Umich Psych 240 - Exam 2

The Connectionist Approach

"Neuron-like units" - Unit's activation level is like firing rate of neurons - The "weights" connecting units are like axons - connections between the neurons - Learning means adjusting the size of teh weights (the strength of the connections between neurons) Three kinds of units: - Input units: activated by stimulation from environment - Hidden units: receive input from input units - Output units: receive input from hidden units

Prototype Theory

- Abstracted representation of a category containing salient features that are true of most instances - Characteristic features which describe what members of that concept are like - Monster prototype has these characteristics

Evidence for Schemas

- Agree on what is in schemas - Recall steps from schemas in order - Read faster if story fits schema - Recall schema items that were not actually in story

Children's Eyewitness Memory

- Be way of repeated questioning - Leading questions may distort memory - Younger children are more suggestible

Averbach and Coriell Iconic Memory Research

- Showed matrix of 16 letters for 50 msec - Place a small mark above a letter at different delays. Report that letter. - Results indicated that as many as 12 letters could be stored in sensory memory

Advertising Experiment

- Subjects see assertion and implication advertisements - Some subjects warned not to interpret implied claims as assertions - Subjects accepted over half of the implications as true, even when warned

The Central Executive

- Supervise attention - Planning/Coordination - Monitoring of mental activity

Frontal Executive Hypothesis

- The prefrontal cortex is responsible for executive functions - Demonstrating role of prefrontal cortex in executive functions: - The Stroop Task

Scripts

- Type of schema about events - Structure captures general information about routine events - Scripts have typical roles

Case Study of "Bill"

- Was a successful lawyer - Suffered brain damage from stroke - After trauma, IQ was still relatively high - But could not handle many simple day to day activities - Difficulty in adapting to changes - Difficulty planning - Could only carry out the most basic routines - Couldn't work as a lawyer

Basic-level is Special

- When asked to (1) name features or (2) say what features objects have in common - Easy with basic-level (Chairs), hard with other levels (furniture) - People will name an object by the basic level term - Children learn basic-level words before more specific subcategories or more general categories

Inference

- When hearing information, we quickly make inferences - Inferences can become part of the memory - Study sentences: There is a tree with a box beside it, and the chair is on top of the box. The box is to the right of the tree. The tree is green and extremely tall.

Scripts

- When we hear or read about a scripted events, our knowledge of the entire script is activated - We can fill in or infer the scenes and actions that are not explicitly mentioned

Raven Progressive Matrices: WM and Intelligence

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Repressed or Recovered Memories of Abuse

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TLC: More links, more time

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Major Methods to Determine the Connection between Cognitive Functioning and the Brain

1) Analysis of the brain after brain damage 2) Recording from single neurons in animals 3) Recording electrical signals from the human brain and measuring activity of the human brain

Sensory Store

1) Collecting information to be processed 2) Holding the information briefly while initial processing is going on 3) Filling in the blanks when stimulation is intermittent

Things not explained by the Modal Model

1) Dynamic processes that unfold over time 2) Carrying out two tasks simultaneously

Task Switching

500msec switch cost per switch trial

Priming

A change in response to a stimulus caused by the previous presentation of the same or a similar stimulus.

Korsakoff's Syndrome

A condition caused by prolonged deficiency of vitamin B1, usually as a result of chronic alcoholism. The deficiency leads to the destruction of areas in the frontal and temporal lobes, which causes severe and permanent impairments in memory.

Rehearsal

A control process, repeating a stimulus over and over.

Defining Features (Classical View)

A defining feature - Must have this to be considered a member - Concept is defined by a set of necessary of jointly sufficient features

Reverse Distance Effect

A dog is an animal A dog is a mammal Respond faster to 1 than to 2, but not according to TLC

Jacoby's Becoming Famous Overnight experiment

Acquisition - Read nonfamous names Immediate test - Read nonfamous names from acquisition plus new nonfamous names and new famous names (Result: Most nonfamous names correctly identified as nonfamous) Delayed Test - Same as immediate test (Result: some nonfamous names misidentified as famous)

Reverberatory 'loops' in the Brain

Active maintenance seems to involve sustained firing by certain neurons in prefrontal cortex after the stimulus is taken away. But how do these neurons keep firing action potentials when there is no stimulus present?

Control Processes

Active processes that can be controlled by the person and may differ from one task to another. Examples: 1) Strategies you might use to help make a stimulus more memorable, 2) strategies of attention that help you focus on information that is particularly important or interesting.

Perirhinal Cortex

Activity greater for remembered words than for the forgotten words.

Source Monitoring

After 24 hours, some non-famous names were misidentified as famous Explanation: some non-famous names were familiar, and the participants misattributed the source of the familiarity - Failed to identify the source as the list that had been read the previous day

Evidence Supporting the "It's still there" Theory

After forgetting, if participants relearned the same word they had better performance than if they learned a different new word.

Context Dependent Memory

After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context Time of day is important.

Retrieval Cues Aid Memory

After reading a list of words, participants were asked to recall the words either freely or in certain categories. The participants in the cued group had better recall than those in the free recall group. Much more effective when created by the person doing the recall.

Jacqueline Sach's Experiment

After reading a sentence, people were more likely to confuse sentences that had similar meanings.

Prototypical Objects

Are named first and are affected more by priming

Advertising

Assertion - will do Impliciation - implying

Monitoring

Assessing one's performance in real time as you are performing tasks - Updating and Monitoring Self-ordering task See a page with six different pictures on it Point at one of the pictures. Next page, same pictures arranged differently Point to a different picture, and so on for each page

Problems with Standard Lineups

Assumption that perpetrator is in lineup - Use successive presentation Distractor selection is also important Police behavior may also influence

K. Anders Ericsson

Participant, S.F., was able to achieve amazing feats of memory with efficient chunking. Remembered a string of 79 digits without error.

Categorization by Pigeons

Pigeon was able to abstract category from examples

Placing Words in a Complex Sentence

Placing words in a complex sentence creates more connections between the word to be remembered and other things, and these other things act as cues that help us retrieve the word when we are trying to remember it.

Areas of the Brain Involved in Working Memory

Prefrontal cortex, other areas in the frontal lobe, areas in the parietal lobe, and the cerebellum.

Cognitive Hypothesis

Proposes that periods of rapid change that are followed by stability cause stronger encoding of memories.

Bird Prototype

Prototype: A typical member of a category, one that has most of the defining features of a category In some cases, can think of prototype as the average

Central Executive

Pulls information from long-term memory and coordinates the activity of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketch pad by focusing on specific parts of a task and switching attention from one part to another.

Standard Model of Consolidation

Retrieval of recent memories depends on the hippocampus; cortical connections have not yet formed. Thus, for retrieval of recent memories, hippocampal activation is high and cortical activation is low. Once consolidation has occured, cortical connections have formed, and the hippocampus is no longer needed. Thus, for retrieval of remote memories, cortical activation is high, and there is no hippocampal activation

Mental Rotation

Rotating an object in your mind.

Types of Coding

STM - Auditory and visual most important LTM - Semantic most important

So...

Schemas help memory by facilitating both encoding and retrieval But... There is a downside--schematic processing can lead to memory distortion

Results of Balloon Study

Seeing a coherent photo before reading increased retention

Galileo Study

Semantic similarity made it better recalled.

The Stages of Memory - Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

Sensory Input -> Sensory Memory - Attention -> Short-term Memory (maintenance rehearsal) <-encoding/retrieval-> Long-term Memory

What factors improve retention/recall?

Spacing of learning Organization of information State/context dependent memory Encoding specificity effect: our ability to remember a stimulus depends on the similarity between the way a stimulus is processed at encoding and the way it is processed when tested

Inferences due to Storage

Test recall for "War of the Ghosts" story Bartlett found: - Memory was more distorted 4 months later than immediately - Memory is changed during storage - Memory changes to fit into schema better

Sergio Della Sala

Test visual recall with boxes. Participants could remember 9 shaded squares before making mistakes. Could possibly combine squares into subpatterns which explains why this is at the upper limit of the 5 to 9 item limit.

Flashbulb Memory - Neisser and Harsch

Tested immediate memory for Challenger Shuttle Explosion, and then tested it again 3 years later. There was little agreement with the two "memories" despite the confidence of the participants

Hypnosis

Generally not a good technique: - Anxious to cooperate so generate lots of info even if it's not accurate - Don't weed things out that are wrong - Loftus' minsinformation effects increase under hypnosis - people are even more suggestible than usual

Generation Effect

Generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention.

Cued Recall

Give participants some clue to trigger recall. Paired associates

Inferences during encoding

Giving people context affects what is encoded and later recalled Better able to encode when we know what the story is about

Semantic memory can influence our experience by influencing attention

If you have more detailed semantic memories, it can lead you to pay more attention to important details which will increase your episodic memory.

Repeated Reproduction

In which the same participants came back a number of times to try to remember the story at longer and longer intervals after they first read it.

Organizing Information

Increases recall.

Serial Position Curve

Indicates that memory is better for words at the beginning of the list and at the end of the list than for words in the middle.

Proactive Interferance

Interference that occurs when information that was learned previously interferes with learning new information. We remember new information that interferes with the old. An effective duration for STM is 15-20 seconds.

The Semantic Network Models

Original Collins and Quillian Model - Nodes and links - no spreading activation - Hierarchical Collins and Loftus Revised Model - Added spreading activation - Not hierarchical - based on experience - closely related concepts had shorter (stronger) links - Could deal with prototype effects and reverse distance effect - also demonstrated semantic priming

Speed of Speech

Memory span is better - for words that are pronounced quickly - for people who speak quickly - In languages where words are pronounced quickly (digits span) - Chinese better than English better than Welsh

Decay

Memory trace decayed because of the passage of time after hearing the letters.

Source Monitoring Error

Misidentifying the source of a memory.

Misinformation Effect

Misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how the person describes that event later.

Misleading Postevent Information (MPI)

Misleading information.

One-way (Single) Dissociation

Modality of presentation affects implicit memory performance but not explicit memory Explicit (Visual) - Visual and Auditory = Same Implicit (Visual) - Visual faster, auditory slower

State-Dependent Effects

Mood or emotions also a factor Bipolar depressives - information learned in manic state, recall more if testing done during manic state - information learned in depressed state, recall more if testing done during depressed state

Synaptic consolidation

Occurs at synapses and happens rapidly, over a period of minutes.

Synpatic Consolidation

Occurs at synapses and happens rapidly, over a period of minutes.

Word Length Effect

Occurs when memory for lists of words is better for short words than for long words. Occurs because it takes longer to rehearse the long words and to produce them during recall. In another study for verbal material, Baddeley found that people are able to remember the number of items that they can pronounce in about 1.5-2.0 seconds. According to Baddeley, the number of words you can say should be close to your digit span.

Classical Conditioning

Occurs when pairing an initially neutral stimulus with another stimulus results in the neutral stimulus taking on new properties.

Pragmatic Inference

Occurs when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or necessarily implied by the sentence.

Conceptual Priming

Occurs when the enhancement caused by the priming stimulus is based on the meaning of the stimulus.

Repetition Priming

Occurs when the test stimulus is the same as or resembles the priming stimulus.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Occurs when you think about the meaning of an item or make connections between the item and something you know. We can demonstrate that elaborative rehearsal is a good way to establish long-term memories by describing an approach to memory called levels-of-processing theory.

Even well defined categories can have prototype structure

Odd/even: ask people how good an example of an odd or even number

Sperling - How much can people memorize

On average 4.5 out of 12 letters using a whole report method. 3.3 out of 4 letters in a given row using a partial report method. Participants saw an average of 82 percent of the letters no matter which row was cued. Sensory memory decays in less than a second. Can remember only slightly more than 1 letter in a row, the equivalent of about 4 letters for all three rows - the same number of letters reported using the whole report method. Sensory memory (large) and its duration (brief)

Brooks Visuo-Spatial Test

One group saw a block diagram of a letter - Memorized it - Were asked to mentally travel the letter and indicate if the corner was on the extreme top or bottom Second group saw a sentence - Memorized it - Were asked to classify each word as a noun by indicating "yes" or "no" - Verbal task Participants were then asked to respond in one of two ways - Say "yes" or "no" - Or point to the answer "yes or no" - Why was this important? Took longer to do two visuo-spatial tasks

Double Dissociations

One variable effects one kind of memory, but not the other - While another variable does the opposite - Demonstrate that two processes are mediated by separate brain systems - Procedural vs. Declarative

Digit Span

The number of digits a person can remember. Measures the capacity of short-term memory. Average capacity is 5 to 9 items.

Source Monitoring

The process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs.

Retrieval

The process of remembering information that is stored in long-term memory.

Encoding

The process of storing the number in long-term memory.

Consolidation

The process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption.

Memory

The processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present.

Articulatory Suppression

The repetition of an irrelevant sound results in a phenomenon called articulatory suppression, which reduces memory because speaking interferes with rehearsal. Repeating a word reduces the ability to remember a list of words, but also eliminates the word length effect.

Spreading Activation

The result of this is that the additional concepts that receive this activation become "primed" and so can be retrieved more easily from memory.

Persistence of Vision

The retention of the perception of light in your mind.

Sensory Memory

The retention, for brief periods of time, of the effects of sensory stimulation.

Eyewitness Memory

The single greatest cause of wrongful convictions nationwide, playing a role in more than 75% of convictions overturned through DNA testing

Standard Model of Consolidation

The standard model proposes that memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation, but that once consolidation is complete, retrieval no longer depends on the hippocampus.

Short-term Memory (STM)

The system involved in storing small amounts of information for a brief period of time.

Long-term Memory

The system that is responsible for storing information for long periods of time. Covers everything from about 30 seconds ago to your earliest memories.

Weapon Focus

The tendency to focus attention on a weapon results in a narrowing of attention, so witnesses might miss seeing relevant information such as the perpetrator's face.

Lee Brooks

The visuospatial sketch pad can be disrupted by interference. Doing two visuospatial tasks overloads the visuospatial sketch pad.In contrast a task that uses the phonological loop does not interfere with the visuospatial sketch pad.

Coding

The way information is represented.

Owens, Bower, and Black

Theme offers some background information and some retrieval cues, which increased recall. However, the background info also led to more intrusions (memory for information not present).

Cultural Life Script Hypothesis

This explanation distinguishes between a person's life story, which is all of the events that have occurred in a person's life, and a cultural life script, which are culturally expected events that occur at a particular time in the left span.

Delayed Partial Report Method

To determine the time course of this fading. The tone cue was delayed after the stimulus was removed.

Giving context affects what is encoded and later recalled

Topic before = better recall

Storage Capacity of Visual (Non-Verbal) STM

Used colors and orientations (lines) For example, show display with six colored squares - Then see same or new display with one changes People can remember about 3-4 visual objects Store integrated objects, not just features

Evidence for Articulatory/Phonological Loop

Used to maintain verbal information for a short time and for acoustic rehearsal - Word length effect - Effect of articulatory suppression - Speed of speech effect - Acoustic similarity effect

Types of Amnesia

Used to show difference between explicit and implicit memory Anterograde amnesia - Inability to learn new explicit information after trauma - Patient H.M. - Memento Retrograde amnesia - Inability to retrieve explicit information prior to trauma - Temporally-graded - memory for old information typically intact - more recent information more vulnerable

"N-back" Task Studies

Vary size of "N" from 1 to 3. More activation in prefrontal cortex (and also parietal lobe) the larger N is. Need to store letters identity (B,F,Y, etc.( and it's ordinal position (one back, two back, etc.) Linear increase in neural activation with size of N.

Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad Phonological Store

Visual Scribe Articulatory Loop

LTM vs. Working Memory

WM - Phonological Loop - In a word recall task, interference from phonological similarity but not from meaning/semantic similarity Opposite pattern - meaning matters for LTM, but not phonology

Mental Workspace

Whenever you need to retain some information while processing other information Mental arithmetic

Sperling Tests the Capacity of Iconic Memory

Whole report procedure - Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds - Identify as many letters as possible - Participants typically remembered 4 letters Partial Report Procedure - Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds - Participants are told to report one row at a time (e.g., bottom row) - Participants were able to report any row requested

False Memories

With repeated testing, participants will claim to remember false memories

Implicit Memory Tasks

Word fragment completion Word stem completion

Baddeley's Working Memory Model

Working Memory: refers to the system or systems involved in the temporary storage of information in the performance of cognitive skills such as reasoning, learning and comprehension

Self-Ordering Task

You have to store each selection in WM and monitor that information before making next selection. Then you update the information in WM by adding next selection to it. Self-ordering task is easy for normal subjects as long as the number of items is relatively small (7 or less). - Frontal patients have hard time with this task. - PFC is activated when doing this task (for normals). - Harder for both pictures and for verbal information. - Lesions in PFC affect monkeys ability to do this type of task.

Scene Schema

- Remember things consistent with schema - Memory not as good for objects if no expectations one way or other - False memory for things that were not in office but are in "office" schema

Wisconsion Card Sorting Task

- Clinician tells you to take cards from a deck and "match" them to the 4 examples. - Doesn't tell you the rule, just says if your guess is right or wrong - You need to figure out the rule from these trial and error - After 10 correct, the rule is changed Critical difference: Patients with PFC damage can usually do first rule-but they get "stuck" there and can't switch to new criteria.

Prototype Theory

- Deals well with fuzzy concepts - Fuzzy concepts are categories that cannot be easily defined - To categorize something, simply compare to prototype - Evidence for prototypes: Typicality judgments

Semantic Categories in the Brain

- Different areas of the brain may be specialized to process information about different semantic categories - Scientists have found category-specific dissociations - Double dissociation for categories "living things" and "nonliving things"

Categories in the Brain

- Different types of information are important to different categories - These types of information will be represented in different parts of the brain - So, damage to one brain area can affect some categories more than others

Levels of Processing Model of Memory

- Different ways we process information lead to different strengths of memories - Deep processing leads to better memory - elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong memory - Shallow processing emphasizes the physical features of the stimulus - the memory trace is fragile and quickly decays - Distinguished between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal

Frontal Lobe Syndrome

- Distractibility, difficulty concentrating - Problems with organization, planning - Perseveration: fail to stop inappropriate behavior

Central Executive

- Focuses attention on relevant items and inhibiting irrelevant ones (e.g., Stroop) - Plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals, schedules processes in complex tasks, often switches attention between different parts - Updates and checks content to determine next step in sequence of parts

Prototypes

- General process of forming concepts and categories with prototypical members is probably innate - But the details of the concepts and prototypes we develop are based on experience - Prototypical house is different in different cultures -Expertise can restructure a category and result in different types of prototypes

Sensory Memory

- Getting information in - Very limited in duration - Keep only what is procesed - Visual=iconic, auditory=echoic

Brewer and Treyens

- Had subjects show up for an experiment - They were asked to wait in the researcher's office while the experiment was set up - Sat there in the office for 35 seconds - Then they were called out of the room - Real study was asking them to recall the objects in the office

Backward Visual Masking

- Iconic memory can be overwritten by new stimuli - In real word, we are constantly shifting our attention and taking in new sensory information - If new stimulus follows the target within 100 ms, they blend so F->L seen as E - If more than 100 ms delay, L erases F - Wait long enough, lose masking effect

Factors that Affect False Memories

- It's easier to implant plausible events than implausible - Repetition of the false info helps - "Imagination inflation": don't just hear the event, asked to imagine it happening - Some individuals appear to be more susceptible

Short-Term Memory

- Limited capacity (7 +/- 2) items - Take in from sensory memory and long-term memory - Persists as long as it is rehearsed

Role of Hippocampus/Medial Temporal Lobe

- Memory are not stored permanently in Hippocampus - Hippocampus and related structures seem to be critical for initial encoding-they "bind" together activity in different parts of cortex - Once memories are "consolidated," don't need hippocampus to retrieve them - H.M. can remember things from his past - they've been consolidated and stored in cortex

How learning occurs - Error correction

- Network processes a stimulus - produces ouput - Provided with correct response - Calculate the error signal - the difference between the output and the target -Weights are modified to reduce the error - Backpropogation is a learning algorithm (a procedure for modifying the weights) - so that the error is smaller for the next time

Exemplar View

- No single prototype but rather multiple examples convey what the concept represents - The more similar a specific exemplar is to a known category member, the faster it will be categorized - Similar to Prototype View - Representation is not a definition Different from prototypes - Representation is not abstract - Descriptions of specific examples To categorize, compare to stored examples

The Connectionist Approach

- Parallel distributed processing - Knowledge represented in the distributed activity of many units - Two useful properties Graceful degradation: disruption of performance occurs gradually as parts of the system are damaged And automatic generalization: similar inputs lead to similar outputs

Bower, Black, and Turner

- Participants were confident - About the actual events that they did read - About schema-consistent events not actually in story - The more stories read about a certain schema, the more confidence that the schema-consistent event was in a story - Implications of the results - Ideas contained in the schema become a part of the memory with items and events actually experienced

False Memory - Garry, Manning, Loftus, and Sherman

-Participants complete Life Events Inventory (LEI) - Then are led through imagination exercises - Fill out LEI again The results show that when participants imagine events that they said did not happen to them, they are more likely to say they did happen to them

Retrieval can be increased by matching the conditions at retrieval to the conditions that existed at coding

1) Encoding specificity-matching the context in which encoding and retrieval occur; 2) State-dependent learning-matching the internal mood present during encoding and retrieval; and 3) Transfer-appropriate processing-matching the task involved in encoding and retrieval.

Long Term Memory: Representation of Semantic Knowledge

1) Semantic memory: concepts and categorization - Categorization as a fundamental process in cognition 2) What defines a mental category? - Classical view: defining features - Prototypes/exemplar theories - Theory based models of categories 3) Semantic Network Models (Collins and Quillian)

Differences between STM and Working Memory

1) Short-term memory is concerned mainly with storing information for a brief period of time (for example, remembering a phone number), whereas working memory is concerned with the manipulation of information that occurs during complex cognition (for example, remembering numbers while reading a paragraph). 2) Short-term memory consists of a single component, whereas working memory consists of a number of components.

Episodic Memory Outline

1) What is remembered? - Gist/meaning vs. verbatim/superficial, semantics vs syntax, wording, central vs peripheral info 2) How is information remembered? - Effects of prior knowledge- schemas and scripts - Can improve memory (when it fits) - Can distort memory (when it doesn't fit)

Problems with Baddeley's Three-Component Model

1) Working memory can hold more than would be expected base on just the phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad.

Active Maintenance: Delayed Response Task

1. Cue is presented 2. Delay (must remember cue during this delay) 3. Response Task used with monkeys See cue in one of 8 locations in a circle around a fixation point (a plus sign) Needs to remember that cue during delay of 2-30 seconds Then sees "go" signal-monkey looks at location of the cue - If correct gets a reward

The Schema

A highly organized cognitive framework containing information about a person, group, or event - Generalized conceptual knowledge used in understanding - Meaningfully organizes concepts - Tells us what to expect and also what unobserved or unstated information we can infer

Working Memory

A limited-capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension. learning, and reasoning. Three components: Phonological loop, visuospatial sketch pad, and the central executive.

Paired-associate Learning

A list of word pairs is presented. Later, the first word of each pair is presented, and the participant's task is to remember the word it was paired with.

Category

A mental grouping of persons, ideas, events, or objects that share common properties

Revised TLC: Spreading Activation

A node is activated when person sees, reads, hears, thinks about a concept Activation spreads to adjacent nodes Spread of activation permits sentence verification - When activation intersects, decide whether relationships make statement true

Reactivation

A process during which the hippocampus replays the neural activity associated with a memory. During reactivation, activity occurs in the network connecting the hippocampus and the cortex.

Retrieval Cue

A word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory-for other words in that category.

Spacing Effect

Also discovered by Ebbinghaus Massed vs. Distributed Practice

Tests on Amnesiac Patients

Amnesiac patients can still be primed, this demonstrates little explicit memory.

Retention without Awareness

Amnesic patients and normal controls tested for memory of words learned previously - Amnesics performed poorly on explicit memory tasks - Performance on implicit memory tasks was like control subjects Word fragment and word stem = implicit

Semantic Memory can be enhanced if associated with Episodic Memory

Another connection between semantic and episodic memories is that semantic memories that have personal significance are easier to remember than semantic memories that are not personally significant.

Is it a lemon?

Any theory that relies on similary (to prototypes or exemplars, etc) is missing something

Tower of Hanoi

Both amnesics and normals get better as the number of sessions increases.

Theory Based View

Both defining features and prototypes/exemplars are too simplistic - Knowledge of the world informs and shapes our predictions about concepts - Features in a complex network of explanatory links indicate - Relative importance of features - Relations among features - Objects classified into concept that best explains the pattern of attributes

Short-term Memory

Can keep 5-7 items active, but must rehearse Limited capacity, but chunking increases effective capacity - Experts are able to "chunk" effectively in the domain of expertise Persists for a short duration Rehearsal determines what stays

Sensory Memory

Can only recall a few items, but can select which ones from a larger set. Large capacity Held for a very short duration Old information is pushed out by incoming Attention determines what makes it into next stage

H.M. and others...

Can still learn some things Poor on explicit tests of memory But can show learning in implicit memory tests Classically conditioned - Can form preferences for new music, but does not recognize the melodies

Episodic Buffer

Can store information (thereby providing extra capacity) and is connected to LTM (thereby making interchange between working memory and LTM possible).

Wisconsion Card Sort Task

Cards with pictures on them. They vary in several ways: - Number of items on cards - Color of items - Types of items

Categorization by Conceptual Knowledge

Categories are not always similarity-based: - Hawk is a bird but visually similar to bat - Gelman and Markman: Children as young as 4 will say the black bird feeds mashed-up food to young (not milk)

Expertise and Chunking

Chess masters can chunk a chess board.

Criticisms of LOP Model

Circular definition of levels Transfer appropriate processing effect - Two processing tasks: semantic vs. rhyme - Two types of tests: standard yes/no recognition vs. rhyme test - Memory performance also depends on the match between encoding processes and type of test Recognition better for Semantic over Rhyme Rhyme better for Rhyme over Semantic

Sequencing

Coding information about the order of events If you need to carry out a sequence of actions to accomplish a goal you need to code the order of events or actions. Coding for item identity vs. coding for item order. - Sternberg study Patients with frontal damage are impaired in coding order information

Repeated Recall

Comparing later memories to memories collected immediately after the event.

Acoustic Similarity (Conrad)

Confusions occur if words sound alike But not for similar meaning or for similar-looking

The Phonological Loop

Consists of two parts: 1) The phonological store - has a limited capacity and holds information for only a few seconds. 2) Articulatory rehearsal process - responsible for rehearsal that can keep items in the phonological store from decaying. Holds verbal and auditory information.

Medial Temporal Lobe (MTL)

Contains the hippocampus, which is crucial for forming new LTMs.

Support for Levels of Processing

Craik and Tulving - Participants studied a list of words in 3 different ways - Structural or Physical: Is the word in capital letters? - Phonemic: Does the word rhyme with dog? - Semantic: Does the word fit in this sentence? The () is delicious. - Or is it a type of plant? A recognition test was given to see which type of processing led to the best memory. Case < Rhyme < Sentence

Problem for the Atkinson and Shiffrin Model

Craik and Watkin's Study - Participants listened to lists of words - Task was to recall the last word in the list which began with a particular letter - Varied the number of intervening words that came in between the words that began with the target letter

Theories about Forgetting

Decay Theory - Memory is weakened with disuse - Simply passage of time Interference Theory - Proactive - old memories interfere with recall of new information - Retroactive - new memories interfere with recall of old information

Chunk

Defined as a collection of elements that are strongly associated with one another but are weakly associated with elements in other chunks.

Three Theories of Categories

Defining Features (Classical view) Prototypes/Exemplars Theory based views

Double Dissociation

Depth of processing affects explicit but not implicit memory

Partial Report Method

Determines whether a person's memory faded rapidly or whether they only saw 4.5 letters. - Flash a tone immediately after the presentation.

Physiological Approach to Coding

Determining how a stimulus is represented by the firing of neurons.

Evidenec for Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad

Dual-task paradigm - Sketchpad can be disrupted by requiring participants to tap repeatedly a specified pattern of keys or locations while using imagery at the same time

Reading Span

Developed because digit span cannot be used to measure the capacity of working memory. Reading span measures both the storage and processing functions of working memory. It accomplishes this by measuring the maximum number of sentences that a person can read while simultaneously holding the last word in each sentence in memory.

Problem with Defining Features Theory

Difficult to specify necessary features of some concepts What is a defining feature of a monster?

Depth of Processing

Distinguishing between shallow processing and deep processing.

Prefrontal cortex is part of frontal lobes anterior to primary motor areas.

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is one area of prefrontal cortex - involved in many WM tasks

When do we make inferences?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval

Long-term Potentiation

Enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation.

Testing Effect

Enhanced performance due to testing.

Explicit Memory (conscious memory or declarative memory)

Episodic and semantic memory. Contents can be described and reported.

Emotional Arousal and Memory

Equal memory for beginning and end of the stories. But traumatic event group has better memory for the emotional (middle) part. Emotional events seem to be more resistant to forgetting over time... - Perhaps they are perceived better - Perhaps we think about them more

Synthesis: Combine Prototype and Defining Feature

Evidence for both, so combine Introduce the idea of the 'core' - Defining features that item must have Prototype - Characteristics typical of examples - but not necessary

Proactive Interference from LTM

Experimental group learns list A and then List B while the Control group only learns List B. Both asked to recall List B. The Experimental group remembers less material from the tested list B than the control group.

Retroactive Interference from LTM

Experimental group learns list A and then list B, which the Control group only learns list A. The Experimental group will remember less material because of retroactive interference.

Tanaka and Taylor's Expert Experiment

Experts used more specific categories to name birds.

Types of Implicit and Explicit Memory

Explicit (semantic and episodic) = medial temporal lobe, Hippocampal region Skills and Habits = Striatum Priming = Cortex Classical conditioning = Cerebellum

PET study of Explicit and Implicit Memory

Explicit task - say the word from the list that began with that stem Implicit task - say the first word that comes to mind Explicit results: hippocampus and frontal lobe activity Implicit results: Posterior visual area activity

Eyewitness Memory

Eyewitness memory for complex events can be distorted in number of ways - You may forget things that happened - You may remember things that didn't happen - Your memory may be influenced by: - Interim misinformation - How you were questioned later on

Is response inhibition a separate function?

FMRI studies seem to show that brain regions in Go and No Go trials seem to be different Dorsolateral PFC active in Go trials, but anterior cingulate is active on No Go trials - And orbitofrontal PFC Lesions to orbitofrontal PFC in animals impair response inhibition Same with brain damage in people

Why do we forget?

Failing to encode the information in the first place. Lesson of depth of processing: shallow processing will not lead to stable memories. - The way we process information create stronger or weaker memories.

Lexical Decision Task

Faster response for words that are in the same category, evidence for spreading activation.

Long-term Memory

Fed by short-term memory - Virtually unlimited capacity - Virtually unlimited duration - Getting into LTM takes effort

Steven Luck and Edward Vogel

Flashed an array of colored squares separated by a brief period delay. The participants task was to indicate whether the second array was the same as or different from the first array. Performance was perfect when there were 1 to 3 squares, performance began decreasing when there were 4 or more squares. Can only retain 4 items in STM.

Forming Visual Images

Forming a visual image increases word recall more than repeating the word.

Test of Overwriting vs. Competition Hypothesis

Group 1 "man was carrying tool" - Hammer or screwdriver? 72% hammer Group 2: "man was carrying screwdriver" - Hammer or screwdriver? 63% hammer Group 3 "man was carrying screwdriver - Hammer or wrench? 75% hammer

Autobiographical Memory

Has been defined as recollected events that belong to a person's past. Are multidimensional because they consist of spatial, emotional, and sensory components.

Bahrick's Research on Very Long Term Memory

High school year books containing all of the names and photos of the students were used to asses memory. - Free recall of names - A photo recognition test where they were asked to identify former classmates - A name recognition test - A name and photo matching test

Visuospatial Sketch Pad

Holds visual and spatial information.

Mental Approach to Coding

How a stimulus is presented in the mind.

How are category specific deficits uncovered?

How is the patient tested? - Often a picture naming task is used - The patient is shown line drawings or photographs of objects and asked to name them Also, they might ask patient to define a word - What is a tiger? - By using pictures of objects/or words from different categories they can determine if the patients have a general loss of knowledge or a category specific deficit

Direct Evidence for the Role of Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Active Maintenance

How to create Memory Blindspots: - Train animal to perform the delayed response task - Then lesion brain areas responsible for active maintenance - Animal loses ability to remember cue (for that location) over the delay Also, created transient deficits in delayed response task by cooling neurons so they can't function. Restore ability by letting neurons return to normal temperatures

Deep Processing

Involves close attention, focusing on an item's meaning and relating it to something else. This way of processing an item occurs during elaborative rehearsal and, according to levels-of-processing theory, results in better memory than shallow processing.

Explicit Memory Tasks

Involves conscious recollection - Can be recall or recognition Participants know they are trying to retrieve information from their memory

Shallow Processing

Involves little attention to meaning. Shallow processing occurs when attention is focused on physical features, such as whether a word is printed in lowercase or capital letters, or the number of vowels in a word. Shallow processing also occurs during maintenance rehearsal, in which an item is repeated to keep it in memory but without considering its meaning or its connection with anything else.

Auditory Coding

Involves representing items in STM based on their sound.

Visual Coding

Involves representing items visually.

Systems Consolidation

Involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a longer time scale, last weeks, months, or even years.

Systems Consolidation

Involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a longer time scale, lasting weeks, months, or even years.

Reconsolidation

Is similar to consolidation that occurred after the initial learning but apparently occurs more rapidly.

Inhibition (of Response)

It's often hard to distinguish inhibition from executive attention (e.g., in Stroop) Response inhibition is the suppression of a partially prepared response Go/No Go task: Press a button (as quickly as possible) whenever you see a letter, unless it is an "X" If there a more "go" trials in a row, the harder it is to inhibit the response when an "X" is shown.

Costs of Switching Attention

Juggling multiple tasks is always less efficient than doing each one separately one at a time Studied in task switching paradigm, make one of two simple judgments RT is longer for alternating. Referred to as "switching cost", extra time needed for alternating blocks.

Double Dissociation of STM and LTM

LTM without STM and STM without LTM

State-dependent Learning

Learning that is associated with a particular internal state, such as mood or state of awareness.

Transfer-appropriate Processing

Memory performance is enhanced if the type of task at encoding matches the type of task at retrieval.

Misinformation Effect: Information that comes AFTER the event

Loftus' experiments: 1 - See event (car accident, robbery, etc.) 2 - Misinformation (usually in a question) 3- Memory test (was memory affected by the misinformation?)

Mechanisms of Active Maintenance: How does our brain keep information active in WM?

Long-term Memory: Involves relatively permanent changes in the connections between neurons - Memories are in a stable form vs. Shorter term storage of information: Active maintenance of patterns of neural activity in the brain - Once the active pattern fades, information is gone So, we need some way to keep information "active" for as long as we need it

G.Keppel and Benton Underwood

Looked closely at Peterson and Peterson's results, they found that if they considered the participants' performance on just the first trial, there was little falloff between the 3-second and the 18-second delay. Proposed interference as the cause.

Mr. Science

Many of the kids later reported in interviews the events that never took place

Schema Intrusions

May "remember" something because it is consistent with a schema, but not because it really happened

Brain and Memory

Medial temporal lobe is critically important for new explicit long term memory formation - Hippocampus

Concept

Members of a category. A category is a collection of related concepts.

Implicit Memories (Non-declarative memory)

Memories that are used without awareness, so the contents of implicit memories cannot be reported. Priming, Procedural memories, and classical conditioning

Explanations for the Misinformation Effect

Memory Trace Replacement, Retroactive interference, and Source monitoring error

Levels of Processing

Memory depends on how information is encoded, with "deeper" processing resulting in better encoding and retrieval than "shallow" processing.

Procedural Memory (Skill memory)

Memory for doing things

Episodic Memory

Memory for personal experiences.

Self-reference Effect

Memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself.

Self-image Hypothesis

Memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person's self-image or life identity is being formed.

Different Types of Concepts/Categories

Natural Concepts/Categories - Occur naturally - Share physical traits, appearances, behaviors, evolutionary history Artifact Concepts/Categories - Created by humans - Function is key

Prefrontal Neurons the Hold Information

Neurons keep firing during the delay period. Information about where the object was remains available for as long as these neurons continue firing.

Why does Spacing Work?

No sure. Could be: We pay less attention during prolonged study of same/similar material. Or if you study on different occasions, then the learning takes place in more contexts. Could lead to richer more elaborated memories or more routes to retrieval. Greater encoding variability as you focus on and encode slightly different aspects of the material.

Semantic Network Model

Nodes represent concepts in memory Relations represented links among sets of nodes

Pragmatic Inference

Not all inferences follow the information you are given. People who saw first sentence (pounding the nail) claimed that they had seen the test sentence more often. Confidence ratings for test sentence were higher than for actual sentences.

Other Inference tricks in Advertising

People ignore hedges - may, fights, and virtually Unclear Comparisons - Last longer, etc.

Mirror Reading Study

Participants - Korsokoff's amnesics, and Patient N.A., versus normal subjects - Severe anterograde amnesia (Can't learn new things) Methods - Experiment included 50% repeated words across 4 days - Non-repeated words: implicit - Repeated words: implicit + explicit Results - For new words, normals and amnesics improved about the same (implicit only) - For old words, normals were better than amnesics (implicit + explicit)

Propaganda Effect

Participants are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, simply because they have been exposed to them before.

Recall Test

Participants are presented with stimuli and then, after a delay, are asked to remember as many of the stimuli as possible.

Sept 11th Memories vs. Everyday Memories

Participants belief that their memory was accurate remained high for 9/11, but decreased for memories of the everyday event. Actual details of both decreased

Edward Vogel Central Executive Experiment

Participants from a high memory capacity group were able to ignore the blue rectangle distractors, they had a lower ERP response. This means they did not take up any working memory. Because allocating attention is a function of the central executive, this means that the central executive was functioning well for these participants. The fact that adding the two blue rectangles caused a large increase in the response of the low-capacity group means that these participants were not able to ignore the irrelevant blue stimuli, and the blue rectangles were therefore taking up space in working memory.

Baddeley's Experiments

Participants were able to read while simultaneously remembering numbers. Concluded that the short-term process must be dynamic and must also consist of a number of components that can function separately.

Whole Report Method

Participants were asked to report as many letters as possible from the whole matrix.

R. Conrad

Participants were likely to confuse letters that sound alike but not letters that looked alike. From this he concluded that STM was auditory.

Dissociation of Semantic and Episodic Memory

Patient KC = Semantic ok but episodic impaired Italian patient = Semantic impaired but episodic ok

Damage to PFC and Stroop Task

Patients with PFC damage have much harder time in incompatible trials - make many more errors - Can't selectively attend to the color naming task and/or can't inhibit the dominant response - word reading

Order Information and Frontal Damage

Patients with frontal damage are poor at retaining order information

Priming Experiment: Word Fragment Completion

Priming = complete more old fragments than new Result: amnesics show normal priming, but poor recognition memory (they don't remember having seen the words)

Procedural Memory vs. Declarative Memory

Procedural: Knowing how to do something Declarative: Memory for facts (semantic) or events (autobiographical)

Retrieval

Processes used to get information back out of memory.

Storage

Processes used to maintain information in memory.

Encoding

Processes used to store information in memory.

Prototypes, continued

Production: List non-prototypical birds later in list Making inferences - If told a new fact about a prototypical bird - Subjects are willing to extend that to all bird - But people will not do the same for a non-prototypical member of the same category

More Evidence for Prototypes

Reaction times were faster for objects rated higher in prototypicality

Free Recall

Recall all the words you can from the list you saw previously.

State-Dependent Memory

Recall is improved if internal physiological or emotional state is the same during testing and initial encoding Context vs. State dependent - Context - external environmental factors - State - internal, physiological factors

Craik and Watkin's Results

Recall of words was independent of the length of time (the number of intervening words) it was maintained in STM - Conclusion: Maintenance rehearsal did not automatically lead to LTM - Levels-of-Processing Interpretation: students rehearsed the words without elaborating on the meaning of the words, only concentrating on the initial consonant sound-rehearsing at a shallow level

Serial Recall

Recall the names of all the previous presidents in the order they were elected Need to recall order as well as item names

Recall vs. Recognition

Recall: You have to generate an answer Recognition: Don't need to generate the answer

Logical Inference: Bransford, Barclay, and Franks

Recognition test: 1 - The chair is on top if the box - Y 2 - The chair is to the right of the tree - Y 3 - The box is to the left of the tree - N 4 - The chair is to the left of the tree - N People make inferences consistent with spatial organization. People do not make inconsistent inferences

Flashbulb Memory

Refers to a person's memory for the circumstances surrounding hearing about shocking, highly charged events.

Family Resemblance

Refers to the idea that things in a particular category resemble one another in a number of ways.

Making Eyewitness Testimony more Accurate

Reinstate conditions of event - Exploits encoding specificity: memories are tied to the context in which they were acquired Interview soon after memory - before fades or is contaminated by post event info Allow witnesses to tell their story without interruption - no "hints" Use reverse order - start from the end and work backwards

Delos Wickens

Release from proactive interference - presenting words that are different decrease the effect of proactive interference.

Articulatory Suppression

Repeatedly say a word when viewing the list - Prevents formation of phonological code

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating something without any consideration of meaning or making connections with other information.

Semantic Coding

Representing items in terms of their meaning.

Implicit Memory Tasks

Require participants to complete a task The performance of the task indirectly indicates memory

Delayed-response Task

Required a monkey to hold information in working memory during a delay period. If their prefrontal cortex is removed, their performance drops to chance level, so they pick the correct food well only about half the time.

Spacing Effect

Research has shown that memory is better when studying is broken into a number of short sessions, with breaks in between, than concentrated in one long session, even if the total study time is the same.

William Chase and Herbert Simon

Showed chess players arrangements of chess pieces taken from actual games, for 5 seconds. Chess master placed more pieces correctly than chess novices. Master only required four trials while the novice was still making errors after seven trials. No advantage for the masters if the pieces were placed randomly. This is because they cannot group the chess pieces into meaningful chunks.

Single Dissociations

Single variable effects one kind of memory, but not the other. Verbal WM vs. Visual-Spatial WM

Chunking

Small units can be combined into larger meaningful units, like phrases, or even larger units, like sentences, paragraphs, or stories.

Dissociation

Some people can remember nonliving things but not living things

Emotion and Flashbulb Memories

Some research indicates that we have good memory for: - Place where you learned of information - What you were doing when you heard it - Where you heard the information from - Emotions in self and others - The aftermath

Problems with Classical View

Somethings do not have necessary and sufficient conditions - What makes something a game? Problems with exceptions: - Is a monk a bachelor? - Is a game-show 'Reality TV'?

Why do we accept misinformation?

Source confusion - not clear which memory is the real one Strength - new information is stronger

Source Monitoring

Source memory: process of determining the origins of our memories Source monitoring error: misidentifying source of memory - Also called "source misattributions"

Subordinate Level

Specific level (kitchen table)

How is the Monkey remembering the cue location?

Specific neurons in frontal lobe (dorsolaterla prefrontal cortex) showed increased firing - that was sustained during the delay Neurons are stimulus specific - neurons fire in response to cues in certain locations Different location - different neurons fire What about error trials (when the monkey got it wrong)? - Neurons coding for that location did not fire strongly or decayed before the delay period was over

Modal Model of Memory

Stages - structural features 1) Sensory memory is an initial stage that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second 2) Short-term memory (STM) holds 5-7 items for about 15-30 seconds. We will describe the characteristics of short-term memory in this chapter 3) Long-term memory (LTM) can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades.

Memory Trace Hypothesis

States that MPI impairs or replaces memories that were formed during the original experiencing of an event.

Executive Attention

Stimulus-Response Compatibility: The degree to which the correct response to a task is consistent with what people would do naturally. Stimuli appears on left or right side of screen: Compatible Response: Press key with left hand for stimuli on left side/press key with right hand for stimuli on right side. Incompatible: reverse hands, left hand response to right sided stimuli, etc. Compatible responses are faster and more accurate than incompatible responses

Semantic Memory

Stored knowledge and memory for facts.

Cognitive Economy

Storing shared properties just once at a higher level.

Collins and Quillian's Model

Structure is hierarchical Time to retrieve information based on number of links Cognitive economy - Shared properties stored only at highest possible level - not in multiple places Inheritance - Lower-level items also share properties of higher level items

John Brown + Lloyd Peterson and Margaret Peterson

Studied STM using recall Falloff in recall between the 3-second and the 18-second trials.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Studied the learning and retention of nonsense syllables. Meaningless stimuli - so according to Levels of Processing theory can't process them deeply.

Executive Processes or Functions

Terms come from Baddeley's Central Executive At first, the central executive was sort of a black box. Central executive might be actually be a committee. - A small set of different executive processes or functions - These functions may be partially dissociable and may have distinct neural bases

Articulatory Duration Effect (a.k.a. "Word Length Effect")

Subjects can generally remember about as many words as they can say in 2 seconds Memory span for short words is better (larger) than for long words. Effect disappears with articulatory suppression

Self Reference Effect

Subjects have to determine if words in a list describe them. High levels of recall, even if you thought shy, diligent, etc. did not describe you Even higher recall for words that did not describe

When Memory Works

Subjects in Shepard's and Standing's studies of visual memory. From 600 to 10000 pictures. Bahrick's research on very long term memory Permastore - subjects remembered high school Spanish or the names and faces of their high school classmates even X years later. Extraordinary memories like Luria's subject "S" from Mind of the Mnemonist, or the conductor Toscanini.

Duration of Short-Term Memory

Subjects memorized nonsense words - Distractor task used during waiting period (count backwards) - When a cue was given, subjects tried to recall the letters

Self Reference

Subjects remember words in a list better when they judge whether the words describe themselves. The level of recall is even have meaning to themselves

George Miller

Suggested seven plus or minus two.

Primacy Effect

Superior memory for stimuli presented at the beginning of a sequence. A possible explanation of the primacy effect is that participants had time to rehearse these words and transfer them to LTM. The first word in the list receives 100% of the person's attention, the second word divides the person's attention, etc.

Recency Effect

Superior memory for stimuli presented at the end of a sequence. When asked to repeat words out loud, the amount of times a word was repeated followed the serial position curve. Counting backwards after hearing a list of words prevented the recency effect because participants could not keep the words in STM.

Patient H.M.

Surgeons removed hippocampus/medial temporal lobe on both sides - Unable to learn most new information: severe anterograde amnesia - But he could recalal facts from before surgery, preserved language skills, recognized people - Couldn't recognize new people, remember salient events - Normal working memory. Can still carry on a conversation, but won't remember it if you leave the room and come back

Basic Level

Table Going up results in large loss of specific information while going down results in a small gain of specific information

Reverse Testing Effect

Taking a recall test right after seeing the program increased participant's sensitivity to the misinformation.

Random Number Generator Task

Task: Generate a string of N random numbers. People try not to repeat number in close succession and to have no discernible patterns in the sequence They have to monitor the string ofn umbers to do this: Uses PFC (compared to saying numbers in order)

Typicality Effect

The ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly.

Amygdala and Emotional Memories

The amygdala seems to play a special role in memories that are very emotional, for example, in fear conditioning. Damage to the amygdala impairs both the acquisition and expression of Pavlovian fear conditioning

Central Executive

The attention controller. The frontal lobe plays a central role in working memory. A typical behavior of frontal lobe patients is perseveration - repeatedly performing the same behavior even if it is not achieving the desired goal.

Iconic Memory (or Visual Icon)

The brief sensory memory for visual stimuli and corresponds to the sensory memory stage of Atkinson and Shiffrin's model.

The Visuospatial Buffer

The component of WM devoted to visual imagery and spatial processing Information can enter the buffer either - directly from visual perception - from long-term memroy Information can then be treated like a percept: scanned, rotated, enlarged, etc.

Phonological Similarity Effect

The confusion of letters or words that sound similar. Occurs when words are processed in the phonological store part of the phonological loop. Memory suffers for similar items because they are confused with one another.

Visual Imagery

The creation of visual images in the mind in the absence of a physical visual stimulus.

Reminiscence Bump

The enhanced memory for adolescence and young adulthood found in people over 40.

Executive Functions

The executive committee: Selective (Executive) Attention Task Switching Inhibition Scheduling Monitoring

Mental Time Travel

The experience of traveling back in time to reconnect with events that happened in the past. A characteristic of episodic memories.

Superordinate Level

The global level (for example, furniture)

Multiple Trace Hypothesis

The hippocampus is involved in retrieval of remote memories, especially episodic memories. Evidence for this idea comes from experiments, which elicited recent and remote episodic memories by showing participants photographs of themselves engaging in various activities that were taken at times ranging from very recently to when they were 5 years old. The results of this experiment showed that the hippocampus was activated during retrieval of both recent and remote memories.

Post-identification Feedback Effect

The increase in confidence due to confirming feedback after making an identification.

Retrograde Amnesia

The loss of memory for events that have happened in the past.

Anterograde Amnesia

The loss of the ability to assimilate or retain new knowledge.

Memory

The means by which we retain and draw on our past experiences to use that information in the present. As a process, memory refers to the dynamic mechanisms associated with storing, retaining, and retrieving information about past experiences.

Source Misattributions

The memory is attributed to the wrong source.

Declarative Knowledge

Two key organizing structures of semantic memory: Concepts and categories Concept: A mental representation of an item and associated knowledge and beliefs about that item

Increasing Memory Span

Two students practiced memory span tasks for an hour 3-4 days/week After six months, digit span had increased from 7 to 80 items

Typicality Effects

Typical things faster?

Additional Defining Features Problems

Typicality Effects - Something are better examples of a concept than others - Robin is a more typical bird than a ostrich Essence vs. Superficial Changes - Ask people for defining features of zebra - But, zebra painted is still a zebra

Cryptoamnesia

Unconscious plagiarism of the work of others.

Encoding Specificty

We encode information along with its context.

Narrative Rehearsal Hypothesis

We remember events because we rehearse them soon after.

Constructive Nature of Memory

What people report as memories are constructed by the person based on what actually happened plus additional factors, such as the person's knowledge, experiences, and expectations.

Selective (Executive) Attention

When do we need executive attention? - When we have multiple representations in WM or multiple processes operating in parallel and competing for attention

Cyptomnesia

unconscious source of monitoring for error

Executive attention

when there are multiple conversations are going around but you primarily focus on one thing