media reports and conversations between people lead to the criminal event being inserted into people's lives and this, in turn, functions to reaffirm the boundary between good and bad behaviour. The collective nature of the responses to the criminal event in fact promotes social solidarity.

Hormones

= link criminal behaviour to hormonal imbalances in the body, arguing that the male sex hormone, testosterone, accounts for aggressive behaviour. = Dabbs and Morris (1990), have found that male adolescents and adults with records of violent and other crimes have higher testosterone levels than males without criminal records = relevance of these findings, however, is uncertain because a causal link between hormones and male criminal behaviour has not been established = the role hormones play in female crime, especially in connection with the menstrual cycle. Biological changes after ovulation have been linked to irritability and aggression. The strength of this linkage has not been established,

Describe behavioural perspective

= maintain that human behaviour is developed through learning experiences. = define learning as a change of pre-existing behaviour or mental processes that occurs as a result of experience = our behaviours are shaped by other people's reactions to us. Behaviours are constantly being shaped by life experiences and can be reinforced by rewards or eradicated through punishment = based on the belief that what is important is not the unconscious, but behaviour that can be observed and manipulated. = dealing directly with behaviours that are undesirable, behavioural therapy attempts to change a person's long-established patterns of response to him- or herself and to others = people learn to become violent because their life experiences have taught them to be aggressive. These experiences include personally observing others acting aggressively, achieving some personal goal through aggression, and watching people being rewarded for violent acts - either on television or in films

Operant conditioning

= more refined version of behavioural conditioning is operant conditioning = the subject is active and learns how to get what it wants from the environment. = Operant conditioning is associated with John B Watson and BF Skinner = to change behaviour, one may have to change the antecedent conditions that trigger the behaviour. = Skinner's significant contribution was to cultivate the notion of learning through the consequences of behaviour = behaviour that produces consequences thats rewarding and increases the frequency of that behaviour is said to be reinforced. A behaviour that produces consequences thats finds unpleasant and that therefore decreases the frequency of this behaviour is said to be punished. = In operant conditioning, behaviour is understood in terms of an interaction between the person and the environment. = Environmental forces are many and diverse, = Operant learning uses rewards and punishment to reinforce or curtail certain behaviours. = In other words, operant conditioning is another method of learning by association = the argument is that a person engages in criminal activities as a result of associations with the criminal act = Clarence Ray Jeffery suggested that criminal behaviour is operant behaviour which is reinforced by the changes it produces in the environment.

Analyse the elements of Akers' social learning theory.

= most important source of social learning, according to Akers, is differential association. This refers to the patterns of interactions with others who are the source of definitions that either encourage or discourage violating the law. = Definitions refer to a person's disposition, to his or her experiences of life, and to the principles of right and wrong. These definitions are influenced by religion and other moral values and norms and by the individual's own opinions on various matters. = Differential reinforcement is the element that represents the core of Akers' theory = original feeling of wellbeing that often accompanies drug use is a reward and a positive reinforcement for continuing to use drugs. = Imitation involves observing what others do and may occur outside the learning process. A role model's behaviour determines how first-time offenders, in particular, will behave. = Social learning occurs first in a process of differential association. = The person interacts and identifies with groups that provide models for social reinforcements and behaviour. = individual learns definitions of behaviour through imitation within these groups; these definitions are reinforced by the group and serve as reinforcers for the person's behaviour = Firstly, there is an association with members of the peer group who advocate or tolerate crime, when definitions that favour law-breaking are learnt. = Behaviour will be repeated when the positive reinforcers outweigh the negative reinforcers, includes taking account of all the positive results of crime. include external gains (e.g. financial and material gains) and the less obvious reinforcement from peer groups = Positive reinforcers also include internal gains, such as feelings of power or autonomy = Negative reinforcers are also important. Examples of external negative reinforcers may be the possibility of arrest, loss of liberty, fear of injuring someone or oneself, or fear of being ostracised by family and friends

social learning & Bandura

= physical skills necessary for the commission of a crime are learnt either from observing or being by others = nature of this learning, together with the physical attributes of the offender, determines the type of crime that is carried out. = As offenders become more skilled, they are better able to select more appropriate targets

Evaluation of the positivist school

= positivist school made an extensive contribution to the development of a scientific approach to the study of criminal behaviour and the reform of criminal law. = positivists emphasised the importance of empirical research and, in effect, developed the doctrine of determinism. = Positivists suggested that individuals were not responsible for their actions. This, according to Joyce (2006:5), implied a total absence of free will and the ability to control one's actions. = positivist school's emphasis on deterministic causes of crime suggests that people are passive and controlled. It further indicates that criminal behaviour is, in fact, imposed on people by biological and environmental conditions = The problem with this viewpoint, according to Newburn (2007:128), is that it fails to take account of human decision making, rationality and choice. In policy terms, it tends to lead to an emphasis on treatment and to avoid the whole issue of individual responsibility. = the research undertaken by positivists contained serious errors in its methodology.

three variables that are central to ecological theory

= poverty, mobility of residents and racial heterogeneity = These independent variables generate social disorganisation which, in turn, contributes to crime and misconduct.

Psychodynamic theory and criminal behaviour

= premise that the criminal has a weak ego, a weak or absent superego, and a strong identity. August Aichorn's research on delinquent boys (1935) supported this view. = repeat young offenders had a predisposition for criminal behaviour because of their inability to control the identity's demands for immediate gratification. = exacerbated by the failure of the superego to develop sufficient strength to generate respect for others and a sense of right and wrong. = psychiatrists, such as Abrahamsen & Menninger have described criminals in general as dominated by identity impulses that they are unable to control impulsive and aggressive tendencies. = Having little or no superego development, criminals are said to lack a conscience and to have no empathy for others. = A weak ego can easily be influenced by peer pressure and other social forces and this, too, increases the likelihood of criminal behaviour = Abrahamsen used the Freudian's personality theory to explain sex crimes. Sexual offenders, according to Abrahamsen, often had sexual experiences involving their mothers = men were unable to identify with their fathers and thus developed confusion about their gender roles and sexual behaviour

The process of labelling

= primary focus of Becker's study was to explain how a person is labelled as an outsider. = Deviant behaviour, is a social product created by society. = Whether a juvenile is therefore labelled as deviant will depend on the reaction of other people to the act, and not on the nature of the activity itself. = describes this process whereby a person acquires the label of deviance in a series of phases which culminate in the deviant behaviour achieving master status, a status which then becomes the most significant, both for the labelled person and for others. =

Evaluation of routine activity theory

= primary goal of routine activity theory is to identify the environmental triggers that facilitate crime = emphasis in this theory is therefore on a crime of place rather than a crime of person. = Critics, however, argue that the theory ignores the offender and cannot answer the question why some individuals are more motivated to commit criminal acts than others. = carries with it a tendency to blame the victim, because the victim is identified as playing a significant role in the circumstances surrounding the criminal act = provides valuable insight into the issue of crime prevention and should be a meaningful source of information for city planners, criminal justice officials and policy makers. = Some of these strategies include increased surveillance (informal supervision); limiting pedestrian access to certain streets; keeping schools visible from buildings where there are adults; and encouraging the presence of resident caretakers in schools.

Strain theory

= regard crime as the result of shortcomings in the social structure, and ecological or disorganisation theories analyse the social and economic conditions in the environment. = supports the view that disorganised urban slum areas are the source of crime. = Strain is also associated with distorted aspirations, unrealistic objectives and materialism = key objectives of strain theory are therefore to identify the sources that cause strain and the way in which people adapt to this strain

several problems with the work of the Chicago School.

= reliance on crime statistics to provide information on the distribution of crime within a city meant that they focused their attention on lower social classes and thus ignored criminal activities committed by persons in higher social categories = ecological approach utilised by the Chicago School discussed the relationship of people and the urban environment. The study of rural crime was neglected. = certain assumptions were (and continue to be) made regarding the problem, which include the assertion that stronger social bonds exist in rural areas and that the opportunities to commit crime in these places are relatively limited = assumes that the growth of cities is a natural social process, = ignores the role that power and class domination (social inequality) can play in the creation and perpetuation of slums = = =

Shaw and McKay's insights certainly helped to explain gang formation.

= saw the delinquent gang as a group of people who were, in fact, responding normally to the slum conditions and the social deprivations of local environments. = regarded delinquent behaviour as an understandable choice, given the lack of legitimate opportunity for lower-class families in the inner city

The struggle for scarce resources may be blatant but is more often subtle and restrained. The reasons for such restraint are complex.

= since the dominant group controls the ideas and information, they can promote perceptions and values that support the existing order = ``false consciousness'' - the perception that the prevailing social conditions are in their own interests when, it is not = law is presented to the masses as the will of the people, and this juridical illusion undermines the development of opposition and resistance = In reality, the law reflects the interests of the ruling class and is by no means based on public consensus. = second way to restrain the struggle for scarce resources is to institutionalise conflict. = Differences between individuals and groups are often based on conflict over the distribution of scarce resources. When disputes are ``resolved'' by means of institutionalised channels, the underlying struggle is watered down and concealed = particularly true of crime: the victim is subjected to delays and endless legal complexities.

Assumptions of conflict theory

= societies are characterised by conflict and not by consensus. = Consensus is a temporary state of affairs, but the use of power to establish and maintain consensus is the central issue and should be investigated = main outcome of conflict is that somebody gains power and somebody else loses power. = = = = =

Evaluation of labelling

= term ``labelling'' refers to the focus on the informal and formal stigmatisation and labelling of certain individuals (i.e. by society). = As far as labelling theorists are concerned, the deviant behaviour itself is of less importance = this perspective asks the following basic questions: Who attaches the label to whom? / Who determines when such deviant labels should be attached? /What produces this stigmatised label? /What determines the way in which the label is attached? = questions place the spotlight on the formal agents of control (police and courts) in society = According to labelling theorists, the agents of control who act on behalf of those with power in society force such labels on the less powerful. = it is the powerful who decide which behaviour will be labelled as deviant or unlawful. = It is important that for the same law-violating behaviour, individuals from less powerful groups will be subjected to more official labelling and punishment than the powerful who break the same rules. = The law and the criminal justice system represent the interests of the middle and upper classes and the various dominant groups in society. = likelihood that a person will be arrested, convicted and imprisoned is determined by a person's race, gender, age, social class and whether he or she belongs to the more or the less powerful groups in society. = Labelling, on the other hand, asserts that social control leads to deviant behaviour and crime. Labelling theory is not restricted to explaining delinquency and crime. It is often used to explain other forms of deviant behaviour, such as mental illness, alcoholism and suicide. = labelling perspective sheds light on the process of labelling as a cause of continued delinquency and crime, but it does not explain the origin of crime = labelling does not explain the beginning of primary deviance = Labelling focuses mainly on the role of social responses to deviant behaviour and crime, especially the long-term consequences, for the individual, of labelling and stigmatisation. = it does not deal with the reasons why the person offended in the first place. It is too simplistic to argue that a label causes specific behaviour, and more specifically future behaviour. = there is a lack of empirical support for secondary deviance, and studies have not proven that offenders do, in fact, have a deviant or criminal self-image. = no empirical proof that the personal life of an offender is adversely affected by contact with the criminal justice system. = another criticism of labelling theory is that it places too much emphasis on the impact of formal interactions (e.g. between a juvenile and the police or juvenile court). = Labelling theory relieves a person of moral responsibility for his or her behaviour. = Labelling focuses attention on the importance of the roles of those who function as agents of social control in the criminal justice system, namely the police, the courts and correctional services.

Basic assumptions of positivism are highlighted by Bartollas (2006:78) and White and Haines

= the character and personal backgrounds of individuals that explain criminal behaviour. = focus of analysis is therefore on the nature and characteristics of the offender, rather than on the criminal act. = A crucial assumption of positivism is the existence of scientific determinism. = Crime, like any other phenomenon, is seen as determined by prior causes; it does not "just happen''. = Because of this deterministic position, positivists reject the view that the individual is reasonable, exercises free will, and is capable of choice. Instead, individuals' activities and behaviour are primarily shaped by factors and forces outside their immediate control. = offender is seen as fundamentally different from the non-offender = task, then, is to identify the factors that have made the offender a different kind of person. In attempting to explain this difference, positivists concluded that offenders are driven into crime by something in their physical makeup, by their psychological impulses, or by the meanness and harshness of their social environment = Offenders can be scientifically studied, and the factors leading to their criminality can be diagnosed, classified, and ultimately treated or dealt with in some way. It is the job of the "expert'' to identify the specific conditions leading to criminality in any particular case. = differences between individual offenders, treatment itself must be individualised. = The length of time in custody should not depend solely on the nature of the criminal act committed, but must take into account the diagnosis and classification of the offender

There are two variations of labelling theory:

= the interactionist approach, which focuses on self-identification and deals with the thoughts of the deviant = the social response approach, which focuses on the identity of individuals as attributed to them by others and that deals with the opinions of others, especially the social agents of control

Evaluation of Merton's theory

= theory of anomie explains the concentration of crime, not only in the lower-class urban areas, but also among the lower-classes and minority groups in general. = theory does not clearly address the reasons why a specific individual commits an offence. It focuses, instead, on explaining crime trends in society resulting from blocked economic opportunities. =The theory of anomie sets the scene for clear policy implications: If obstruction of legal opportunities causes people to engage in criminal activities, then certain groups have to be given access to the legal means of achieving success education = rehabilitation programmes in prisons should offer offenders an opportunity to improve their educational qualifications and to acquire career skills. =Merton's theory fails to explain why it is that legal means of advancement are unevenly distributed in society and nor does his theory really explain the origins of people's motivation =Merton's theory of anomie is a broad explanation in that it can be applied to a wide range of deviant and criminal activities. =the theory was developed mainly to explain one specific phenomenon: the concentration of crime among the lower classes. White-collar crime (e.g. fraud) is ignored and the impression is created that lawlessness is an exclusively lower-class problem. The scope of this theory is therefore limited mainly to property crimes committed by the lower classes.

"social ecology'' refers to a type of research that examines the following

= various geographical areas within cities, communities, and neighbourhoods = the area concentrations, regularities, and patterns of social life in fields such as work/leisure, health/sickness, and conformity/deviance

Involvement decisions comprise the following three stages

=== Initiation: whether the person is ready to begin committing crime in order to obtain what he or she wants === Habituation: whether, having started offending, he or she should continue to do so === Desistance: whether, at some stage, he or she ought to stop.

Assumptions of the classical school

====== Human nature ====== Conception of society or social ====== Causes of crime ====== Implications for policy

Social learning theorists say that the following three factors may contribute to violent and/or aggressive behaviour:

=> An event that heightens arousal: such as a person frustrating or provoking another through physical assault or verbal abuse. => Aggressive skills: learnt aggressive responses picked up from observing others, either in person or by watching TV or films. => Expected outcomes: the belief that aggression will somehow be rewarded.

Most reviews of evidence in this area tend to conclude by making three general points, as indicated by Newburn

=> Biological factors almost certainly play some role in criminal conduct. => The extent of this role is generally small. => Such effects are heavily mediated by, or only occur in, interaction with broader social or environmental factors.

There are three main explanations as to how individuals learn by association:

=> Classical conditioning => Operant learning => Social learning

Assumptions of The Chicago School of Sociology

=> Crime and crime rates were viewed as social phenomena and could not be explained in terms of the individual's biology or psychology. => Crime was linked to social disorganisation, by which they meant that family and community-based bonds had been weakened. Low levels of social integration were associated with high levels of crime. => It was the social life of certain neighbourhoods that was seen as pathological, and not the people living in these neighbourhoods. Criminal behaviour was regarded as a normal response to an abnormal situation. => There should be government intervention to improve the basis of social organisation in the city's criminal neighbourhoods.

Shaw and McKay's findings were as follows:

=> Delinquency rates were highest in run-down inner-city zones. => Delinquency rates declined progressively the further one moved out into the more prosperous suburbs. => The concentration of delinquents was found to persist over long periods of time, despite the fact that the composition of the population living in the area changed frequently over time (because it was the area where the various new immigrant groups tended to live until they could afford to move elsewhere).

Biosocial perspectives on criminality can be categorised as follows:

=> Genetic => Biochemical => Neurophysiological

Eysenck's biosocial theory of crime

=> Genetics: evidence from the study of twins brought up together and separately supported the hypothesis that there is a substantial inherited component to crime. He also placed importance on adoption studies. => Constitutional factors: are physical differences between criminals and non-criminals and he was particularly interested in the influence of body types => Personality: identified two main components to a person's personality: Extroversion/Neuroticism. 2 components are continuous and most people fall in the middle range. later introduced a third personality dimension which he called psychoticism (P scale). => Environmental influences: criminal behaviour is the result of a failure of socialisation; as a result of this failed socialisation, certain adult individuals possess significantly immature tendencies. immature tendencies include being concerned solely for oneself and wanting immediate gratification for one's own needs

Biosocial theory has several core principles

=> It assumes that genetic makeup contributes significantly to human behaviour. => It contends that not all humans are born with an equal potential to learn and achieve. => It argues that no two people are alike (with rare exceptions, such as identical twins). => It postulates that the combination of human genetic traits and the environment produces individual behaviour patterns.

Kohlberg's three stages in the development of moral thinking and decision making,

=> Pre-conventional => Conventional => Post-conventional

Psychological theories have been generally classified as falling into one of three categories:

=> Psychodynamic or psychoanalytic => Behaviour => Cognitive

Contemporary spatial approaches to the study of crime can be grouped into four broad research areas, as set out by McLaughlin:

=> Studies concerned with identifying the spatial distribution of crime, criminogenic localities, vulnerable areas and defended spaces. => Studies of how and why the risk of crime victimisation is distributed over space and the differential risks within and between different localities and various sections of the population. => Studies of how and why the fear of crime is spatialised. This involves analysing the public's perception of where the crime problem is located and working through their mental mappings of safe and dangerous places. => Studies of the flow and movement of specific crimes such as drugs and prostitution between different localities and countries.

Neurophysiological factors

=> There are numerous ways to measure neurological functioning, including memorisation and visual awareness tests, and verbal IQ tests. => tests have been found to distinguish offenders from noncriminal control groups => most important measure of neurophysiological function is the electroencephalograph (EEG). => EEG records the electric impulses given off by the brain and can detect abnormalities in brain wave patterns. => indicates that EEG readings tend to show higher rates of abnormal electrical activity in the brains of aggressive/violent offenders than other offenders and non-offender control groups. => appears to be some definite link between crime, particularly theft and persistent violence, and EEG ratings. => because testing for EEG ratings is generally taken after crime has been committed, it is always possible that slow EEG activity may be the consequence of criminal activity or a consequence of the operation of the criminal justice system, rather than the cause of crime => Minimum brain dysfunction (MBD) is a neurological impairment that should be noted in any criminological study => MBD is said to cause an imbalance in the urge-control mechanism, dyslexia (reading problems), visual perception problems, hyperactivity, poor attention span, and/or explosive behaviour. => Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has also been linked to neurological factors.

Williams contends that the link between crime and areas of social disorganisation is more or less accepted. He indicates the broad signs of disintegration as being:

=> a move towards rented and multiple occupancy dwellings => an increase in the number of households, creating communities of individuals who are unrelated and unknown to each other => an increase in the turnover of residents => increase in number of empty properties => more unskilled or unemployed occupants

Psychodynamic or psychoanalytic perspective

=> based on the belief that thought and emotions are significant causes of behaviour => Considerable emphasis is placed on early childhood because early life experiences have a significant influence on the child's future behaviour. => was originated by Sigmund Freud => Freud and his colleagues introduced the concept of the unconscious, and emphasised the fact that all human behaviour is motivated and deliberate

Virkkunen (1987) has linked hypoglycaemia with antisocial activities

=> truancy, => low verbal IQ, => tattooing => stealing from home during childhood. Hypoglycaemia has also been linked with alcohol abuse. If alcohol is drunk regularly and in large quantities, the ethanol produced can induce hypoglycaemia and increase aggression.

Merton's theory of anomie

=Merton developed his theory of anomie in 1938 = to remain true to his belief that criminal behaviour was concentrated among the deprived; Merton had to move away from Durkheim's definition of anomie (i.e. that anomie applied to society as a whole). = equated anomie with a lack of equality of opportunity. = According to Merton, social conditions bring uneven pressure to bear on people of different classes, and people react as individuals to such conditions. = this pressure will cause some people to commit crime = people are not bad by nature. People are basically good. When people depart from norms, we need to examine the social environment. =argues that society will not be characterised by anomie if its members use only legitimate means of advancement =the relationship between desires and the means of achieving those desires that is fundamental. =This link between desires and means has led to his theory being regarded as a version of strain theory. In other words, everybody is under pressure to succeed, but those who cannot or who are least likely to succeed legitimately are under strain to use illegitimate or illegal opportunities for advancement.

The Chicago School called for efforts to reorganise communities:

=the emphasis on cultural learning suggested that treatment programmes that attempt to reverse offenders' criminal learning could counter crime. = Young offenders should be placed in settings where they would receive pro-social reinforcement

First phase in the process of labelling

A person carries out a deviant action (even if not consciously). The offender may have no idea that others will regard the action as deviant.

Proposition 6 of Sutherland's propositions of differential association

A person engages in delinquency or crime when the preponderance of definitions is in favour of breaking the law. = illustrates the fundamental principle of the theory of differential association. = influence of definitions favouring crime carries more weight than the influence of definitions that discourage breaking the law, this preponderance will encourage the learning of criminal behaviour. = The preponderance should have a value attribute which is determined by the quality and intimacy of the interaction with others (hence the emphasis on frequency, priority, duration and intensity).

Proposition 9 of Sutherland's propositions of differential association

Although criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and values, the offence is not explained by such needs and values, because noncriminal behaviour is an expression of the same needs and values. = illustrate the link with general learning principles. = emphasise the fact that criminal behaviour is learnt in the same way as any other behaviour, and that both types of behaviour are the product of similar needs and values.

Elements of the social bond

Attachment Commitment Involvement Beliefs

THE RATIONAL ACTOR MODEL> FOUNDATION

Classical and neo-classical schools

Conflict and scarce resources (money, power and influence/ status) are prominent issues in the assumptions of those who support the conflict perspective.

Competition for power and money increases the incidence of relative deprivation. The positions and possessions of others are coveted, and this encourages crime (which may be the only way of obtaining scarce resources).

In relation to society's reaction to anomie, which of the following reactions or modes of adaptations relates both to the most common reaction and to the most deviant reaction to anomie?

Conformity and innovation

"The key argument of learning theories is that crime is the product of certain learning processes.'' Briefly explain this statement.

Crime, like any other behaviour, is learnt. You need to clearly illustrate the learning process, namely the occasion, the acquisition of values and norms that encourage crime, and the reinforcement of criminal values.

Proposition 2 of Sutherland's propositions of differential association

Criminal behaviour is learned through interaction with other people by means of a process of communication.

Proposition 1 of Sutherland's propositions of differential association

Criminal behaviour is learnt = basic argument of differential association is that, like all forms of behaviour, criminal behaviour is learnt from other people. = eliminates the roles of heredity, human nature and innovation as causes of deviant behaviour.

What specifically refers to shorter processes that use more limited information which relate mainly to the immediate circumstances and situations?

Criminal event decisions

What specifically refers to shorter processes that use more limited information which relate mainly to the immediate circumstances and situations?

Criminal event decisions

Assumptions of the classical school: Implications for policy

Criminal justice should be subject to a strict rule of law (due process) and punishments should be known, fixed and just severe enough to deter.

Proposition 7 of Sutherland's propositions of differential association

Differential association varies in respect of frequency, duration, priority and intensity. = Not all associations carry the same weight. Sutherland's theory makes provision for variation in frequency, duration, priority and intensity = Frequency refers to how often a person is exposed to favourable definitions of crime = duration relates to the time spent in each such exposure. = Priority specifies the phase during which certain associations begin (e.g. definitions absorbed during childhood have a greater impact than definitions learnt later in life). = Intensity reflects the degree of identification with certain associations. The more a child identifies with a person (admiring such a person), the more weight will be attached to the definitions provided by that person.

What is also referred to as "direct conditioning"?

Differential reinforcement

Durkheim's view of crime

Durkheim's work was influential in shifting the analysis of criminality away from sources rooted in the individual to sources rooted in sociocultural factors.

Which of the following factors is an essential feature of Eysenck's biosocial theory of crime?

Genetics

Which of the following factors is an essential feature of Eysenck's biosocial theory of crime?

Genetics

Eysenck

Hans Eysenck's (1916-1997) believed that genetic factors contributed significantly to human behaviour, but only showed themselves under the influence of environmental or social factors.

"Social disorganisation theory studies the incidence of crime in terms of the ecological features of the environment.'' Explain this statement.

Here you need to emphasise the three independent variables: poverty, mobility and heterogeneity, all of which lead to social disorganisation and contribute to crime. You also need to describe the environment, which includes lack of essential services, unemployment and the failure of the social agents of control.

For Marx, power was centred round those who controlled labour.

His identification of two social classes within a capitalist society oversimplified the social situation and completely disregarded intellectual ability and the significance of individual input.

Identify the following statement which best represents the assumptions of the positivistic school of thought:

In favour of indeterminate sentences and the individualisation of offenders

Choose the most correct option: One of the biosocial theory's core principles include:

Individual behaviour patterns are produced by genetic traits and the environment

Choose the most correct option: One of the biosocial theory's core principles include:

Individual behaviour patterns are produced by genetic traits and the environment

"Control theories explain why most people are law abiding.'' What does this statement mean?

Law-abiding behaviour is regarded as the product of an individual's strong bonds with people within social institutions (e.g. parents and teachers). These bonds are reminders, to young people, of what they stand to lose by committing an offence.

The foundations of biological positivism can be located

Lombroso, Ferri and Garofalo.These early and highly influential biological criminologists - or the Italian School as they are collectively known - argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals and criminal behaviour

In terms of the theory of differential association, learning the techniques for committing crime is less important than acquiring the disposition needed to commit crime. This includes:

Motives, attitude and drives

Bonger applied Marx's contributions to capitalist societies in order to explain crime.

No provision was made for the presence of a middle class, and the causes of crime were attributed solely to the exploitation of workers by the ruling class.

Neo-classicists (Joyce, 2006) assert that a person is still accountable for his or her actions but with minor reservations. Which two specific factors will influence the offender to reform?

Past history and present situation

Neo-classicists (Joyce, 2006) assert that a person is still accountable for his or her actions but with minor reservations. Which two specific factors will influence the offender to reform?

Past history and present situation

Post-conventional stage

People make moral decisions, not just on the basis of what the law says, but on higher principles; in other words, people make their moral decisions on the view of right and justice to which they personally subscribe.

Conventional stage

People see certain behaviours as right or wrong depending on whether prevailing conventions, in the form of laws, say they are right or wrong.

Mechanical solidarity refers to?

Pre-industrial societies where individuals share common experiences

Event decisions involve a sequence of choices made at each stage of the criminal act. This includes "escape" and "the aftermath". What other sequences of choices are also included in the event decision process?

Preparation; target selection; commission of the act

Event decisions involve a sequence of choices made at each stage of the criminal act. This includes "escape" and "the aftermath". What other sequences of choices are also included in the event decision process?

Preparation; target selection; commission of the act

Sutherland's propositions of differential association

Proposition 1: Criminal behaviour is learnt Proposition 2: Criminal behaviour is learned through interaction with other people by means of a process of communication. Proposition 3: The learning process takes place mainly within intimate personal groups. Proposition 4: When criminal behaviour is learnt, this learning process includes the following: learning the techniques needed/ presence of the necessary motives, drives, rationalisation and attitude Proposition 5: The specific direction of motives and drives is learnt from definitions of the legal codes as favourable or unfavourable. Proposition 6: A person engages in delinquency or crime when the preponderance of definitions is in favour of breaking the law. Proposition 7: Differential association varies in respect of frequency, duration, priority and intensity. Proposition 8: The process of learning criminal behaviour by means of association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all the mechanisms that apply in any learning process. Proposition 9: Although criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and values, the offence is not explained by such needs and values, because noncriminal behaviour is an expression of the same needs and values.

Which one of the following theories contend that certain changes in the modern world have provided motivated offenders with a far greater number of opportunities to commit crime?

Routine activities theory

Which one of the following theories contend that certain changes in the modern world have provided motivated offenders with a far greater number of opportunities to commit crime?

Routine activities theory

Assumptions of the classical school: Causes of crime

Since people are normally rational creatures, it seems to follow that either the pleasure or gain from the crime outweighs the pain of punishment associated with it, or that some people make irrational decisions for some reason; thought, behaviour is guided by hedonism - a pain- and-pleasure principle

Assumptions of the classical school: Conception of society or social order

Social contract, a basis for social order. A violation of law is a violation of this contract and justifies the state's right to punish the offender

The inability of a community structure to realise the common values of its residents and maintain effective social control refers to which of the following theories?

Social disorganisation

Social disorganisation

Social disorganisation can be defined as the inability of a community structure to realise the common values of its residents and maintain effective social control Social disorganisation theory suggests that macro-social forces (e.g. migration, segregation, structural transformation of the economy and housing discrimination) interact with community-level factors (concentrated poverty, family disruption, residential turnover) to impede social organisation.

"The focus of strain theory is on the feelings of anger and frustration as a result of blocked objectives.'' Explain this statement.

Start by showing the similarities between disorganisation and strain theory. Strain arises from people's failure to achieve aspirations, and therefore the lower class is identified as the source of frustration because this is the group of people whose goals have been blocked.

Converting unacceptable impulses, by acting in a way that opposes them, is called?

Sublimation

"The study of the individual's interactions brings a micro theory orientation to process theories.'' Explain this statement.

The assumptions of process theories are based on a micro theory approach to criminology. Process theories emphasise the value of socialisation and the role played by the family is of particular importance. Attention is also paid to the influence of peer groups and to factors relating to education (e.g. poor school achievement and inadequate education facilities).

The following concept focuses mainly on overt behaviour, its observable antecedents and consequences, rather than upon internal processes:

The behavioural perspective

The following concept focuses mainly on overt behaviour, its observable antecedents and consequences, rather than upon internal processes:

The behavioural perspective

"Offenders are rarely in possession of all the necessary facts about the risks, efforts and rewards of crime". This statement refers to:

The decision to commit an offence

"Offenders are rarely in possession of all the necessary facts about the risks, efforts and rewards of crime". This statement refers to:

The decision to commit an offence

Third phase in the process of labelling

The deviant behaviour reaches master status. Regardless of other good qualities, the person is labelled as deviant and this carries the greater weight in the minds of others. This leads to the self-fulfilling prophecy (Reid, 2003:183): as a result of labelling, the person is forced to break ties with conventional (law-abiding) groups and to turn to illegal activities in order to make a living. Deviant behaviour is, therefore, the result of other people's reactions (Bartollas, 2006:170).

Chambliss failed to recognise the fact that societies have divergent values and norms.

The influence of Marx is strong in Chambliss's thought because he is so thoroughly convinced that those with economic and political power (the bourgeoisie) will eventually be forced to surrender to a socialist dispensation ± and crime will then decrease.

Proposition 3 of Sutherland's propositions of differential association

The learning process takes place mainly within intimate personal groups. = criminal behaviour is learnt through active involvement with others in a process of communication. = Parents' influence in the process of education during which language, habits and customs are acquired is accepted as a given. = learning process is expanded, however, to include the sphere of crime. = In Sutherland's theory, the influence of the media on the learning process is regarded as minimal. Modern technology has given us a media that is considerably more attention-grabbing, dynamic and enticing.

Second phase in the process of labelling

The person is caught, which puts him or her in a different light and others then attach a new status or label to the person. It is assumed that the particular person will continue with similar behaviour, simply because people expect offenders to commit other crimes as well. The stigma (negative label) thus becomes generalised

Final phase in the process of labelling

The person joins an organised deviant group where each member learns to rationalise deviant (criminal) activities. They find reasons to continue such activities.

Proposition 8 of Sutherland's propositions of differential association

The process of learning criminal behaviour by means of association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all the mechanisms that apply in any learning process. = Intelligence, levels of abstraction and the individual's life experiences are indicators of an individual's cognitive aptitude. = Cognition forms the information control centre where all incoming stimuli are processed. Cognition stores our thoughts and experiences. The function of conation within the learning process is the "performance guiding factor.'' = These include the tactics or skills used by the individual to solve real-life problems and his or her unique perspectives or view of the world. = Affectation runs concurrently with the interaction of cognition and conation in the learning process. Affectation is made up of feelings, emotional responses and values.

Proposition 5 of Sutherland's propositions of differential association

The specific direction of motives and drives is learnt from definitions of the legal codes as favourable or unfavourable. = The dominance of either the criminal or the conventional influences in a person's life will determine whether the particular person will regard crime as an acceptable way of life. = definition that is favourable or unfavourable (i.e. towards breaking the law) provides the key to differential association, because it is this definition that determines an individual's values or mindset. = Together with these "minor'' transgressions, attitudes and rationalisation are also significant. = The transfer of values, no matter how positive the intention, may lead to the development of a negative definition.

ANOMIE THEORIES

There are two variants: the first (developed by Emile Durkheim) claims that anomie is a condition of normlessness experienced by individuals during periods of rapid socioeconomic change, that is, when previous forms of control and restraint have broken down; the second (developed by Robert Merton) claims that individuals use alternative means - including criminal activities - to gain access to socially created needs that they cannot obtain through legitimate behaviour

Proposition 4 of Sutherland's propositions of differential association

When criminal behaviour is learnt, this learning process includes the following: = learning the techniques needed to commit specific crimes (which may be simple or complex) = the presence of the necessary motives, drives, rationalisation and attitude learning the techniques for committing crime is less important than acquiring the disposition needed to commit crime. Once this disposition has been acquired, learning certain criminal techniques will then contribute to the eventual success of the criminal action. Learning such a skill is a specific prerequisite for the eventual success of the offence Offenders may steal or rape because they have learnt specific attitudes and rationalisations, such as a lack of respect for the possessions of others or abuse of a woman as an outlet for aggression

Exponents of the radical conflict perspective

William Chambliss and Richard Quinney are two well-known exponents of the radical conflict perspective.

Social ecology and strain theory, as branches of structural theory, regard crime as a lower-class phenomenon. Describe this viewpoint in full.

You should give a complete outline of both ecology and strain theory, with the emphasis on crime as a lower-class phenomenon. Ecology theory depicts an environment conducive to crime, whereas strain theory focuses on the negative feelings that result from a disorganised environment.

The Classical school believes that behaviour is guided by hedonism. The concept hedonism can be described as ... whereby offenders calculate the risks and rewards of crime.

a pleasure-and-pain principle

The Classical school believes that behaviour is guided by hedonism. The concept hedonism can be described as ... whereby offenders calculate the risks and rewards of crime.

a pleasure-and-pain principle

Biochemical factors

a. Nutrition diet b. Hormones c. Environmental contaminants

Assumptions of Merton's theory

an integrated society maintains a balance between the social structure (approved social means) and culture (approved goals). This statement contains two main elements (a) A society has cultural goals that are generally regarded as being worthwhile (e.g. wealth, material possessions and status). (b) A society has institutionalised means or approved methods whereby these objectives may be realised, such as educational qualifications and steady employment. People should, therefore, be prepared to start at the bottom and to succeed through hard work. cultural emphasis on the goal to succeed, however, is stronger than the emphasis on approved means. This imbalance between goals and means brings about anomie

SOCIAL CLASSES

are groups of people who share the same position in the same production system (Beirne & Messerschmidt, 2006:489).

CRIMINAL EVENT DECISIONS

are shorter processes that use more limited information that relates mainly to the immediate circumstances and situations (Cote,2002:292).

BOURGEOISIE

are the wealthy owners of the means of production (Walsh & Hemmens, 2008:561). These people are powerful not because of their superior skill, but because they own and control the means of production. Marx believed that the bourgeoisie used deception, force, and fraud to steal the production of the working class (proletariat), whose labour created most of society's wealth. The bourgeoisie are those members of society who create the shape of criminal law (Anderson, Dyson, Langsam & Brooks, 2007:23).

AGGRAVATING CIRCUMSTANCES

are those circumstances that cause the offender to be punished more severely than they would normally be for a specific crime. For example, conviction for the rape of a child would warrant a more serious punishment than rape of an adult, because society views a child as more vulnerable and helpless (Hunter & Dantzker, 2002:3±32).

MITIGATING CIRCUMSTANCES

are those circumstances that would result in a more lenient sentence that would normally be imposed for a similar crime. A first- time offender would normally receive a lighter sentence than someone with a long criminal history (Hunter & Dantzker, 2002:32).

CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY

as an approach to studying crime emphasises the importance of free will and views a criminal act as one that had been consciously carried out by its perpetrator; the perpetrator has rationally weighed up the advantages and disadvantages of undertaking the action. The main focus of classicist criminology is on the operation of the criminal justice system. Classicists believe that, if this system operated in a consistent and predictable fashion, it would eliminate crime (because those who committed crime knew that they would not get away with it (Joyce, 2006:557)).

Bandura's Bobo doll experiment

children develop aggressive behaviour patterns through learning from other people around them- Children exposed to violent models tend to imitate the exact behaviour. Boys were also more inclined to behave violently compared to girls. Environmental experiences: People who live in areas in which violence is a daily occurrence are more likely to act violently than those who live in low-crime areas where the norm is conventional behaviour.

BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM

claims that human beings commit crime because of factors internal to the physical body over which they have little or no control (Burke, 2005:281).

Criminality is inherited in the same way as physical characteristics - Evidence to support this supposition has been obtained from three sources

criminal family studies, twin studies and adopted children studies

Pre-conventional stage

decisions about right and wrong are based on the threat of punishment.

Discounting the existence of threatening impulses is called ...

denial.

main symptoms of hypoglycaemia

emotional instability, nervousness, mental confusion, general physical weakness, delirium violence

The pure deviant

engages in norm-breaking behaviour which is regarded as such by society (e.g. the burglar who is caught red-handed, followed by arrest, a hearing and conviction). Such a person gets what he or she deserves.

Behavioural theories

examine the learning processes that led to criminal behaviour.

Psychodynamic theories

examine unconscious behaviours that are believed to cause criminal behaviour.

According to the routine activity theory a person's lifestyle influences the opportunity for crime because it controls a person's ...

exposure to crime.

Conflict theorists

focus on an analysis of social institutions, owing to the constant competition and conflict in a politically, economically and socially divided society. Conflict theorists believe that society itself constitutes the main criminal behaviour. These theorists focus primarily on the struggle between the powerful and the powerless.

Social-structure theories

focus on social conditions, and, as the name implies, tend to be sociological in approach. There are two types of structure theory, namely social disorganisation (also known as the ecological theory) and strain (also known as the anomie theory).

Social-process theories

focus on the social processes and human interactions that influence crime. These theories tend to be socio-psychological in orientation. There are two branches of process theory: learning theories and control theories.

PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM

focuses on the mind of the criminal. These theorists view crime as an action that is symptomatic of internal neurological disorders or deeply hidden personality disturbances within an individual. Psychological positivism includes the study of individual characteristics, which include personality, reasoning, thought, intelligence, learning, perception, imagination, memory and creativity (Joyce, 2006:10).

BEHAVIOURAL PERSPECTIVE

focuses primarily on overt behaviour, its observable antecedents and consequences, rather than upon internal processes. Behaviourists stress social learning and behaviour modelling as the key to criminality (Coleman & Norris, 2002:52; Siegel, 2004:154).

SOCIAL PROCESS THEORY

holds the view that criminality is a function of people's interactions with various organisations, institutions, and social processes (Siegel, 2004:482). Theorists examine the interactions between individuals and the environments that encourage these individuals to become involved in delinquent behaviour (Bartollas, 2006:543).

LABELLING PERSPECTIVE,

in essence, explains criminal behaviour as a reaction to having been labelled as a delinquent. When subjects are stigmatised as delinquents, they are frequently driven to acting out a self-fulfilling prophecy. In short, labelling pushes violators onto a path of further deviance. Labelling theorists assert that those in power place labels on the powerless, labels that cannot be removed. The labelling perspective is also known as the Societal Reaction School (Anderson et al, 2007:121± 122).

INVOLVEMENT,

in social control theory, is one of the four social bonds. It refers to a pattern of involvement in conventional activities that prevents one from becoming involved in criminal activities (Walsh & Hemmens, 2008:566).

BELIEF,

in social control theory, is one of the four social bonds. It refers to the ready acceptance of the correctness of pro-social values and attitudes (Walsh & Hemmens, 2008:561).

Assumptions of the classical school: Human nature

individual offender as being a person who is capable of calculating what he or she wants to do is the most important feature of the classical school of thought. Those who fail to make rational choices, therefore, and who commit crime, are sent to prison with a view to reform, Conformity was associated with rewards and rebellion was associated with sanctions

MODES OF ADAPTATION

is Robert Merton's concept of how people adapt to the alleged disjunction between cultural goals and the structural barriers that hinder the attainment of these goals. Methods of attaining cultural goals include conformity, ritualism, innovation, retreatism and rebellion

MODE OF PRODUCTION

is a Marxist concept that refers to how things are produced and the social relations of production (Beirne & Messerschmidt, 2006:486).

CLASS STRUGGLE

is a Marxist principle that claims there is continuous conflict between political and economic groups (e.g. the bourgeoisie and the proletariat) for power. All history is the history of class struggles (Walsh & Hemmens, 2008:561).

NEO-CLASSICAL SCHOOL

is a body of theory that contends that scientific criminology (positivism), with its belief in rehabilitation, is invalid. According to this school of thought, society should return to the principles of classical criminology and should deal with crime by concentrating on the administration of justice and the punishment of offenders (Empey, Stafford & Hay, 1999:418).

SOCIAL DISORGANISATION THEORY

is a branch of social structure theory developed by Shaw and McKay that focuses on the breakdown of institutions such as the family and the school, coupled with high unemployment in inner-city neighbourhoods

STRAIN THEORY

is a branch of social structure theory that claims that the pressure that the social structure exerts on people who cannot attain the cultural goal of success will encourage them to engage in nonconforming behaviour

LEARNING

is a change in pre-existing behaviour or mental processes that occurs as a result of experience (Cassel & Bernstein, 2007:293).

ORGANIC SOLIDARITY

is a form of social solidarity characteristic of modern societies, in which there is a high degree of occupational specialisation and a weak normative consensus

MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY

is a form of social solidarity existing in small, isolated, pre-industrial societies in which individuals sharing common experiences and circumstances share values, unquestioned beliefs and strong emotional ties

CHICAGO SCHOOL

is a group of urban sociologists who studied the relationship between environmental conditions and crime

REINFORCEMENT

is a key concept in social learning theory, which states that crime is largely a response to reinforcing stimuli. If individuals are rewarded for committing crimes, they are more likely to commit them again (Beirne & Messerschmidt, 2006:488).

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

is a learned response to a stimulus (Reid, 2003:106).

CONFLICT MODEL OF CRIME

is a model based on the assumption that differences in race, class, income and age cause groups to fight for power. Groups with the most power pass laws that protect the status quo against resistance by marginalised groups. Definitions of crime depend on who is in power, with less powerful groups characterised and targeted as criminals to keep them in a subordinate position (Anderson et al, 2007:41).

The secret deviant

is a person who contravenes social norms, but his or her behaviour goes undetected. No negative reaction follows. This is the category that once again illustrates the power of social response, because there are no negative consequences (i.e. for the deviant).

The falsely accused deviant

is a person who is, in fact, innocent, but who may sometimes be imprisoned. The impact of conviction and prison experiences lead to a negative self-image. The life of a person who has been falsely accused changes just as dramatically as the life of the pure deviant, purely as a result of the process of labelling.

SOCIAL BONDING THEORY

is a social control theory focusing on a person's bonds to others (Walsh & Hemmens, 2008:571).

PRIMARY DEVIANCE

is a term coined by Edwin Lemert to describe criminal conduct that has no real long-term influence on the perpetrator. These acts are quickly forgotten and do not cause any chronic syndrome (Anderson et al, 2007:172).

ANOMIE

is a term meaning "lacking in rules'' or "normlessness'' used by Durkheim to describe a condition of normative deregulation in society

DEFINITIONS

is a term used by Edwin Sutherland to refer to the meanings that our experiences have for us, our attitudes, values, and habitual ways of viewing the world (Walsh & Hemmens, 2008:563).

PERSONALITY

is a term used to describe an individual's temperamental and emotional attributes that are relatively consistent and that will influence his or her behaviour (Jones, 2001:398).

LIMITED OR BOUNDED RATIONALITY

is a term used to indicate that even though individuals may make poor decisions, often based on incomplete or simply inadequate information, they are nonetheless rational actors (Newburn, 2007:949).

SOCIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM

is a theoretical approach within criminology that emphasises the social determinants of behaviour (e.g. the effects of wealth and social class), and that pays little regard to individual decision-making or choice (Newburn, 2007:953).

COMMUNISM

is a theory advocating the elimination of private property. Its proponents believe that, with the abolition of private property and the disappearance of the class nature of the state (i.e. when communism triumphs), crime will virtually disappear (Beirne & Messerschmidt, 2006:480).

DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION

is a theory that attempts to explain both the process by which a person learns to engage in crime and the content of what is learned. According to Sutherland, differential association refers to the principle that criminal acts are related to an individual's frequent or constant exposure to antisocial attitudes and values (Beirne & Messerschmidt, 2006:482; Siegel, 2004:414±415).

RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

is a theory which emphasises the importance of rationality in human action, even if this is limited (bounded). It emphasises the decision-making processes involved in the choices made by offenders (Newburn, 2007:95).

CARTOGRAPHIC SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY

is an approach that uses the social statistics that started becoming available in Europe in the early ninth century: these statistics provided important demographic information on the population, including density, gender, religious affiliations, and wealth. Many of the relationships between crime and social phenomena identified then still serve as a basis for criminology today

POSITIVIST CRIMINOLOGY

is an approach to the study of crime that adopts a deterministic approach; in other words, offenders are regarded as being propelled into committing criminal acts by forces (biological, psychological, or sociological) over which they have no control. Common to all forms of positivist criminology is the belief that society is based on consensual values and offenders should be treated rather than punished for their actions. Positivists also insist that theories that purport to explain the "why?'' of crime should be based on scientific analysis (Joyce, 2006:562).

DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT THEORY

is an attempt to explain crime as a type of learned behaviour. First proposed by Ronard Akers in collaboration with Robert Burgess in 1966, it is a version of the social learning view that employs both differential association concepts and elements of psychological learning theory (Siegel, 2004:475).

OPERANT CONDITIONING

is associated with social learning theory which states that behaviour is shaped by the consequences that follow the act (Anderson, Dyson, Langsam & Brooks, 2007:156).

SUBLIMATION

is converting unacceptable impulses by acting in a way that opposes them. For example, a sexual interest in a married friend might take the appearance of strong dislike instead (Cassel & Bernstein, 2007:82).

DISPLACEMENT

is deflecting an impulse from its original target to a less threatening one. Anger at one's boss may be expressed through hostility to a shop assistant, a family member, or even the dog (Cassel & Bernstein, 2007:82).

SECONDARY DEVIANCE

is deviance that results from society's reaction to offenders' primary deviance, often causing them to accept their identity as deviant (Walsh & Hemmens, 2008:571; Beirne & Messerschmidt, 2006:488).

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

is explicitly concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, decision-making and problem-solving (Coleman & Norris, 2000:32). Cognitive theorists, therefore, analyse human perception and how it affects behaviour (Siegel, 2004:154).

COMMITMENT

is one of the four social bonds in social bonding theory. Commitment refers to the rational component of conformity, and refers to a lifestyle in which one has invested considerable time and energy in the pursuit of a lawful career (Walsh & Hemmens, 2008:562).

ATTACHMENT

is one of the four social bonds in social bonding theory. The emotional component of conformity refers to one's attachment to others and to social institutions (Walsh & Hemmens, 2008:56).

DENIAL

is simply discounting the existence of threatening impulses. For example, a person with homosexual tendencies may vehemently deny ever feeling any physical attraction to a person of the same sex (Cassel & Bernstein, 2007:82).

SOCIAL DISORGANISATION

is the central concept of the Chicago School of Social Ecology. The term refers to the breakdown or serious dilution of the power of informal community rules to regulate conduct in poor neighbourhoods

CULTURAL TRANSMISSION

is the concept that conduct norms are passed down from one generation to the next so that they become stable within the boundaries of a culture. Cultural transmission guarantees that group lifestyle and behaviour are stable and predictable

STRAIN

is the emotional turmoil and conflict caused when people believe they cannot achieve their desires and goals through legitimate means. Members of the lower-class will feel strain because they are denied access to adequate educational opportunities and social support

LUMPENPROLETARIAT

is the lower classes; the criminal class (Walsh & Hemmens, 2008:566).

CONDITIONING

is the process by which associations are learnt between our actions and the consequences of our actions (Howitt, 2002:69).

Neurophysiology

is the study of brain activity.

SOCIAL ECOLOGY

is the term used by the Chicago School to describe the interrelationships of human beings and the communities in which they live. Social ecology encapsulates the environmental forces that have a direct influence on human behaviour

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

is the theory that holds that social behaviour is a cognitive process in which personality and social environment are involved in a continuous process of reciprocal interaction (Beirne & Messerschmidt, 2006:489). Human behaviour is modelled by the individual observing human social interactions, either directly (from contact with social intimates) or indirectly (from the media). People copy interactions that are rewarded and avoid those that result in punishment (Siegel, 2004:482).

SOCIAL BOND

is the tie that a person has to the institutions and processes of society. According to Hirschi, elements of the social bond include commitment, attachment, involvement, and belief (Siegel, 2004:482).

SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY

is the view that people commit crime when the forces that bind them to society are weakened or broken (Siegel, 2004:482; Bartollas, 2006:543). Theorists maintain that human beings must be held in check or somehow be controlled if delinquent tendencies are to be repressed (Bartollas, 2006:537).

ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORY

is theory (associated primarily with Marcus Felson) which suggests that for crime to occur three factors must be present, namely a motivated offender; a suitable victim; and the absence of capable guardians (Newburn, 2007:952).

SOCIAL CONTRACT

is when an individual is bound to society only by his or her own consent, and society is therefore responsible to him or her (Hunter & Dantzker,2002:29).

Cognitive theories

look at how thought processes' (e.g. thinking and moral judgment) influence one's behaviour

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE

maintains that society is composed of diverse groups with conflicting values and interests. In all societies, these groups have differential access to power, prestige and wealth. The Marxist approach to conflict theory focuses on economic determinism and the importance of social class (Anderson et al, 2007:41).

Social-reaction theories

may be subdivided into the labelling perspective and the conflict perspective.

DETERMINISM

means that factors outside the individual's control (be they biological, psychological, sociological, or some combination) push that individual into criminal behaviour. From this perspective, crime does not result from choice, or rational decision-making, but from sheer force of circumstance (Tierney, 2006:54).

REPRESSION

means unconsciously "pushing under'' threatening memories, urges, or ideas from conscious awareness. A person may experience memory loss in the case of highly traumatic events (Cassel & Bernstein, 2007:82).

Durkheim's work was influential in shifting the analysis of criminality away from sources rooted in the individual to sources rooted in sociocultural factors. He believed that crime is a/an... in any society and is therefore ...

normal phenomenon; functional.

Durkheim's work was influential in shifting the analysis of criminality away from sources rooted in the individual to sources rooted in sociocultural factors. He believed that crime is a/an... in any society and is therefore ...

normal phenomenon; functional.

Akers (Williams, 2004) proposes that behaviour will be repeated when...

positive reinforcers outweigh negative reinforcers.

According to Kohlberg's stages of development, people make moral decisions, not just on the basis of what the law says, but on higher principles. This statement refers to the...

post-conventional stage.

According to Jones (2001) the main strength of the theory of differential association is that it showed that crime was not just a product of ... but that it could occur in all settings

poverty

According to Jones (2001) the main strength of the theory of differential association is that it showed that crime was not just a product of ... but that it could occur in all settings.

poverty

Lombroso's approach was into Somatotyping (body-build),

purports to relate the behaviour and constitution of a person to the shape of their body. maintained that elements of three basic body types could be found in all people: endomorphs are heavy persons with short arms and legs; they tend to be relaxed and extraverted and relatively non-criminal. Mesomorphs are athletic and muscular; they tend to be aggressive and are particularly likely to commit violent crimes and other crimes requiring strength and speed. Ectomorphs are thin, introverted, and overly sensitive.

STRAIN THEORISTS

refer to criminologists who view crime as a direct result of lower-class frustration and anger

INSTITUTIONALISED MEANS

refer to culturally sanctioned methods of attaining individual goals in Robert Merton's theory

CULTURALLY DEFINED GOALS

refer to the set of purposes and interests a culture defines as legitimate for individuals, in Robert Merton's version of strain theory

DEVIANCE

refers to actions committed by individuals that society condemns, but which are not actually illegal. Those who engage in such activities may well encounter hostility from their fellow citizens (Joyce, 2006:559). Beirne and Messerschmidt (2006:482) define deviance as any social behaviour or social characteristic that departs from the conventional norms and standards of a community or society and for which the deviant is sanctioned.

SOCIAL CONTROL

refers to any action on the part of others, deliberate or not, that facilitates conformity to social rules (Walsh & Hemmens, :571).

DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT

refers to behaviour that is reinforced by being either rewarded or punished in one's interactions with others. This is also called "direct conditioning'' (Siegel, 2004:475).

SOCIAL STRUCTURE

refers to how society is organised by social institutions ± the family and educational, religious, economic, and political institutions ± and stratified on the basis of various roles and statuses

Primary deviance

refers to initial deviant behaviour. An example of this is a person who uses an opportunity to steal an item from a shop (without being caught) or who drives a car under the influence of alcohol (without being caught). These actions are regarded as wrong, but the person (offender) is not seen as a bad person or labelled as deviant by others because he or she has not been caught. Lemert does not attach much value to primary deviance, because the person's self-image is not damaged in the process. There is no change in identity, and deviance is seen as nothing more than a passing event.

SOCIAL LEARNING

refers to learning by watching other people, called models, and vicariously experiencing the consequences of their behaviour (Cassel & Bernstein, 2007:295).

Secondary deviance

refers to the phase when a person's deviant behaviour is repeated regularly, is visible, and is the subject of social reaction (punitive measures). The offender is now stigmatised and labelled as a bad person. It is possible that the offender may act in a way that shows acceptance of the new deviant label (e.g. ``thief'' or ``criminal'').

CRIMINAL INVOLVEMENT

refers to the processes through which individuals initially choose to become involved in particular forms of crime, to continue on this path, and then, later to desist from crime (Cote, 2002:29).

SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORY

refers to the view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime

PROLETARIAT

refers to the working class (Walsh & Hemmens, 2008:569).

Social-structure theories focus on ...

social conditions.

Process theories attempt to explain how individuals become offenders. The focus is on... as experienced by the offender rather than the ...

social interactions; social structure.

According to Merton an integrated society maintains a balance between two elements

social structure; culture

According to Merton an integrated society maintains a balance between two elements:

social structure; culture

Adoption studies

studies of adopted children and their predisposition in criminal activity based on genetics rather than environmental connection with criminal parents

Criminal family studies

studies of criminal families

Twin studies

studies of identical and non identical twins to determine genetic factors

Ecological theory

studies the relationship between the organism and its environment. Social ecology is the study of peoples and institutions in relation to the environment

PSYCHODYNAMIC or PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE

takes the view that people have a complex inner mental life, much of which takes place at an unconscious level, and which holds the key to understanding behaviour. For example, dreams and emotional problems can have deeper meanings which can be uncovered by the analyst (Coleman & Norris, 2000:32). Psychoanalysts focus on early childhood experience and its effect on personality (Siegel, 2004:154).

These Chicago school findings enabled Shaw and McKay to conclude that

that delinquency was the product of sociological factors within the transition zone rather than individual pathology or any inherent ethnic characteristics. Their conclusion did much to dispel earlier criminological theories, which located the root cause of crime as being within the individual. = went on to claim that socially disorganised neighbourhoods perpetuate a situation in which delinquent behaviour patterns are culturally transmitted. = Delinquent traditions are established and passed on in play groups and gangs.

PHRENOLOGY

theory of behaviour is based on the belief that the exterior of the skull corresponds to the interior and to the brain's conformation. Phrenologists claim that a propensity towards certain types of behaviour may be discovered by examining the bumps on the head (Reid, 2003:88).

Structure theories: branches

these branches as two independent, but interrelated, subgroups: => Social disorganisation (also known as ecological theory) => Strain (also known as anomie theory)

Extroversion

which runs from extroversion to introversion, and is often referred to as the E scale. Characteristics of extroversion are active, assertive, creative, care-free, dominant, lively, sensation-seeking and venturesome.

Neuroticism

which runs from neurotic or unstable to stable, and is often referred to as the N scale. Characteristics of neuroticism are anxious, depressed, emotional, guilt feelings, irrational, low self-esteem, moody, shy and tense

concept of anomie

x Durkheim used the term "anomie'' to refer to a state of normlessness (absence of norms). x Norms or socially expected behaviour determines how people act, and contravening these norms poses a threat to social control. x societies develop and change from a relatively simple and uncomplicated existence (mechanical) to a more complex setup (organic). x Societies that are characterised by a collective conscience are an example of societies characterised by mechanical solidarity. x societies with high levels of mechanical solidarity are characterised by group conformity:Laws are established to prevent people from damaging the group's collective conscience. x form of social solidarity severely restricts the individual's ability to develop a sense of personal identity or uniqueness. x structure of social relationships changes to what Durkheim calls organic solidarity. Organic solidarity is characteristic of modern societies with high degrees of occupational specialisation and a diversity of experiences and circumstances. This diversity weakens common values and social bonds and antisocial behaviour tends to become more frequent x In societies organised on the basis of organic solidarity, the purpose of legislation is compensation (restitution). x idea is to punish the offender for harm caused to another person. In other words, the punishment is not imposed because the group's collective conscience has been injured in some way. x This loss of identity may be the start of anomie or normlessness: people no longer know which rules to follow or they do not care about rules. It is not difficult to see that, in such societies, crime may become commonplace x anomie is used to explain how the disintegration of social conditions may lead to a sense of personal loss and dissolution