Unit 1: Psych/Soc

What are possible responses to the Heinz dilemma for those in Stage 4 of Kohlberg's moral development?

"As her husband, Heinz has a duty to save his wife's life so he should steal the drug. But it's wrong to steal, so Heinz should be prepared to accept the penalty for breaking the law." "The judge should sentence Heinz to jail. Stealing is against the law! He should not make any exceptions even though Heinz' wife is dying. If the judge does not sentence Heinz to jail then others may think it's right to steal and there will be chaos in the society."

What are possible responses to the Heinz dilemma for those in Stage 1 of Kohlberg's moral development?

"Heinz should not steal the drug because he might be caught and sent to jail." "Heinz should steal the drug because if he doesn't then his in-laws might considered him as heartless and scold him".

What are possible responses to the Heinz dilemma for those in Stage 5 of Kohlberg's moral development?

"Heinz should steal the drug because everyone has the right to life regardless of the law against stealing. Should Heinz be caught and prosecuted for stealing then the law (against stealing) needs to be reinterpreted because a person's life is at stake." "The doctor scientist's decision is despicable but his right to fair compensation (for his discovery) must be maintained. Therefore, Heinz should not steal the drug."

What are possible responses to the Heinz dilemma for those in Stage 6 of Kohlberg's moral development?

"Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife because preserving human life is a higher moral obligation than preserving property."

What are possible responses to the Heinz dilemma for those in Stage 2 of Kohlberg's moral development?

"It is right for Heinz to steal the drug because it can cure his wife and then he would not be all alone and she can cook for him". "Heinz's wife never has time for him, but always has time for shopping and to spend time with her friends. She had never spared a thought for Heinz so Heinz should not steal the drug to save her. He is better off without her". "The doctor scientist had spent lots of money and many years of his life to develop the cure so it's not fair to him if Heinz stole the drug."

What are possible responses to the Heinz dilemma for those in Stage 3 of Kohlberg's moral development?

"Yes, Heinz should steal the drug. He probably will go to jail for a short time for stealing but his in-laws will think he is a good husband." "Officer Brown should not report what he saw because his friend Heinz would be pleased."

Through what Vygotsky called _____________ we socially interact and communicate with others to learn the cultural values of our society.

"dialogues"

minimization (stress coping)

"it's not that bad"

Describe *Object relations theory*.

"object" refers to the representation of parents/caregivers based on *subjective* experiences during early infancy. These objects then persist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others, including the social bonds we create & our predictions of other's behavior.

Break up the word "redesigned" into its individual *morphemes*

"re-" ￫ prefix meaning "to do again" "-design-" ￫ verb root "-ed" ￫ suffix indicating past tense

In terms of cell numbers, why does color vision have a greater sensitivity to fine detail than does black-and-white vision?

# of cones converging onto a single ganglion cell is *less* than that for rods. Explanation: ganglion cell has less to process, so it can process it *better* (more detail) ✴︎Remember: *As the number of photoreceptors that converge through bipolar neurons onto one ganglion increases, the resolution decreases*

What is the utility of the *mode*?

# of modes and their distance from one another is often informative: If there are 2 modes in a data set with a small # of values b/w then, it may be prudent to analyze these portions separately or to look for other variables that may be responsible for dividing the distribution into two parts

reporting bias

(epidemiology) selective revealing/suppression of info *by subjects*, e.g. about past medical history, smoking, sexual experiences

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

(level 1) Physiological Needs (level 2) Safety and Security (level 3) Relationships Love and Affection (level 4) Self Esteem (level 5) Self Actualization

What does it mean when the auditory pathway *decussates*?

*Crossing over* from one side to the other, which practically means that most structures in the auditory pathway will be receiving input from both ears. This is clearly important for our ability to *localize sound* which depends (in part) on differences between the two ears in time of arrival and intensity. These features can only be analyzed if there are cells that receive input from both ears. This is one major reason for all the crossing over from one side to the other. ❗️Note, not all parts of the auditory pathway cross over, in contrast to other sensory pathways. Therefore it is considered both an *ipsilateral* and *contralateral* pathway (contralateral is dominant though) Just remember, if the question is asking which hemisphere processes certain input from right/left ear, that it is really asking about the roles of each hemisphere, not really about crossing over. E.g. *language* info from the left ear is processed by which hemisphere? Obviously left because the dominant hemisphere is responsible for language, and right (nondominant) for emotional tone, creativity, etc.

What are the four functions of the hypothalamus?

*F*eeding *F*ighting *F*lighting Sexual *F*unctioning Explanation: prime regulator of the autonomic nervous system: thirst, drive, sex, emotional experiences during high arousal behavior

What moment in history spearheaded *functionalism*?

*John Dewey*'s 1896 article that criticized the *reflex arc* as it segregated the process of reacting to a stimulus. He believed it should focus on the organism as a whole as it *functioned* to adapt to the environment

What are the 5 traits of the *Five Factor* (Big Five) Model?

*O*penness - involves 6 dimensions, including active imagination, aesthetic sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, preference for variety, and intellectual curiosity *C*onscientiousness - thorough, careful, or vigilant, implying a desire to do a task well, to act in an efficient and organized manner as opposed to being easy-going and disorderly *E*xtraversion - outgoing, talkative, and energetic *A*greeableness - kind, sympathetic, cooperative, warm and considerate *N*euroticism - anxiety, fear, moodiness, worry, envy, frustration, jealousy, and loneliness

What is the *PEN model*?

*P* = psychoticism: a measure of nonconformity or social deviance *E* = extraversion: a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation *N* = neuroticism: emotional arousal in stressful situations People could be distinguished from one another based on where they fell in each of these 3 dimensions it is a *trait* theory that has since been expanded upon to OCEAN (*Big Five*)

What is the distinction between *range* and *interquartile range* and *standard deviation*?

*Range* ￫ absolute measure of the spread of a data set *IQR* and *SD* provide info about the distance that data falls from one of our measures of central tendency. They are used to determine if a data point is truly an outlier ✷ A shorthand way to find SD is: Range/2 ① It's an outlier if it's 1.5 × IQR above Q₃ or below Q₁ ② It's an outlier if it's 3 SD away from the mean (shown in pic)

Distinguish between *self-concept* and *self-identity*

*Self-concept* is the sum of the ways we describe ourselves: in the present, who we used to be, and who we might be in the future *Self-identity* describes the individual components of our *self-concept* related to the groups to which we belong ✴︎We have *one* self-concept*, but may have multiple identities

What theory posits that each of us has three distinct selves, and the closer these are to one another, the higher our self-esteem will be? What are the 3 selves?

*Self-discrepancy theory* ① actual self ￫ made up of our *self-concept*, who I am now ② ideal self ￫ who *I* want myself to be ③ ought self ￫ who I think *others* want me to be

List Hill's criteria

*Temporality* ￫ exposure (ind v) must occur *before* outcome (dep v) *Strength* ￫ as more variability in the dependent variable is explained by variability in the independent variable, more likely it's causal *Dose-response relationship*￫ as the ind v increases, there is a *proportional increase* in the dependent variable *Consistency* ￫ relationship found to be similar *in multiple setting* *Plausibility* ￫ reasonable mechanism for the ind v to impact the dep v *supported by existing literature* *Consideration of alternative explanations* ￫ able to eliminate all other plausible explanations *Experiment* ￫ if an experiment can be performed, a causal relationship can conclusively be determined *Specificity* ￫ change in the dep v is *only* produced by an associated change in the ind. v *Coherence* ￫ new data & hypothesis are consistent with the current state of scientific knowledge

What is the second stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

*autonomy vs. shame and doubt* "Is it okay to be me?" *will*

When is the ideal time to make a decision about the procedure in handling *anomalous* results?

*before* the study begins

Rods and cones synapse on...

*bipolar cells* ↓ which synapse on *ganglion cells* ↓ then *horizontal* and *amacrine cells* integrate the signals from the ganglion cells; also sharpen edges https://ibb.co/kAxDgL

In a signal detection experiment, trials in which the signal *is* presented are called ____________.

*catch* trials

According to Adler, what is the force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality?

*creative self*

What is the *ego*'s recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego?

*defense mechanisms* (8 total)

What does the size of the *two-point threshold* depend on?

*density* of the nerves in the particular area of skin tested

In what direction is visual *output* of information from the retina?

*forward* (opposite the direction of light *input*) from retinal rods & cones ⟶ bipolar /horizontal/amacrine cell conglomeration ⟶ ganglion cells which group together to form the ⟶ optic nerve and then it's backward toward the brain again ✴︎it's like a boomerang effect: light comes *in* towards the photoreceptors (way back of retina), which transduce the signal, and then send out the information in the opposite direction light went in (forward) and then it makes a turn to join the optic nerve (see bent arrow in graphic). Once it reaches the optic nerve though, the rest of the structures are towards the back of the brain So KEEP IN MIND, that in the entire visual pathway (from cornea ⟶ occipital lobe), the photoreceptors receive the signal before the bipolar and ganglion cells. It's like it shoots straight back in order to be "transduced" and then it travels back through the cells it originally passed through. (see other card for entire visual pathway)

Spearman's *g-factor*

*general intelligence factor* postulated to exist bc performance in different cognitive tasks is positively correlated, so it's the underlying factor playing a role aims to *quantify* intelligence measured by standardized tests that generate IQ

What is the seventh stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

*generativity vs. stagnation* "Can I make my life count?"

During secondary appraisal of stress, you evaluate what 3 things...

*harm* ⟶ damage caused by event *threat* ⟶ potential for future damage *challenge* ⟶ potential to overcome & even benefit from event After looking at all these 3 aspects, individual can answer the question: "Can I cope?"

What is the fifth stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

*identity vs. role confusion* "Who am I? What can I be?" *fidelity* ⟶ finally reached a point where development depends on what *you do*, not what is done *to you*

What stage of Erikson's psychosocial development encompasses what he terms a "*physiological revolution*"?

*identity vs. role confusion* Their bodies are changing, sometimes in uncomfortable ways, and at the same time they must answer the question, "who am I?" They try on many new roles as they grope with romantic involvement, vocational choice, and adult statuses. In the process they must develop an integrated and coherent sense of self.

How is *personality* different from *identity*?

*identity* describes who we *are* *personality* describes *how we act & react* to the world around us

What is the fourth stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

*industry vs. inferiority* "Can I make it in the world of people and things?" *competence*

What is the third stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

*initiative vs. guilt* "Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?" *purpose*

What is the eighth and final stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

*integrity vs. despair* "Is it okay to *have been* me?"

What is the sixth stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

*intimacy vs. isolation* "Can I love?"

In one word, what did Kohlberg base his notion of development on?

*morality* but don't forget, he was also assessing *cognitive* development, which depended upon our ability to think and reason morally.

In a signal detection experiment, trials in which the signal is *not* presented are called ____________.

*noise* trials

What is a *semilog* plot?

*one* axis assigned traditional spacing, while the other is assigned spacing based on a ratio used to make logarithmic data linear, and thus easier to interpret again, look at the axes, because the line can be different types: linear, exponential, etc.

The footplate of the stapes rests on the _____________ of the cochlea.

*oval* window

For a social cognitive theorist, what is the best predictor of future behavior?

*past behavior in similar situations*

What is the difference between *power* and *confidence*?

*power* = probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis (reporting a difference b/w 2 populations when one indeed exists) power = 1 - β *confidence* = the probability of correctly *failing* to reject a true null hypothesis (reporting no difference b/w 2 populations when one indeed does not exist)

What is the *id*'s response to frustration?

*primary process* ￫ obtain satisfaction now, not later.

What is retrieval of information often based on?

*priming* interconnected nodes of the semantic network

What are *p-values*?

*probability* that an observed difference b/w 2 populations is due to chance. If the p-value is *low* compared to a significance level, α, usually α = 0.05, (p ≤ 0.05), it means that you can reject the null hypothesis and the differences *are* statistically significant, and not simply due to chance. If the p-value is *high* (p ≥ 0.05), you fail to reject the null hypothesis and results are *not* statistically significant.

delirium

*rapid* fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (nonpsychological) causes: - electrolyte/pH disturbances - malnutrition - ↓ blood sugar - infection - drug reaction - alcohol withdrawal - pain

The *ego* operates according to the ___________ principle.

*reality* Aim: to *postpone* the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained Ex: while in traffic, your *id* might tell you to honk loudly, but our *ego* knows that this would be unwise and might tell us to put on some calming music instead

Which of Freud's defense mechanisms represents a reversion to an earlier developmental state?

*regression*

What is the protocol for dealing with an outlier introduced when a distribution is not approximated by the normal distribution (e.g. a skewed distribution with a long tail)?

*repeated samples or larger samples* will generally demonstrate if it is indeed true that the data set may not approximate the normal distribution

Which of Freud's defense mechanisms represents the ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious?

*repression* underlies many of the other defense mechanisms!

*Confidentiality* falls under what pillar of research ethics?

*respect for persons*

Which pillar of research generally - but not always - prohibits deception?

*respect for persons*

What supports the eye on the *outside*?

*sclera* and *choroid*

According to Adler, what represent the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority?

*style of life* crucial to this is the *family environment*

visuospatial sketchpad

*the inner eye* deals with visual and spatial information from either *sensory memory* or *LTM*: *navigation* Ex (sensory): being aware of where we are in relation to desks, chairs and tables when we are walking around a classroom means that we don't bump into things too often! Ex (LTM): Try answering this question: How many windows are there in the front of your house? You probably find yourself picturing the front of your house and counting the windows. An image has been retrieved from LTM and pictured on the sketchpad.

time-based prospective memory

*time* is the cue indicating that a given action needs to be performed Ex: remembering to take medication every day at 1 PM

What is the first stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

*trust vs. mistrust* "Can I trust the world?" *hope*

According to Freud, what acts might make up the *primary process*, quelling the frustration the individual is experiencing?

*wish fulfillment* ￫ mental imagery, i.e. day dreaming or fantasy, that fulfills this need for satisfaction ❗️Note, this can *not* effectively reduce tension *permanently*.

What are the advantages and disadvantages to *top-down* processing?

+ ⟶ faster - ⟶ more prone to mistakes

What are the advantages and disadvantages to *bottom-up* processing?

+ ⟶ less prone to mistakes - ⟶ slower

What factors can change the effects of associative learning or allow us to resist them altogether?

- *latent learning*: learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it - *problem solving*: evolve from trial-and-error approach (childhood) to taking a step back, observe the situation, and take decisive action - natural instincts preclude some behaviors from being taught: *instinctive drift* and facilitates others: *preparedness*

What are the *monocular cues* used to guide depth perception?

- *linear perspective ￫ convergence of parallel lines at a distance - *interposition* ￫ partial obscuring of one object by another - *height of plane* ￫ position of an object in the visual field - *texture gradients* - *relative size* of objects - *lighting & shadowing* Others: • relative motion • accommodation ￫ lens changes shape based on distance; considered a very weak cue

If a campfire itself is a *distal* stimulus, and thus has no interaction with the sensory receptors, what parts of that stimulus actually become *proximal* stimuli?

- *photons* of light that reach the observer's rods and cones (sensory receptors) - heat that reaches the observers thermoreceptors Explanation: proximal stimuli *directly* interact w/ & affect sensory receptors, and inform the observer about the presence of distal stimuli

What are the *binocular cues* used to guide depth perception?

- *retinal disparity* ￫ differences b/w images projected on the two retinas - *convergence* ￫ angle required between the two eyes to bring an object into focus

Common causes of dementia

- Alzheimer's disease - Vascular disease (causes multi-infarct dementia) where high blood pressure & repeated microscopic clots in the brain form

What is the best method of teaching in the *concrete operational* stage of cognitive development?

- Hands-on learning, but more experiment-based - Solving problems (start developing logical and analytical thinking skills) - Short instruction - Concrete examples - Give time to practice and let them organize groups of objects on increasingly complex levels (key skills like *seriation*, *classification*, etc. develop in this stage)

What does the Working Memory Model predict of the ability to do two tasks at the same time?

- If the two tasks make use of *different* components of working memory, they can be done as well simultaneously as separately Ex: planning how you will redecorate your house while talking on the phone with your mother in law - If the two tasks require the *same* components of working memory, they won't be performed as well together compared to separately Ex (from a study): subjects asked to do a digit span task (repeat a list of numbers), and a verbal reasoning task (answer true or false to various questions). Results: as more #s presented, took longer to answer questions. ✴︎ The digit span test made use of the *phonological loop* ✴︎ Verbal reasoning made use of the *central executive*

What is the best method of teaching in the *formal operational* stage of cognitive development?

- Open-ended projects, exploring many solutions to one problem - Opportunity to explore hypothetical possibilities - Teach "broad concepts" while relating it to students' lives

A schema can include...

- a concept: "What is a dog?" - a behavior: "What do you do when someone asks you your name?" - a sequence of events: "What do you normally do in a sit-down restaurant?"

Children of alcoholics are at risk for...

- alcoholism - major depressive disorder

By what factors is *salience* determined?

- amount of *work invested* into the identity - *rewards* & gratifications associated w/ identity - amount of *self-esteem* associated w/ identity

Tolerance

- believe it or not, brain doesn't always want to be happy, so with chronic stimulation of reward pathway, it starts to shut down some of the receptors so that *the same amount of drug won't cause such a strong effect* - no you need more to get the same feel

Withdrawal

- believe it or not, brain doesn't always want to be happy, so with chronic stimulation of reward pathway, it starts to shut down some of the receptors so that the same amount of drug won't cause such a strong effect - no you need more to get the same feel - if you have unlimited access, this will just keep inflating - however, if you can no longer access drug, or have limited access, body will experience withdrawal symptoms - *body became accustomed to exogenous source of happiness, so it is no longer as efficient at producing its own dopamine* - now you are not even going for euphoria anymore, you are just going for normal again - However, with time and discipline, your body can readjust again (REHAB)

Characteristics of narcolepsy

- cataplexy - sleep paralysis - hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations (going to sleep vs. awakening)

Causes of impaired cognition in babies

- chemical exposure - trauma during birth (↓ oxygen delivery to brain) - alcohol during pregnancy (FAS), causes slowed development & distinct craniofacial features - infections in brain (causing electrical abnormalities and slowed development) - shaken baby syndrome

alcohol (higher doses)

- disrupts brain activity - logical reasoning and motor skills affected ￫ cannot recognize consequence of actions = alcohol myopia (short-sided view of world) - fatigue

How can behavior be passed on within species?

- many behaviors are species specific, so they may be inherited (evolution ￫ *innate behavior*) - also may be *bred* into a species (ex: dogs bred for desirable traits/behaviors) - violence & aggression seen to run in families, as well as mental illness

Nightmares vs. night terrors

- nightmares: common after 3 yrs, occur during REM sleep, child remembers them - night terrors: common b/w 3-5 yrs, occur during non-REM (stage 4) sleep, child doesn't remember them

What characteristics did Maslow discover, and value, in the self-actualizers he studied (Einstein, E. Roosevelt, Beethoven, etc.)

- nonhostile sense of *humour* - originality - creativity - spontaneity - need for some *privacy*

alcohol MOA

- ↑ GABA - depress brain centers that prevent inappropriate behavior ⟶ feel less inhibited - ↑ dopamine (mild euphoria)

What are the range of values for both sine and cosine?

-1 to 1

Sensitive period for language

-There is a sensitive, or optimal, period for learning language (applies to first and second language) vs. a *critical* period. Still before puberty -Ability to learn language gradually decreases with age (*no specific cut-off* for sensitive period) Case: isolated girl, found at 13, could not master many rules of language (though she learned some aspects of syntax). This endorses the sensitive vs. critical period

p in chemistry is shorthand for...

-log

log1/A = ?

-logA

secondary circular reactions

-manipulation is focused on something outside the body - ex: repeatedly throwing toys ⁂ behavior is repeated b/c child gets a response from environment 4-8 months

What is the range of possible values for tan?

-∞ to ∞

In a *standard distribution*, the mean is...

0

What is ln(1)?

0

The *trust vs. mistrust* stage (crisis) of Erikson's psychosocial development takes place during what age range?

0 to 1

What are the ages for the *oral stage* of Freud's psychosocial development?

0 to 1

What is the probability of two mutually exclusive outcomes occurring together?

0%

sensorimotor stage age range

0-2 years

In a *standard distribution*, the standard deviation is...

1

lne = ?

1

The *autonomy vs. shame and guilt* stage (crisis) of Erikson's psychosocial development takes place during what age range?

1 to 3

What are the ages for the *anal stage* of Freud's psychosocial development?

1 to 3

When does *separation anxiety* develop?

1 year

Types of problem solving

1. trial and error 2. algorithms 3. deductive reasoning 4. inductive reasoning

formal operational stage age range

11 into adolescence

The *identity vs. role confusion* stage (crisis) of Erikson's psychosocial development takes place during what age range?

12 to 20

How does the eye receive nutrition?

2 sets of blood vessels: ① *choroidal* vessels ￫ b/w sclera and retina ② *retinal* vessels

When does *parallel play* develop?

2 years

preoperational stage age range

2-7 years

What is the value of Euler's number, e?

2.718281828459045

The *intimacy vs. isolation* stage (crisis) of Erikson's psychosocial development takes place during what age range?

20 to 40

At age ____, a child has an awareness of his/her gender identity, engages in sex-typed play, and knows his or her full name.

3

According to Horney, how would a child deal with basic anxiety or hostility and attain a degree of security?

3 Strategies: ① Moving *toward* people to obtain goodwill of people who will provide security ② Moving *against* people or fighting them to obtain the upper hand ③ Moving *away* or withdrawing from people entirely

What makes up the *middle ear*?

3 ossicles: ① *malleus* (hammer) 🔨 ② *incus* (anvil) ③ *stapes* (stirrup) Mnemonic (for order): *MIS HAS* (malleus ⟶ incus ⟶ stapes; hammer ⟶ anvil ⟶ stirrup) + *Eustachian tube* (auditory tube) + *oval window*

What are the ages for the *phallic or Oedipal stages* of Freud's psychosocial development?

3 to 5

The *initiative vs. guilt* stage (crisis) of Erikson's psychosocial development takes place during what age range?

3 to 6

By what age is *gender identity* usually well established?

3, although it may morph and change over time

A substantial decline in IQ occurs between the ages of...

30 and 40

How long does short-term memory last without rehearsal?

30 seconds - 1 min Starts decaying around 30 s

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

31

When does *theory of mind* usually develop?

4-5 yrs old

The *generativity vs .stagnation* stage (crisis) of Erikson's psychosocial development takes place during what age range?

40 to 65

Language is substantially mastered by age ____.

5

When does the *grasping reflex* disappear?

5 - 6 months

When do romantic feelings for other children develop?

5 yrs

length of sleep cycle in children

50 minutes

According to Skinner, very young babies are capable of distinguishing between phonemes of all human languages, but by _____________ of age, show a strong preference for those in the language spoken by parents.

6 months

The *industry vs. inferiority* stage (crisis) of Erikson's psychosocial development takes place during what age range?

6 to 12

The *integrity vs. despair* stage (crisis) of Erikson's psychosocial development takes place during what age range?

65 to death

When does *stranger anxiety* develop?

7 months

concrete operational stage age range

7-11 years

According to studies, who would have a larger *range* of memory - a 20 year old or a 70 year old?

70 Explanation: larger semantic networks

Timeline of language acquisition

9 to 12 months: babbling 12 to 18 months: about one word per month 18 to 20 months: "explosion of language" and combining words 2 to 3 years: longer sentences (3 words or more) 5 years: language rules largely mastered

How long is the sleep cycle for adults?

90 minutes

How long does sensory memory last?

< 1 second

observational learning

= modeling acquisition of behavior by watching others

If the amount of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, is increased, which of the following would likely be the result? A. Weakness of muscle movements B. Excessive pain or discomfort C. Mood swings and mood instability D. Auditory and visual hallucinations

A

As the confidence level increases, a confidence interval A. becomes wider B. becomes thinner C. shifts to higher values D. shifts to lower values

A Explanation: C and D better apply to *p-value*, where a lower value (p ≤ 0.05) indicates strong evidence against the null hypothesis and a higher value (p ≥ 0.05) indicates weak evidence against the null hypothesis, so you fail to reject it.

What is the minimum value of 2 cos θ - 1 A. -3 B. -2 C. -1 D. 0

A Explanation: The minimum value of the cosine function is -1: Cos 180° = -1 Therefore: 2 × (-1) -1 = -3

Describe Horney's concept of *basic anxiety*.

A child's early perception of self is important and stems from a child's relationship with parents: *inadequate parenting can cause vulnerability and helplessness* ⟶ basic anxiety

Describe Horney's concept of *basic hostility*.

A child's early perception of self is important and stems from a child's relationship with parents: *parental neglect & rejection can cause anger* ⟶ basic hostility

Describe the process of *neurulation*.

A furrow is produced from *ectoderm* overlying the notochord and consists of the neural groove and two neural folds. As the folds grow, the cells at their leading edge are called *neural crest cells.* When the neural folds fuse, this creates the *neural tube*, which will form the CNS.

tectorial membrane

A membrane located above the basilar membrane and *covers the organ of Corti* It is relatively *immobile* and serves as a shelf against which the cilia of the auditory hair cells move

bounded rationality

A set of boundaries or constraints that tend to complicate the rational decision-making process

cataplexy

A sudden loss of voluntary muscle strength and control caused by intrusion of REM sleep usually triggered by an intense emotion.

maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it Ex: phone #s

Freud's theory of dreams

A theory that says we have a "censor" that protects us from realizing threatening and unconscious desires or wishes, especially those involving sex or aggression, by transforming them into harmless symbols that appear in our dreams and do not disturb our sleep or conscious thoughts. Separated dreams into... ① Manifest content - actually see and hear ② Latent content - underlying significance of these dream elements

What two hormones does the *posterior pituitary* release?

ADH (vasopressin) Oxytocin

During what stage of sleep does dreaming occur?

ALL but most (75%) in REM (esp. bizarre dreams)

Who coined the term *peak experiences* in the context of personality development?

Abraham Maslow those who were *self-actualized* tended to have more of these *profoundly and deeply moving experiences that have important and lasting effects on the individual*

Who were the most famous *humanistic* psychologists?

Abraham Maslow ￫ *Hierarchy of Needs* Karl Rogers ￫ *Client-Centered Therapy* & *Unconditional + Regard* Kurt Lewin ￫ *Force Field Theory* and B = f(P,E) equation (falls under *social psychology*) George Kelly ￫ *Personal Construct Psychology*

Who came up with *reciprocal determinism*?

Albert Bandura

Which psychologist came up with the concept of an *inferiority complex*?

Alfred Adler

Who developed the notion of the *creative self*?

Alfred Adler

Who developed the notion of the *fictional finalism*?

Alfred Adler

Who developed the notion of the *style of life*?

Alfred Adler

Pioneer of IQ tests

Alfred Binet

Working Memory Model

An explanation of the memory used when working on a task. Each store is qualitatively different: ① *Central executive* - controller; consults with LTM ② *Phonological loop* - assistant that specializes in words ③ *Visuospatial sketchpad* - assistant that specializes in visual and spatial ④ *Episodic buffer* - newest addition which acts as a "backup store", communicating w/ both LTM and components of working memory

What is *fictional finalism*?

An imagined central goal that gives direction to behavior and unity to the personality an image of what people would be like if they were perfect and perfectly secure.

Which of Jung's archetypes is the "sex-inappropriate" quality in males?

Anima "A man's inner woman" explains *emotional* behavior in males

Which of Jung's archetypes is the "sex-inappropriate" quality in females?

Animus "A woman's inner man" explains *power-seeking* behavior in females

nightmares

Anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep. *remembered*

Explain long-term memory from a chemical perspective.

As a stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time, receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density (this is called *long-term potentiation* and is the mechanism behind how STM ⟶ LTM)

A high school student struggles consistently with math and feels that no matter how hard he studies, he "just doesn't get it." Which of the following is the most likely short-term result with respect to his ability to do math? A. Low self-esteem B. Low self-efficacy C. Learned helplessness D. External locus of control

B Explanation: Because there is nothing in the stem to suggest that this situation will *fundamentally* change the student's attitudes in the short term, (A) and (D) can be eliminated. (C) is unlikely in the *short term* as learned helplessness requires a repeated inability to have any effect on a situation over a long period of time, and is much more severe, usually manifesting as depression It is far more likely that the student will simply feel ineffective when it comes to math (I.e. low self-efficacy, B)

Which of the following fine motor tasks would one expect to see first in an infant? A. Grasping for objects with two fingers B. Following objects with the eyes C. Scribbling with a crayon D. Moving a toy from one hand to the other

B Explanation: Motor skills tend to develop from the *core toward the periphery*. Following objects with the eyes occurs ~ 4 weeks. Other answers all require movements of the hand, which do not occur in an organized fashion until later.

Which of the following is an example of a semantic memory? A. Having the ability to drive a car B. Knowing the parts of a car engine C. Remembering the experience of learning to drive D. Associating a car with other vehicles in a semantic network

B Explanation: Semantic memory is long-term memory referring to recall of *facts*, rather than experiences or skills. ❗️Do not confuse semantic memory with semantic networks (associations of similar concepts in the mind to aid their retrieval).

Each of the following is considered a part of a person's self-concept EXCEPT: A. The past self B. The ought self C. The future self D. Self-schemata

B Self-concept is the sum of all the ways in which *we see ourselves*, including who we are (D), who we were in the past (A), and who we may become in the future (C). The ought self is our *appraisal of how others see us*, and thus is not part of our self-concept

logAᴮ = ?

B log A

father of behaviorism

B.F. Skinner operant conditioning

What side of the brain controls left-side hearing?

BOTH hearing is both ipsilateral and contralateral

What side of the brain controls right-side hearing?

BOTH hearing is both ipsilateral and contralateral

famous example of observational learning

Bandura's Bobo Doll

__________ occurs when prototypical or stereotypical factors are used for analysis rather than actual data.

Base rate neglect/fallacy - stereotypical factors can also be equated to specific/diagnostic information (it's what we pay attention to when presented with both) - actual data = the base rate information (generic, general; it's what people neglect when presented with both) Ex: A student volunteering at a stroke center cites that he believes about 40% of elderly have suffered from a stroke, even though data indicates this is way high. It's because he sees tons of stroke patients daily (diagnostic - specific observation to him) and he's ignoring the data out there (base rate)

Why aren't repressed memories recovered through hypnosis admissible in a court of law?

Because patient is in a *highly suggestible state*, she is vulnerable to creating *false memories* which can be perceived as completely real.

What landmark document delineates the three necessary pillars of research ethics?

Belmont Report by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research 1979

Which of the following is true of controlled processing? A. It is the means through which information enters short-term memory B. Information that requires controlled processing cannot become automatic. C. It always requires active attention to the information being encoded. D. Most information we can later recall is encoded using controlled processing

C Explanation: Controlled processing = effortful processing used to create *long-term* memories (invalidating A), and with practice, can become automatic (invalidating B). Most day-to-day activities are processed *automatically*, invalidating D.

Researchers discover that polymorphisms in the DRD2 gene can be associated with thrill-seeking behavior, and that individuals with certain forms of the gene are more likely to become extreme athletes and have more dangerous hobbies. Which of the following theories is supported by this discovery? I. The social cognitive perspective II. The behavioral perspective III. The biological perspective A. I only B. III only C. I and III only D. II and III only

C Explanation: The research supports a link b/w genetic expression & behavior ⟶ biological (III) The social cognitive perspective holds that people's *behaviors and traits* shape their environments, which in turn have an effect on their *identity*, so I is true as well. II is not supported as the discovery is not related to rewards & punishments.

A child speaks in sentences of at least 3 words, but makes grammatical errors including misuse of the past tense. How old is this child likely to be? A. 14 months B. 22 months C. 30 months D. 5 years

C Explanation: describes a child who has not yet mastered most of the fundamental rules of language. This is normal between 2-3 years old.

The neural tube ultimately becomes what?

CNS (brain & spinal cord)

Who coined the term *unconditional positive regard*?

Carl Rogers

Who devised the terms *real self* and *ideal self*?

Carl Rogers

Who developed *client-centered* therapy?

Carl Rogers a/k/a *person-centered*, *nondirective*

Which theory of dreaming states that dreams and thoughts during wakeful periods use the same stream-of-consciousness system?

Cognitive process dream theory

What are *cohort* observational studies?

Cohort is a group of people with common characteristics or risk factors (exposures) Studies follow a group and notice differences of incidences (*outcome*) Ex. Female nurses who smoke vs female nurses who don't

List the visual pathway from cornea to occipital lobe.

Cornea ↓ pupil ↓ lens ↓ vitreous ↓ ↓ ↓ rods and cones of the retina ↑ bipolar/horizontal/amacrine cells ↑ ganglion cells ⟶ optic nerve ↓ optic chiasm ↓ optic tract ↓ LGN (in thalamus) ↓ radiations (Meyer's & Baum's) ↓ visual cortex (in occipital lobe)

Which two cranial nerves are *structurally* outgrowths of the CNS?

Cranial I - olfactory Cranial II - optic *there are still part of the PNS though as all cranial nerves extend beyond the brain*

What is a simple method for calculating the interquartile range?

Data should be sorted in ascending order ① multiply *n* by ¼ where n is # of values in the set ② if this value is a whole number ￫ Q₁ is the mean of the value at this position and the next highest position ③ if this value is a decimal, round *up* and take that as Q₁ ④ For Q₃, multiply *n* by ¾. ⑤ Again, if whole # ￫ find mean of this value and the next highest ⑥ Again, if decimal, round up and this is Q₃ ⑦ Finally, now that we have Q₁ and Q₃, to find the IQR: IQR = Q₃ - Q₁ Ex: 20, 22, 22, 22, 23, 24, 25, 36 ① 8 × ¼ = 2, so Q₁ is the mean of the 2nd and 3rd values in the set: ② 22 + 22 / 2 = 22 ③ doesn't apply to this example ④ 8 × ¾ = 6 ⑤ 24 + 25 / 2 = 24.5 ⑥ doesn't apply to this example ⑦ IQR = 24.5 - 22 = 2.5

Who identified the *N-Ach* personality trait?

David McClelland

List the *taste* pathway.

Dissolved compounds reach the taste buds in the *papillae* on the tongue ↓ brainstem ↓ *taste center* of the thalamus ↓ higher-order brain regions

How can the value of a natural logarithm be converted to the value of a common logarithm?

Divide *ln* by a constant (2.303)

Which of these neuropsychological methods would be used to monitor brain activity in a patient at risk for seizures? Electroencephalogram (EEG) Ablation Electrode stimulation Regional Cerebral Bloodflow (rCBF)

EEG

What technology is used to study sleep?

EEG studies brain waves

__________________ was a neo-Freudian theorist who believed that *freedom* was an aspect of human nature that we either embrace or escape.

Erich Fromm Explanation: Embracing our freedom of will is healthy, whereas escaping freedom through the use of *escape mechanisms* is the root of psychological conflicts

Which part of the ear helps equalize pressure between the middle ear and the environment?

Eustachian tube

True or False: A bimodal distribution will always have two modes.

FALSE There are cases when one peak is slightly higher than the other, in which case there would only be one mode but this would *still be a bimodal distribution*

Benzodiazepines MOA

Facilitate GABA-A action by increasing frequency of chloride channel opening (hyperpolarization) Decrease REM sleep Long half-lives and active metabolites (except: triazolam, oxazepam, and midazolam are short acting ⟶ higher addictive potential)

According to Ebbinghaus' learning curve, what happens to recall?

Falls sharply for a day or two after learning but then *levels off*

True or False: Piaget believed that a child in the preoperational stage could be taught to understand the liquid volume experiment

False Explanation: Piaget stated that a child either held the mental structure for conservation, or she did not. In this case, the child could not be taught because she does not possess the mental structure of a child in concrete operational stage.

True or False: All cognitive decline in adulthood is slow.

False Explanation: delirium = rapid decline in cognitive function

True or False: The *sclera* covers the entire outer eye.

False Explanation: does *not* cover the frontmost part (cornea)

True or False: A linear *graph* necessitates a straight line.

False Explanation: it's the measurements that are directly related, so look at the *axes* which will be consistent in the sense that each unit will occupy the same amount of space

True or False: The Hawthorn effect only affects the subject

False Explanation: this effect results from changes in behavior - by the subject, experimenter, or both - that occur as a result of the knowledge that the subject is being observed

Who were the main scientists who did research on *cognitive development*?

First (and arguably most influential) was *Jean Piaget* who was most concerned with *intellect* He influenced a couple others, namely: - *Lawrence Kohlberg*, who added the moral reasoning component and - *Lev Vygotsky*, who incorporated culture/language's influence on cognitive development

Show how to determine if a data point is an outlier using IQR given the following set of data (in order of trial #): 4, 3, 5, 4, 8, 6, 6, 13, 9

First put the data in ascending order: 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 8, 9, 13 ① To calculate *position* of Q₁, multiple n (# of values) by ¼: 9 × ¼ = 9/4 = 2.2 ￫ ❌ If this is a whole number, the quartile *position* is the mean of the value at this position and the next highest position. ￫ ☑️If this is a decimal, round up to the next whole #, and take that as the quartile *position*: 2.2 ⟶ 3. Position 3 corresponds to value 4, so Q₁ = 4 ② To calculate *position* of Q₂, multiply n by ¾: 9 × ¾ = 27/4 = 6.7 ￫ ❌ If this is a whole number, the quartile *position* is the mean of the value at this position and the next highest position. ￫ ☑️If this is a decimal, round up to the next whole #, and take that as the quartile *position*: 6.7 ⟶ 7 Position 7 corresponds to value 8, so Q₃ = 8 IQR = 8 - 4 = 4 Now multiply IQR × 1.5 4 × 1.5 = 6 Add this value to Q₃ to give the upper boundary, beyond which will represent an outlier. 6 + 8 = 14 Since 13 lies within this value, it is NOT an outlier 📸 pic shows another way which I did not learn, and seems to be less "strict" (i.e. if the value in question was 15, it would not be an outlier with this method, but it would be an outlier with the method I used. I've seen the way I did it cited as the more common way.

Distinguish *flavor* from *taste*

Flavor ￫ complex interplay between smell *and* taste, which can be affected by nonchemical stimuli like texture and the person's mood Taste ￫ a sense; dissolved compounds detected by chemoreceptors

What scientist is responsible for the theory of *phrenology*?

Franz Gall

Donald MacKay (focused attention)

Further evidence for the *late selection* model is that unattended messages can influence participant's understanding of the meaning of ambiguous sentences

Depressants promote or mimic ___________ activity in the brain.

GABA

Which neurotransmitters act as brain "stabilizers"?

GABA and glycine inhibitors

Who developed the idea of cardinal, central, and secondary traits?

Gordon Allport

Who coined the term *functional autonomy*?

Gordon Allport (trait theorist)

Which psychologist came up with the *PEN model*.

Hans & Sybil Eysenck (trait theorists)

According to Kohlberg, as the individual progresses to the next stage, what happens to his connection to the previous stage?

He abandons it for the next stage. Remember, not everyone reaches the postconventional stage.

What was the one fault in Sir Charles Sherrington's postulates regarding synapses?

He thought synaptic transmission was *electrical*, but we now know that it's primarily *chemical*

Heroin vs. morphine

Heroin = diacetyl morphine (2 hydroxyls on morphine are converted to acetyl esters) The effects of morphine and heroin are identical. Heroin is 3X more potent than morphine. Heroin is more lipid-soluble than morphine Actually, heroin gets converted to morphine in the body

What can be said about a study that had lower power and ended up with statistically significant results?

If a study has lower power, it is *more difficult* to get results that are statistically significant. Therefore, if the results are still statistically significant *even with low power*, then there is likely a large effect size that makes the effect also clinically significant. power = probability of correctly rejected a false null hypothesis (reporting a difference b/w 2 populations when one indeed exists) power = 1 - β

How can the standard deviation be used to determine whether or not a data point is an outlier?

If the data pt falls more than 3 SD from the mean = outlier *some say 2 SD outside = outlier, I think it's just a convention

According to Horney, neurotic needs are present in normal people to a certain degree. When did she claim that they became problematic?

If they fit *at least one* of 4 criteria: ① Disproportionate in *intensity* ② *Indiscriminate* in application ③ Partially *disregard reality* ④ Tendency to provoke intense *anxiety*

attrition bias

In longitudinal research, this bias occurs when certain participants are more likely to drop out of the study than others, leading to a final sample that differs from the initial sample in important ways.

Where are the amygdala and hippocampus located?

In the limbic system which is in the forebrain

assimilation

Incorporation of new information into an existing schema without modifying it

What is the function of the *basal ganglia*?

Initiate and manage gross skeletal muscle movement control don't forget *posture*!

Describe the process of a *t test* (z test).

It is the most common *hypothesis test*, relying on SD or t-distribution ① Calculate a test statistic ② Compare it to a table/computer program to determine the likelihood that that statistic was obtained by random chance (assuming H₀ is true). This comparison is our *p-value* ③ Compare *p-value* to a significance level (*α*). 0.05 is most commonly used. If p > α, we fail to reject the H₀ (there is no difference b/w populations) If p < α, we can reject the H₀ and establish a significant difference b/w the populations *IOW*, a lower p value = more significant

Distinguish the *social cognitive* perspective from *behaviorism*.

It takes behaviorism one step further, focusing not just on how our environment influences our behavior, but also on *how we interact with that environment*.

Who developed the Big Five model of personality?

Jeffrey Gray (student of Eysenck)

Which psychologist came up with the theory that neurotic personalities are governed by one of ten *neurotic needs*?

Karen Horney (psychoanalyst)

Describe *personal construct psychology*.

Kelly thought of the individual as a *scientist* ￫ devises and tests predictions about the behavior significant people in his/her life, then.... constructs a scheme of *anticipation* of what others will do, based on his/her knowledge, perception & relationships w/ these other people

Who developed the *force field theory*?

Kurt Lewin

Types of hallucinogens

LSD psilocybin (mushrooms) PCP peyote mescaline ketamine

A scientist ablated a brain region in laboratory mice. Afterwards, the mice had to be forced to eat in order to avoid starvation. Which region of the brain was most likely damaged? Lateral Hypothalmus Ventromedial Hypothalmus Anterior Hypothalmus

Lateral Hypothalmus Mnemonic: when the LH is destroyed, one *L*acks *H*unger

famous example of *generalization* (classical conditioning).

Little Albert made to be afraid of white rat, now is afraid of all white fluffy things

accommodation

Modification of existing schemata to account for new information that doesn't fit into any one schema neatly.

How does the hypothalamus contribute to emotion?

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

In the *generativity vs. stagnation* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development, what is the child's predominant social setting?

NEW: *new* family and work

In the *industry vs. inferiority* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development, what is the child's predominant social setting?

NEW: neighborhood and school

In the *intimacy vs. isolation* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development, what is the child's predominant social setting?

NEW: partners in friendship and sex

In the *identity vs. role confusion* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development, what is the child's predominant social setting?

NEW: peer group and outgroups

In the *integrity vs. despair* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development, what is the child's predominant social setting?

NEW: retirement and impending death

Is avoiding a stressor considered a healthy response to stress?

NO

A two-year-old child is seen by a pediatrician. He uses fewer than 10 words. Is this still within the normal range of language acquisition?

NO indicates a significant developmental delay ⟶ refer on to speech therapy and search for developmental issues

According to Allport, do all people possess all 3 traits?

NO, not everyone has cardinal traits, but everyone *does* have secondary and central traits

Which theory posits a critical period during which language acquisition occurs?

Nativist it's an *innate* process that requires the *language acquisition device* which is only active during a critical period (Noam Chomsky) - Biological

Explain short-term memory from a chemical perspective.

Neurons are activated by stimuli and release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters continue to stimulate activity until degradation, reuptake, or diffusion out of the cleft *In the interim, this neural activity forms a memory trace that is thought to be the cause of STM*

universal grammar

Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure human brain has a limited set of rules for organizing language, thus all languages have a common structural basis

What effect would an error in instrument calibration have on the standard deviation of the sample?

None Explanation: SD is a measure of variability about the mean. Such an error would affect the mean itself, but not the SD

Opiates vs opiods

Opiates = naturally occurring (morphine and codeine) Opioids = semisynthetic derivatives (oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin) - bind opioid receptors in peripheral and CNS causing decreased rxn to pain & sense of euphoria

Opiates, opiods, narcotics - What's the relation?

Opioids are technically categorized under the term narcotic. However, due to the negative association the term narcotic has with illegal drugs, it has fallen out of use in medical settings. The narcotic definition pertains to an agent that produces insensibility or narcosis.

What are *continuous variables*?

Part of a range with infinite possibilities

Describe the *rCBF* process.

Patient inhales a harmless radioactive gas A special device that can detect radioactivity in the blood can then correlate radioactivity levels w/ regional cerebral blood flow uses noninvasive computerized scanning

How did Piaget and Vygotsky each approach discovery learning?

Piaget advocated for discovery learning with *little teacher intervention* Vygotsky promoted *guided* discovery in the classroom.

How would Piaget view a child who is struggling with a complex problem? How about Vygotsky?

Piaget would assume that the student does not yet have the mental structures to solve such a problem Vygotsky would offer strategies (i.e. scaffolding) in order for the student to attempt the problem with a MKO. The child could be taught to do it *as long as it was in his zone of proximal development* They both believed there are constraints on what a child could learn: ￫ to Piaget it was restricted to the stage ￫ to Vygotsky, it had to be within the ZPD

How would Piaget view *private speech*? How does Vygotsky view it?

Piaget would find it *egocentric* or immature and the child won't grow out of it until he reaches the next stage Vygotsky found its utility in guiding actions and aiding thinking

Who originated *extirpation*?

Pierre Flourens

decentration

Process of changing from a totally self-oriented point of view to one that recognizes other people's feelings, ideas, and viewpoints also allows to look at multiple aspects of one situation occurs in the *concrete operational* stage

Contrast *psychoticism* and *neuroticism*

Psychoticism = nonconformity or deviance Neuroticism = emotional arousal in stressful situations

Eye movements and body paralysis occur during what stage of sleep?

REM

How do you get rid of a natural log in a formula?

Remember that natural logarithms have a base of e. Rewrite this logarithm as an exponential equation. Ex: You have a thermodynamics problem narrowed down to lnKeq = 2. How do you get rid of the ln?: Rewrite: logₑ Keq = 2 e² = Keq (2.7)² = Keq 2² = 4 and 3² = 9, so answer is between 4 and 9

To determine if a sample is truly skewed, what must occur?

Repeated sampling or using a large sample size

In the ___________ theory of emotion, nervous system arousal occurs and then is labeled based on the context provided by the environment, which ultimately leads to emotion.

Schachter-Singer ✷ both arousal *and* labeling based on environment required to feel emotion "I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy."

What phenomenon explains how information that is most meaningful to an individual is most likely to be memorized?

Self-reference effect Ex: easiest to make long-term memory of a list of the names of musicians in your favorite bands.

Which of Piaget's stages of cognitive development occur before adolescence?

Sensorimotor, preparation, concrete Formal operational coincides w/ adolescence

General Adaptation Syndrome

Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with ① alarm ② resistance ③ exhaustion

sundowning

Signs, symptoms, and behaviors of AD increase during hours of darkness

How does *locus of control* fit into the social cognitive perspective of personality?

Some people feel more in control of their environment while others feel that their environment controls them For a social cognitive theorist, the best predictor of future behavior is *past behavior in similar situations*

Types of *parasomnias*

Somnambulism Nocturnal Enuresis Bruxism Night terrors

A victim of sexual abuse fears reporting it, because the perpetrator is a person in authority and had threatened to punish her if she did. What stage of Kohlberg's moral reasoning is the victim in?

Stage 1 - obedience

How did dichotic listening tasks corroborate Treisman's attenuation model? How did they also weaken it?

Strengthen: Participants would often "follow" the message over to the unattended ear before realizing their mistake, especially if the stimuli had a high degree of continuity. This "following of the message" illustrates how the unattended ear is still extracting some degree of information from the unattended channel, and *contradicts* Broadbent's filter model that would expect participants to be completely oblivious of the change in the unattended channel Weaken: other dichotic listening tasks showed responses and influences from input to the unattended ear (Moray & MacKay)

transformational grammar

Syntactic transformations or changes in word order that retain same meaning Ex: I took the MCAT vs. The MCAT was taken by me children learn effortlessly at an early age (Chomsky)

shadowing

Technique where a participant is asked to repeat a word or phrase immediately after its heard

To what did Freud attribute to victims of trauma who constantly were reenacting or focusing on their traumatic experiences?

Thanatos ￫ the death instinct

Describe the components of a *box plot*.

The *box* is bounded by Q₁ and Q₃ The line in the middl eof the box is Q₂ (median) The ends of the "whiskers" are the max and min values of the data set (which may or may not be outliers) ✴︎✴︎Sometimes, outliers can be presented as individual points, with the ends of the whiskers being the largest and smallest values that are still within 1.5 × IQR of the median

Resistance stage of GAS

The body physically prepares for a longer, more sustained attack against a stressor. continuous release of hormones activates sympathetic nervous system

What is the difference b/w a coercive influence and monetary compensation for a research study?

The line b/w the two is often debated. A compensatory influence is one that does *not* impact the decision to participate, while a coercive influence is one in which the subject *loses autonomy* to make the decision to participate

hierarchy of analyzers

The nervous system sequentially analyzes an *input*, starting with the general *physical* features such as pitch and loudness. If inputs are identical in terms of voice, amplitude, and spatial cues, attenuation can not effectively take place at an early level based on these physical properties alone. Instead, attenuation will occur during the identification of words and meaning: 1. Syllables 2. Words 3. Grammar 4. Semantics *this is where the capacity to handle information can be scarce* part of Treisman's attenuation model: *attended* inputs will always undergo full processing, whereas irrelevant stimuli often lack a sufficiently *low threshold* to be fully analyzed, resulting in *only physical* qualities being remembered rather than semantics. ✴︎ could still extract meaning from unattended stimuli as long as they passed through this hierarchy

spreading activation

The process through which activity in one node in a semantic network *unconsciously* flows outward to other nodes through associative links. Ex: Red ⟶ fire engine ⟶ truck ⟶ street

What two structures make up the *visual radiations*?

The radiations are distinctive in that they split into 2 parts on each side: ① Meyer's Loop (inferior) ② Baum's Loop (superior)

compensation (reasoning)

The student realizes that changes in one dimension can be offset by changes in another (Piaget's Conservation Experiments)

centration

The tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects. (preoperational)

If it becomes evident during a research study that one treatment option is clearly superior before a study is scheduled to finish, what is the protocol? What pillar of research ethics sets the parameters for this situation?

The trial *must be stopped* because providing an inferior treatment is a net harm. *beneficence* ￫ remember, intent must always be a *net positive change* for both the study population and general population Explanation: Once a certain threshold of evidence is passed, there is no longer genuine uncertainty about the most beneficial treatment, so there is an ethical imperative for the investigator to provide the superior intervention to all participants

Assume the likelihood of having a male child is equal to the likelihood of having a female child. In a series of ten live births, the probability of having at least one boy is equal to:

Think of it as "not having all girls". You can't have at least one boy and have all girls at the same time (the two are *mutually exclusive*): P(having all girls): (0.5)¹⁰ P(having at least one boy): 1 - (0.5)¹⁰ 1 - (0.5)¹⁰ = 99.9%

How did Carl Jung build upon the idea of *libido*?

Thought libido was psychic energy *in general*, not just psychic energy rooted in sexuality

True or False: The inferior colliculus in the midbrain would control a reflex reaction to an auditory stimuli such as a siren or a loud explosion. True False

True

True or False: In a *normal distribution* all measures of central tendency are the same.

True they are all at the center of the distribution

What is the difference between *type* theorists and *trait* theorists?

Type ￫ create a taxonomy of personality types (views people as *discrete* categories) Trait ￫ describe individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors (variation in personality occurs along a *continuum*)

All catecholamines are synthesized from?

Tyrosine

What is the best method of teaching in the *preoperational* stage of cognitive development?

Using *action* and *verbal instruction* - Visual aids - Short instructions - Hands-on activities Explanation: child cannot yet think through processes and are still egocentric

How are *outliers* determined in terms of interquartile range?

Using the interquartile range, Q₃-Q₁. Values that are 1.5 × IQR below Q₁ or above Q₃ are considered outliers. See picture for an example with a box plot.

quartiles

Values that divide a data set into four equal parts: ① Those that lie below Q₁ ② Those between Q₁ and Q₂ (median) ③ Those between Q₂ and Q₃ ④ Those that lie above Q₃ only ② and ③ are considered within the *interquartile range*

Compare Piaget's and Vygoysky's theories of education.

Vygotsky: "students learn through social interactions and their culture" Piaget: "children act on their environment to learn."

synaptic pruning

Weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information

What are the 4 possible outcomes to a signal detection experiment?

When asked whether or not the stimulus was given: ① Hits ￫ ② Misses ￫ ③ False alarms ￫ ④ Correct negatives ￫

With what hypothesis could this phrase be matched: "the limit of my language is the limit of my world"

Whorfian hypothesis

Who is known as the father of American psychology?

William James *functionalism* ⟶ studied how mind adapted to environment

Who developed the neuropsychological theory of *functionalism*?

William James & John Dewey

Which psychologist proposed that personality types were based on body *type* (somatotypes)?

William Sheldon hence, he's a *type theorist*

In a certain population, 10% of the population has diabetes and 30% is obese. If 7% of the population has both diabetes and obesity, are these events independent? If one chose an individual at random from this population, what would be the probability of that patient having at least one of the two conditions?

With the #s given, the events cannot be independent: P(A) × P(B) 0.1 × 0.3 = 0.03 and instead, we are told the population has a 7% probability (0.07) of having both, so clearly there is some degree of dependency b/w the two events So we use the formula for *at least one* occurring: P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B) 0.1 + 0.3 - 0.07 = 0.33 or 33%

If someone suffered from damage to the hippocampus, would they still likely remember their name?

Yes Explanation: extremely fundamental LTM move from the hippocampus to the cerebral cortex

According to Erikson, if one does not master one of the stages of *psychosocial* development, can she move on to the next stage?

Yes Explanation: it's possible to fail at resolving the conflict central to that stage and still move on Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, *can be resolved successfully at a later time*.

What is *functional autonomy*?

a behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior ex: A hunter who was originally starving continues to hunt even after he has had enough to eat, now only because he enjoys it

otolith

a calcium particle in the vestibule of the inner ear as the body accelerates, these crystals resist that motion, which bends & stimulates the underlying hair cells, which will send the signal to the brain

narcotics

a class of opium-related drugs that suppress the sensation of pain by binding to and stimulating the nervous system's natural receptor sites for endorphins technically opioids fall under the term "narcotic", but this term has been criticized and is now less commonly used

When a study has *power*...

a difference b/w the populations truly exists and they correctly rejected the null hypothesis

algorithm

a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem *automatically* can be mathematical or a set of instructions

hypnogram

a graph that represents the stages of sleep as a function of time

fetal alcohol syndrome

a medical condition in which body deformation or facial development or mental ability of a fetus is impaired because the mother drank alcohol while pregnant

partial-report procedures

a method of studying *sensory* (specifically, *iconic*) memory where an Individual is asked to recall a specific portion of the stimulus Incredibly accurate, *but only for a very brief time*

semantic memory

a network of associated *facts* and concepts that make up our *general knowledge* of the world part of *long-term* memory

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Define the term *complex* as coined by Carl Jung

a personal & usually unconscious, repressed, yet highly influential symbolic material that is incompatible with the consciousness thought to operate "autonomously and interfere with the intentions of the will, disturbing the memory and conscious performance"

According to George Kelly, what is the goal of psychotherapy?

a process of *insight* individual acquires *new constructs* that will allow him to succesfully *predict* troublesome events, then... *integrate* these new constructs into already-existing ones

What is *Stockholm syndrome*?

a psychological phenomenon in which hostages express empathy and sympathy and have positive feelings toward their captors, sometimes to the point of defending and identifying with the captors

state-dependent memory

a retrieval cue by which memory is aided when a person is in the same state of emotion or intoxication as when encoding took place

interference

a retrieval error caused by the existence of other (usually similar) information

Treisman's Attenuation Model

a revision of Broadbent's filter model. retains both the idea of an early selection process, as well as the mechanism by which physical cues are used as the primary point of discrimination. instead of a filter which *barred* unattended inputs from ever entering awareness, it was a process of attenuation Attenuating filter "turns down" volume of unattended message, but it still enters working memory attenuation and then subsequent stimuli processing is *dictated by the current demands on the processing system* (often, we don't have enough resources for full processing) Accounts for cocktail party effect

What is the *Thematic apperception test*?

a series of pictures are presented to the client, who then makes up a story about each one The story reveals the clients *unconscious* thoughts and feelings. Similar to a Rorschach inkblot test

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by *high arousal* and an appearance of being terrified ✴︎ unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are *seldom remembered*

whole-report procedure

a task that requires observers to report everything they see in a display of items participant usually fails, but with *partial-report* (ex: asking them to recall only 1 row) is almost 100% accurate (only for a short short time though)

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past ❗️can negatively impact problem solving

Self-determination theory

a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation

continuous reinforcement

a type of *fixed ratio* schedule where behavior is rewarded *every time* it is performed

flashbulb memory

a type of explicit memory where a very clear recollection of an emotionally significant moment or event is formed an example of co-occurrence of semantic and episodic memory

What is a *PET* scan?

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

What is *validity* in the context of research?

a/k/a *accuracy*, is the ability of an instrument to measure a true value. Mnemonic: V-AC

What is *precision* in the context of research?

a/k/a *reliability* is the ability of the instrument to read consistently, or within a narrow range. Mnemonic: PRE

What is *parallel processing*?

ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion.

parasomnias

abnormal *movements* or *behaviors*

softening (stress coping)

accepting negative emotions this is positive (*adaptive coping*)

Changing the shape of the lens is known as ___________.

accommodation

Nicotine mimics the action of which neurotransmitter?

acetylcholine

Which of the following neurotransmitters is NOT classified as a catecholamine? A. Epinephrine B. Norepinephrine C. Dopamine D. Acetylcholine

acetylcholine

______________ is the neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses in the body.

acetylcholine

What neurotransmitters work in both the PNS *and* CNS

acetylcholine only

Heroin MOA↑

act upon opioid receptor sites & trigger NT release mimics endorphins to ↑ dopamine reward system causes production of morphine, which is a depressant and painkiller inhibits GABA activity (which normally acts to inhibit dopamine, hence the ↑ dopamine)

parallel play

action in which children play with similar toys, in a similar manner, but do not interact with each other

The _____________ states that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry.

activation synthesis theory

base rate information vs. diagnostic information

actual data, although generic/general vs. specific, pertaining only to a certain case When presented with both, we tend to ignore the *base rate* and consider only the *diagnostic* 📸 See how in example you are ignoring the actual *mathematical probability* and focusing on his specific character attributes. The witness would not likely say he's a lawyer even though there's a 70% chance that's the case, they would probably say he's an engineer because he likes puzzles.

____________ is the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species, thus leading to adaptation through natural selection.

adaptive value

In probability, when using the word "or"... Worded another way: The probability of *at least one* of two events occurring is found by...

add the probabilities and subtract the probability of both happening together

According to Kohlberg, when does the *conventional* stage usually arise?

adolescence, as they start to see themselves in terms of their relationships to others. In order to have these relationships, they have to understand and accept social rules.

idealism (development)

adolescents often think about what is possible. They think about ideal characteristics about themselves, others, and the world (Piaget)

What are some examples of sound *morally relevant differences*? What differences should *not* be considered morally relevant?

age, population size, likelihood of benefit *are* race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and financial status are *not* religion is an iffy one, it could go either way depending on the context

If imbalanced in the *yellow bile* humor, what type of personality would result according to the ancient Greeks?

aggressive & dominant Mnemonic: element is fire, so easy

The *blood* humor was associated with what element?

air Mnemonic: helps me to remember that the imbalance is impulsive & *charismatic* (asthmatics need air)

The neural tube has two plates, with each one differentiating into either sensory and motor neurons. Which is which?

alar plate ￫ sensory neurons basal plate ￫ motor neurons

What is the only major drug of abuse in which both overdose and withdrawal can be lethal?

alcohol

Types of depressants

alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines

A doctor uses a flow chart to treat a patient with sepsis. Given its use in problem-solving, a flowchart is an example of a(n):

algorithm

According to Horney, healthy people use which of the 3 strategies to achieve security?

all 3, depending on the situation

In studies in which there is no perceived difference in the likelihood of benefit between individuals, how should the burden of risk be distributed?

all individuals should equally share the burden of risk

aversive control

also classified as *negative reinforcers* operant conditioning technique where a behavior is *motivated* by the threat of something unpleasant

List the steps of the scientific method.

also last step is to *verify* results under new conditions

Which cells in the eye are important for edge detection?

amacrine & horizontal cells, as they ↑ our perception of *contrasts* Explanation: they receive input from multiple retinal cells before passing info on to ganglion cells, so they can accentuate slight differences b/w the visual information in each *bipolar* cell

Expectancy-value theory of motivation

amount of motivation for a task is based on individual's *expectation* of success and how much that success is valued

MDMA (ecstasy) acts like a hallucinogen combined with a ______________.

amphetamine Mechanism resembles amphetamines Classified as a hallucinogen because this effect is also observed

Types of stimulants

amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine, ecstasy

The _____________ controls fear and aggression.

amygdala

What brain region plays a large role in human emotion through interpretation of facial expressions?

amygdala

Which brain structure helps interpret facial expressions?

amygdala

Which portion of the limbic system is part of the intrinsic memory system for emotional memory?

amygdala

The implicit memory system is controlled by the ____________.

amygdala = unconscious, *emotional memory*; determines the expression of past emotions

Lesions to the ___________ result in docility and hypersexual states.

amygdala Explanation: it promotes fear & aggression, so when it's damaged, people are super lovey-dovey

hubris syndrome

an acquired personality change in people in positions of power

Korsakoff's syndrome

an alcohol related disorder due to B₁ deficiency marked by extreme confusion, memory impairment, confabulation memory loss by both retrograde and anterograde amnesia

What is an erogenous zone?

an area of the human body that has heightened sensitivity, the stimulation of which may generate a sexual response (Freud)

eidetic memory

an extreme example of iconic memory where recall ability has high precision, enduring for a few minutes similar to photographic memory, but shorter-lasting seen in children

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

Define *inferiority complex*.

an individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially

During the resistance stage of GAS, the body favors ____________ processes.

anabolic ⟶ body has increased capacity to respond to the stressor This is when the body attempts to repair the damage from the stress/workout through an *insulin* response. Stress hormone levels will return to normal ​but *only if given enough time to do so*. If another stressor returns before the body has completely recovered, the athlete will experience another alarm reaction, pushing him or her deeper into a catabolic state exhaustion will be next!

What is the second stage of Freud's psychosocial development?

anal

Diastolic blood pressure is increased to the greatest degree by what emotion?

anger followed by fear, sadness, and happiness

limina

another name for thresholds

What portion of the hypothalamus controls sexual behavior?

anterior Mnemonic: When the *A*nterior hypothalamus is destroyed, one is *A*sexual

Which part of the pituitary gland is *not* physically connected to the hypothalamus?

anterior therefore, the hypothalamus regulates it thru the bloodstream via *hypophyseal portal system*

_______________ amnesia is when you can't establish new long-term memories.

anterograde they *can* remember events before brain injury

High levels of norepinephrine are associated with what disease?

anxiety and mania

_____________ is a deficit of language production or comprehension.

aphasia

Describe what is meant by *mutually exclusive*

applies to *outcomes*, not events it means that these types of outcomes cannot occur at the same time Ex: cannot flip both heads and tails in one throw

Describe what the *justice* pillar of research ethics encompasses.

applies to the selection of a research topic, selection of subjects, and the execution of the research - considers *morally relevant differences*, which if present b/w 2 people serve as appropriate reasons to treat the two individuals differently Ex: age ￫ giving a young child a transplant vs. an elderly person - if study is risky, it must be fairly distributed so as not to unduly harm any one group, unless that group would receive the most benefit (in which case it *is* just to let them assume greater risk) - there are cases where a group of healthy individuals are needed as controls, in which case this secondary group also must assume risk (as long as there is *informed consent* and *respect for persons* being maintained)

Drive reduction theory

approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal

What brain structure connects Broca's and Wernicke's area?

arcuate fasciculus

What is an *association area*? Give an example

area that integrates input from diverse brain regions Ex: prefrontal cortex Example activity: solving a puzzle, planning for the future, making a tough decision

What are *projection areas*? Give an example.

area that perform more rudimentary/simple perceptual and motor tasks. Ex: visual cortex; motor cortex

What is the function of the *reticular formation*?

arousal and alertness (hindbrain)

According to Piaget, when does accommodation occur?

as a result of *disequilibrium*

What was Kohlberg's view of moral reasoning?

as our *cognitive* abilities grow, we can think about the world in more complex and nuanced ways, which directly affects how we resolve moral dilemmas and perceive right & wrong. ✴︎ based on responses of subjects to *hypothetical moral dilemmas*, e.g. "Heinz dilemma"

signal detection theory

assesses changes in perception of the same stimuli depending on both internal (psychological) and external (environmental) context ex: answering to your name being called in a crowd depends on *size*; *expectations* of being called; *social factors* (makeup of crowd, your comfort there); *personality* of the person (extrovert = more likely to respond

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

assessment that measures the amount of stress in a person's life over a one-year period resulting from major life events measured in *"life change units"*

semantic networks

associations of similar concepts in the mind to aid their retrieval

What do all *psychoanalytic* theories of personality have in common?

assumption of *unconscious internal states* that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality Proponenets: Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney

According to Freud, when is *libido* present in an individual?

at birth

What is the only time that Weber's Law is not accurate?

at extremely high and low ends of each range

When can the misinformation effect be seen?

at the point of encoding and during recall

_____________ refers to concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment.

attention

dorsal prefrontal cortex

attention and cognition

Divided attention uses ____________ to pay attention to multiple activities at one time.

automatic processing whereas new or complex tasks require *undivided attention* and use *controlled* processing

How are most day-to-day activities processed?

automatically

____________ is a type of negative reinforcement in which a behavior is increased to prevent an unpleasant future consequence.

avoidance learning Ex: right now you are studying for the MCAT to *avoid* an unpleasant score

What is the unfavorable outcome of not having passed the *intimacy vs. isolation* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

avoidance of commitment, alienation, distancing oneself from others & one's dreams. If relationships are made, they are only *superficial*

Barbiturates vs. Benzos

barbiturates historically prescribed to ↓ anxiety, but benzos have mostly replaced them bc they have less side effects: Benzos do not suppress REM sleep to same extent; do not include liver microsomal enzyme activity, therefore they are safe to administer to patients who are taking meds that are metabolized by this enzyme system ⁂ *both* are still highly addictive ❗️contraindicated with alcohol use!

Malfunctions in what brain structure have been shown to be an underlying cause of Parkinson's disease?

basal ganglia

nocturnal enuresis

bed wetting

When does the *Moro reflex* disappear?

begins to disappear ~ 2 months

Dementia progression

begins with impaired memory later impaired judgement and confusion also common is personality changes

What is *bottom-up* processing?

begins with smaller pieces/details that are used to build a larger concept *data-driven* stimulus *before* perception most often in context where you don't know much about something to begin with

Classify B.F. Skinner in one word.

behaviorist

A patient in a mental health facility believes that the sky is pink. Despite several trips outside, the patient still declares the sky is pink. Which psychological principle does this represent?

belief perserverance

The hypothalamus is located ___________ the thalamus.

below

waves during REM

beta resemble awake

What waves predominate during *alertness*on an EEG?

beta and alpha

Critical period for language

between 2 years and puberty

For hearing children, babbling reaches its highest frequency...

between 9-12 months

Data that is off in a *systematic* way (reads at a value that is not the true value) will cause what overall error?

bias

performance bias

bias that occurs due to systematic differences in care between treatment groups or in exposure to factors other than the intervention being studied.

How are the *biological* and *trait* theories of personality closely linked?

biological theorists state that many *traits* can be shown to result from genes or differences in brain anatomy

What is the unfavorable outcome of not having passed the *integrity vs. despair* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

bitter about one's life, worthless, and *fear* of death

Primary drives are related to ____________.

bodily processes

When are memories highly subject to influence by outside information and mood?

both at time of *encoding* and at *recall*

What is a *log-log graph*?

both axes use a constant ratio from point to point on the axis. again, the line can be of any type, so look at the *axes*

Heroin vs. codeine

both related to morphine heroin > potent different metabolisms (brain vs. liver)

Where are interneurons primarily located?

brain and spinal cord

central sleep apnea

brain fails to send signal to the diaphragm to breathe

Breeding dogs for specific behavioral traits differs from conditioning a dog for certain traits in that: breeding produces innate behaviors while conditioning produced learned behaviors. breeding produces learned behaviors while conditioning produces innate behaviors. breeding and conditioning both produce innate behavior. breeding and conditioning both produce learned behavior.

breeding produces innate behaviors while conditioning produced learned behaviors.

Dyssomnias

broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep.

morphology

building blocks of words Ex: rules for pluralization, past tense, etc.

According to Erikson, how can one successfully resolve each of the crises accompanying the stages of psychosocial development?

by answering an *essential existential question*

According to Freud, how do we *access* the id, ego, and superego?

by entering one of three categories: *conscious* *preconscious* ￫ aren't currently aware of *unconscious* ￫ repressed thoughts

How is the strength of a synapse measured?

by how much the *post*synaptic neuron's potential changes as a result of *pre*synaptic stimulation

How is interference classified?

by its direction: ① proactive ￫ old info interferes with new learning. It's like the mind is at capacity ② retroactive ￫ new info causes forgetting of old info; essentially pushes it out

How may opiates and opioids cause death?

by respiratory depression

Exhaustion stage of GAS

can no longer maintain elevated sympathetic activity more susceptible to illness, medical conditions, organs systems deteriorate, death

Through where does the *aqueous humor* drain?

canal of Schlemm

What is an *idiographic approach*?

case-study approach to assessing *traits* that determine personality *IOW* one-on-one

Charts frequently depict __________ data.

categorical ex: state of residence, SES, etc.

What are *cross-sectional* observational studies?

categorize patients in different groups *at a single point in time* Ex: Study to determine prevalence of liver cancer in drinkers and nondrinkers at a given point in time

Piaget's Pendulum Experiment

categorized concrete operational and formal operational What determines the frequency of the swing? concrete: manipulated all variables at random and distorted data to fit preconceived hypotheses formal: held all variables but one constant, methodical, were able to discover length only affects frequency

How does *GABA* exert its effects?

causes *hyperpolarization* of the postsynaptic membrane (making it *more* negative) So either Cl⁻ moves in (influx) or K⁺ moves out (efflux) at this point, *depolarization* is disabled, so no action potential can be conducted

The __________ region of the parietal lobe is associated with spatial processing and manipulation.

central allows for 3-D orientation of oneself and objects

The hippocampus is involved in forming long-term memories and can redistribute remote memories to the _________________.

cerebral cortex

emotionally-focused strategies for stress management

changing one's feelings about a stressor ￫ take responsibility ￫ self-control ￫ distancing yourself from it ￫ wishful thinking ￫ positive reappraisal to focus on + outcomes instead of the stressor

nonfluent aphasia

characterized by slow, labored speech and struggle to retrieve words and form sentences damage to *Broca's area*

monoamines

chemicals formed by a change in certain amino acids dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin

errors of growth

child applies a grammatical rule (often morpheme) in a situation *where it does not apply* Ex: "runned" ages 2-3

What is the unfavorable outcome of not having passed the *trust vs. mistrust* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

child will become suspicious of the world

What groups of people fall under the category of *vulnerable persons*?

children, pregnant women, prisoners

The iris and ciliary body are continuous with the ___________.

choroid

What structure of the eye produces *aqueous humor*?

ciliary body

The sensorimotor stage focuses on manipulating the environment to meet physical needs through ____________.

circular reactions (repetitive) 2 types ① Primary ② Secondary

Primary appraisal of stress

classifying a potential stressor as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions and inability to reject a belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

Which part of them inner ear actually detects sound?

cochlea

What is unique about the two-factor (Schachter-Singer) theory of emotion?

cognitive *appraisal* - must consciously analyze the environment in relation to the nervous system arousal explains why someone who experiences drug side effects with no warning that they'd been given the drug and is around people who are screaming and crying will experience higher levels of fear and anxiety than someone who is told they might experience some minor side effects around the same wild crowd.

A *longitudinal study* is what type of observational study?

cohort Explanation: follows the same subjects over time, looking for outcomes

How might a child express his when sublimating his libidinal energy according to Freud?

collecting objects or focusing on schoolwork

Archetypes fall under which part of Jung's structure of the human psyche?

collective unconscious

How does the *prefrontal cortex* function in attention and alertness?

communicates with the *reticular formation* in the brainstem, telling the person to either wake up or relax

When are *box plots* useful?

comparing data because they contain a large amount of data in a small amount of space, and multiple plots can be oriented on a single axis

What role does the *dominant* hemisphere play in movement?

complex voluntary movement

According to Jung, what are the source of all human emotions?

complexes

What is *CT*?

computed tomography Process: multiple x-rays taken at different angles and processed by a computer to cross-sectional slice images of the tissue

_____________ refer to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait.

concordance rates

*Classification* develops in what stage of cognitive development?

concrete operational

*Seriation* develops in what stage of cognitive development?

concrete operational

How did Kohlberg organize his stages of *moral development*?

concrete ⟶⟶⟶⟶ abstract 3 stages, each divided into 2 (6 total)

The retina contains mostly ______________ in the macula.

cones

_____________ is when a person only seeks information that reinforces her opinion.

confirmation bias

Why is the term "confounding bias" or "omitted variable bias" inaccurate?

confounding *must* occur during data analysis, whereas bias is systematic and occurs *before* data analysis

What is the unfavorable outcome of not having passed the *identity vs. role confusion* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

confusion about one's identity and *amorphous* personality that shifts from day to day. May even form a negative identity, e.g. "druggies"

source-monitoring error

confusion between semantic and episodic memory: remembers details of an event, but *confuses the context* under which those details were gained. Ex: Reagan gave a speech about a heroic WWII pilot. Later we found out that the person did exist - BUT IN A MOVIE

anencephaly

congenital deformity in which some or all of fetal brain is missing

Comas result from brain injury to what area?

connection between prefrontal cortex and reticular formation

ventral prefrontal cortex

connects with regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotion

For humanists, our personality is the result of what?

conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals

What is the main role of the parasympathetic nervous system?

conserve energy

Dreaming in SWS focuses on what?

consolidating *declarative* memories (type of explicit memory) i.e. facts, events, stuff we're *conscious* of includes: a.) episodic b.) semantic

Dreaming in REM focuses on what?

consolidating *procedural* memories (type of implicit memory) i.e. knowing how to do things, motor skills, stuff that's *unconscious*

Categorical perception is an auditory example of _____________.

constancy Explanation: identification of something as constant despite subtle changes. Just because people pronounce things differently, it's still the same word

_____________ refers to the idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same, despite differences in the environment.

constancy ex: we perceive a white piece of paper as the same color whether it is illuminated by fluorescent lights, incandescent bulbs, or sunlight (color constancy) Also constancy for *brightness, shape, and size*

What is the third stage of Kohlberg's moral development?

conventional - *conformity* concerned with: *approval from others* ("good girl, nice boy") Mnemonic: *conv*ict named "Norm" (con*form*) was never told he was a "nice boy" growing up.

What is the fourth stage of Kohlberg's moral development?

conventional - *law and order* concerned with: *social order* - "If everyone littered, the world would be disgusting!" Mnemonic: "Norm" the *conv*ict has to go before the judge after breaking the *law* for littering.

How do motor skills tend to develop in infants?

core ⟶ periphery

What is an *r value*?

correlation coefficient, ranges from -1 to 1 the closer it is 1 or -1, the more the variables are related (tighter the data points are grouped)

The adrenal ____________ produces both estrogen and testosterone in both sexes.

cortex

Electrical stimulation involves neurosurgeons to create _____________.

cortical maps

What are some examples of *beneficence* in the context of research ethics?

could be intangible, like a feeling of personal satisfaction from the subject could be unrelated, such as small financial incentives could be of future benefit As long as it is a net positive change for both populations, it falls under this pillar

How do *hair cells* in the ear function?

covered in *stereocilia* As vibrations reach the basilar membrane of the organ of Corti, the stereocilia sway back and forth with the endolymph, causing the opening of ion channels ⟶ receptor potential ✷ the *outer hair cells* are also directly connected to the immobile *tectorial membrane*; these cells are involved in *amplifying* incoming sound

confabulation

creating vivid but fabricated memories, thought to be an attempt by brain to fill in gaps of missing memories

The ______________ is the sensory organ of rotation

crista ampullaris The crista ampullaris itself is a cone-shaped structure, covered in receptor cells called "hair cells". Covering the crista ampullaris is a gelatinous mass called the *cupula*. Upon angular acceleration (rotation), the endolymph within the semicircular duct deflects the cupula against the hair cells of the crista ampullaris. The hair cells respond by stimulating neurons that innervate them

Lev Vygotsky categorized development based on...?

culture (and biosocial) But remember, like Kohlberg, he assessed *cognitive* development

sleep pattern later in the night

cycle shortens, less time in SWS and more in REM Mnemonic: *BAT-D* beta-alpha-theta-delta: *BAT*s sleep during the *D*ay

*Confounding* arises from what type of error?

data *analysis* Explanation: it can arise *after* data collection (measurement) when the collected data is being interpreted.

How does the phallicly-fixated male child successfully resolve the Oedipal conflict?

deals with his guilty feelings of wanting to get rid of the father by *identifying with his father*, establishing his sexual identity, and internalizing moral values Also *de-eroticizes* (sublimates) libidinal energy

Overdose by opioids/opiates

death by respiratory supression bc *brain stops sending signals to breathe*

ventromedial prefrontal cortex

decision making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala

situational modification

decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (Information processing model)

_____________ heart rate *variability* is associated with stress, frustration, and anger.

decreased

cos _______________ going from 0° to 90°

decreases

Punishment ______________ the likelihood of a behavior.

decreases ❗️doesn't matter if it's "positive" or "negative".

A ________________ is a solution that *must* be true based on the information given.

deduction

__________ refers to drawing conclusions by integrating different pieces of evidence.

deductive reasoning

sleep pattern early in the night

deepening ⟶ lightening ⟶ REM 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM cycle shortens later in the night, with less time spent in SWS Mnemonic: *BAT-D* beta-alpha-theta-delta: *BAT*s sleep during the *D*ay

Alzheimer's disease

degenerative, irreversible, loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to hippocampus causes not well understood marked by progressive *dementia* and memory loss, + atrophy of brain *neurofibrillary tangles* and *β-amyloid plaques*

An elderly man is taken to his doctor by his daughter. His daughter says that during the past two days, he has been speaking to his wife who has been deceased for four years. Prior to that, he was completely normal. The elderly man most likely has...

delirium Explanation: too rapid to be dementia

waves during slow-wave sleep

delta (includes stage 3 & 4) low frequency, high voltage

What is the *dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia*?

delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either *too much* or *oversensitivity* to dopamine in the brain ❗️it's an incomplete theory with respect to the entire disease picture

Duncker's candle problem

demonstrates that problem-solving can be impeded by an inappropriate mental set and/or functional fixedness: - given a box of matches, tacks, and candle -asked to mount the candle on wall so that no wax drops on floor -people don't realize that the box of matches not only holds matches, but could also be used as a container for the candle

______________ is used for a psychological defense mechanism in which a person is faced with a fact that is too uncomfortable to accept and rejects it instead, insisting that it is not true despite what may be overwhelming evidence

denial

Low levels of norepinephrine are associated with what disease?

depression

Too little serotonin can cause...

depression

If imbalanced in the *black bile* humor, what type of personality would result according to the ancient Greeks?

depressive & cautious Mnemonic: wear black when depressed, and you're cautious of other people hurting you

deductive reasoning

deriving conclusions from general rules top-down processing general ⟶ specific

inductive reasoning

deriving generalizations from evidence bottom-up processing specific ⟶ general

How did Erikson define "wisdom"?

detached concern with life itself, with assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance of the fact that one's life has been worthwhile, along with a readiness to face death

What effect did *extirpation* have on modern neuroscience?

determined that the brain had specific parts for specific functions

When are *histograms* useful?

determining the *mode* bc they utilize numerical data and display them in a distribution vs. discrete categories.

What marks the end of the sensorimotor stage?

development of *object permanence*

In what part of the forebrain is the hypothalamus found?

diencephalon

In what part of the forebrain is the posterior pituitary found?

diencephalon

In what part of the forebrain is the thalamus found?

diencephalon

What part of the embryonic forebrain houses the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, and the pineal gland?

diencephalon

In what part of the forebrain is the pineal gland found?

diencephalon Below hypothalamus

antisocial personality disorder effect on cognition

difficult for child to appreciate the rights of others *strong genetic component* - biochemical disturbances, reduced gray matter, right hemisphere abnormalities also environmental causes: abusive parenting styles, emotional deprivation, harsh and inconsistent discipline, antisocial parental behavior

instinctive drift (learning)

difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors in trying to establish a new behavior Ex: trying to get raccoons to place coins in a piggy bank ￫ they wanted to store them how they would store food (rub seeds together and wash them in a stream to clean them before eating). Researchers had better luck training them to place a ball in a hoop because the ball was too large to trigger the food-washing instinct

Which two muscles open and close the pupil?

dilator and constrictor pupillae they are within the *iris*

Who was Sir Charles Sherrington and how did he contribute to modern science?

discovered synapses most of his conclusions were right on!

Which of Freud's defense mechanisms describes the transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another?

displacement Ex: Lady angry at her boss may hold her tongue at work but snap at her husband when she gets home

Which approach states that behavior is primarily determined by an individual's personality?

dispositional approach

What type of stimulus is a campfire?

distal stimulus originates *outside* the body

How do you mathematically find the just-noticeable difference?

divide the *actual difference* in the two stimuli by the *original value* Ex: A weight lifter is just able to tell the difference between 100 and 125 pounds. What is the jnd? 25/100 = 0.25 = 25% Ex #2: A weight lifter is just able to tell the difference between 25 and 35 pounds. What is the jnd? 10/25 = 0.4 = 40%

Limitations to automatic processing

does not allow for innovation or rapid response to change i.e. car accidents due to distracted driving

Why is *range* heavily affected by outliers?

does not consider # of items of the data set, nor does it consider the placement of any measures of central tendency It's just: xmax - xmin

What is a weakness to the *Working Memory Model*?

does not explain changes in processing ability that occur as the result of practice or time.

Weakness of behaviorist theory of language acquisition

does not explain explosion in vocabulary that occurs during early childhood

Speech areas in the brain are found in the ____________ hemisphere.

dominant (left)

_____________ is a catecholamine that plays an important role in movement and posture.

dopamine hence, big concentration of it in basal ganglia

Stimulants increase levels of what neurotransmitters at the synaptic cleft?

dopamine norepinephrine serotonin

MDMA (ecstasy) enhances the action of which neurotransmitter?

dopamine and 5-HT (serotonin)

neural crest cells give rise to

dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes, calcitonin-producing cells of thyroid

What is the unfavorable outcome of not having passed the *autonomy vs. shame and doubt* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

doubt & persistent *external* locus of control

_______________ are internal states of tension that beget particular behaviors focused on goals.

drives

barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment ex: amobarbital, phenobarbital

What theory of cognitive processing can be equated to a search engine optimization within a computer program?

dual-coding theory images and verbal associations

What are the layers of the meninges?

dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

When does the nervous system start to develop?

during neurulation, 3-4 weeks gestational age

Describe Horney's concept of *neurotic needs*.

each are directed toward making life and interactions *bearable* Ex: need for affection/approval, need to exploit others, need for self-sufficiency/independence

REM rebound

earlier onset & greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal caused by sleep deprivation (repeated awakenings that disturb REM sleep)

Fluid intelligence peaks in _________.

early adulthood declines with age

Broadbent's Filter Model

early selection process physical cues used as primary point of discrimination goes through a *filter* that blocks unattended stimuli completely higher level of processing occurs post-filter

late selection vs early selection theories of attention

early: filter or attenuation happened *before* semantic analysis late: semantic analysis, *then* filter before response, but all stimuli perceived

The *black bile* humor was associated with what element?

earth Mnemonic: soil = black

This drug increases heart rate and blood pressure, causes blurry vision, sweating, nausea, and hyperthemia, feelings of euphoria, increased alertness, and an overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness.

ecstasy (MDMA)

Neurulation occurs when the notochord causes differentiation of overlying ____________ into the neural tube and neural crest cells.

ectoderm

What is *detection bias*?

educated professionals using their knowledge in an *inconsistent* way Ex: A physician screens obese patients for hypertension and diabetes at a higher rate than healthy-weight patients, *inflating the true value of the secondary measurement)

Which part of the brain is responsible for moderating the desires of the *superego*?

ego

Long-term memory requires what?

elaborative rehearsal

What method is used to study electrical activity generated by *larger* groups of neurons?

electroencephalogram (EEG) ⟶ placing several electrodes on the scalp ✴︎also used to study sleep, seizures, and brain lesions

law of *proximity*

elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit

law of *good continuation*

elements that appear to follow the same pathway tend to be grouped together

All catecholamines pay important roles in...?

emotion

What role does the *nondominant* hemisphere play in language?

emotions

short-term memory

emphasis on quantitative stuff

Neurocognitive theory of dreaming

emphasizes the *continuity* of waking and dreaming cognition, and states that dreaming is like "thinking under conditions of reduced sensory input and the absence of voluntary control." *dreams = thinking under special conditions* they sort and store daily experiences aims to unify cognitive and biological (Domhoff)

Merkel cells (discs)

epidermis - dermis junction somatosensory cells that respond to *DEEP PRESSURE* and *TEXTURE SENSATIONS*

Which adrenal medulla chemical acts as a hormone?

epinephrine

When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to be in a state of _____________.

equilibrium i.e. a state of cognitive (mental) balance.

In studies comparing two potential treatment options, one cannot approach the research with the knowledge that one treatment is superior to the other. When the investigator upholds this standard, he/she is practicing...

equipoise Explanation: investigator is upheld to a standard that states he/she must provide the *best known* treatment to all participants. It is usually the case in embarking on a study that *we don't know* which treatment is better. That's the reason for the study in the first place and in this case it's ethical assign different treatment options in order to figure out which is superior

What is *confounding*?

error in which an association is drawn between two variables because of a shared (omitted) connection to a third variable.

dunning-kruger vs. imposter syndrome

essentially opposites of each other D-K: dumb think they are smart Imposter: smart think they just got lucky

Describe the process of *confidence intervals*.

essentially the reverse of hypothesis testing by determining a range of values from the sample mean and SD. ① Find the mean ② Find the SD ③ Begin with a desired confidence level (95% is standard) and *use a table* (meaning it would be given on TEST DAY) to find its corresponding z- or t-score ④ Multiply z- or t-score by SD, then... A.) add this # to the mean AND B.) subtract this # from the mean thereby establishing a range of values Ex: We want to find the mean age from a sample. ① Let's say we found it to be 30 ② Let's say we found it to be 3 ③ We want 95% confidence interval. ~Look at table provided~ and find the z-score to be 1.96 ② A.) (3)(1.96) + 30 = 35.88 B.) 30 - (3)(1.96) = 24.12 We can then report that we are 95% confident that the true mean age of the population from which this sample is drawn is between 24.12 and 35.88

What connects the middle ear to the nasal cavity?

eustachian tube

Secondary appraisal of stress

evalaution of individual's ability to cope with situation Harm: "What damage has already been caused?" Threat: "How much damage could be caused?" Challenge: "How can the situation be overcome?"

disconfirmation principle

evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work, so you discard it ❗️A *confirmation bias* may prevent you from throwing it out!

An orally-fixated adult would likely exhibit...

excessive dependency

What is the role of *acetylcholine* in the central nervous system?

excitatory ￫ attention & arousal

How does *glutamate* act as a neurotransmitter?

excitatory, so cause *depolarization* (make it more positive) by Ca²⁺ or Na⁺ influx

What is the protocol for dealing with an outlier introduced by *measurement error*?

exclude the data point from the analysis For the other 2 causes of outliers, it's less simple...

recognition-primed decision model

experience and recognition of similar situations one has already experienced play a large role in decision-making and actions also one of the explanations for the experience of *intuition*. brain is sorting through a wide variety of info to match a pattern *without awareness* ex: ER physician has a keen sense pt is having heart attack even w/o EKG or taking vital signs

What can *intuition* often be attributed to?

experience with *similar* situations

Opponent-process theory of motivation

explains motivation for drug use: as drug use ↑, the body counteracts its effects, leading to tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms

What part of our memory stores stories?

explicit memory, specifically *episodic memory*

What part of our memory stores facts?

explicit memory, specifically *semantic memory*

What is the focus of *humanistic psychology*?

exploring how an individual reaches *self-realization*

Language acquisition: 18-20 months

explosion of language and combining words less dependence on context, inflection, and gestures for comprehension "That apple?"

____________ validity is the ability to take the information generated during research and apply it to a larger group.

external validity (a/k/a *generalizability*)

Through what system do the basal ganglia relay information about muscle movement to the brain and spinal cortex?

extrapyramidal motor system

Running a marathon because you want to lose weight is an example of _____________ motivation.

extrinsic Explanation: it is based on a *reward* even though the reward is a personal one

What is the role of the *superior colliculus* in visual processing?

eye movements and gaze

What role does the *nondominant* hemisphere play in vision?

faces

Hans and Sybil Eysenck used ______________ to group behaviors that typically occur together and assigned labels to those groups

factor analysis part of *trait theory*

needs

factors necessary for physiological function or emotional fulfillment

What is a commonly-used task to measure *theory of mind*?

false-belief test ① Show the child a Band-Aid box and ask the child what he/she thinks is inside the box. He or she will likely respond "Band-Aids." ② Open the box and show him/her that there is a toy pig inside, while saying "Let's see....it's really a pig inside!", then close the box. ③ Now, as you are bringing a boy who has been hidden up until now into view, the adults says "Peter has never ever seen inside this Band-Aid box. Now, here comes Peter. So, what does Peter think is in the box? Band-Aids or a pig?" This task measures the child's understanding that *someone may hold a belief about an event or object that does not match what the child knows to be true in reality*. ➷ Children who have developed Theory of Mind will understand that Peter holds a different understanding than them because he did not see in the box. They will respond that Peter thinks Band-Aids are in the box. ❗️Those who have yet to develop theory of mind might respond that Peter thinks there are pigs in the box, mistakenly assuming Peter holds the same belief as they do

Why are *family studies* limited?

families share both genetics and environment, so can't really pin down which is the major cause

The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion discards the need for ___________ in the experience of emotion.

feedback claimed that severing afferent nerves, and thus feedback, would have no effect on experiencing emotion since physical arousal (sympathetic - PNS) and mental emotion (cognitive - amygdala in CNS) occur at the same time. You don't have to wait for the feedback. ❗️this is why the vagus nerve is cited as a criticism, because it represents a feedback system where the CNS depends on a peripheral organ.

Besides color, cones also sense _________ details.

fine

Tracking motion, drawing, catching, and waving are examples of...

fine motor skills

The *yellow bile* humor was associated with what element?

fire Mnemonic: fire is actually yellow

Why would a paralyzed person show decreased level of emotion according to the James-Lange theory?

first event is *physiological arousal*. If the peripheral organ cannot give *feedback* to the CNS, no autonomic response can be launched, and thus no cognitive labeling can occur. ❗️studies have proven this to be false, and thus constitutes a criticism of the theory: patients with spinal cord injury show same level of emotion after injuries as before

Who was Hermann von Helmholtz and how did he contribute to modern science?

first to measure a nerve impulse, paved the way for a transition of psychology into the natural sciences

Almost without exception, children - *including deaf children* - spontaneously begin to babble during ___________.

first year However, for deaf children, it ceases soon after it begins

Which reinforcement schedule is the easiest to extinguish?

fixed-interval

nonsensical aphasia

fluent, but doesn't make any sense damage to *Wernicke's area*

Describe the *force field theory* of personality?

focused on situations in the *present* - *field* = one's current state of mind - *forces* = influences that added together to embody one's current state of mind Theory divided the *forces* into 2 groups: ① Those that *assisted* in attainment of our goals ② Those that *blocked* the path to our goals

How is *behaviorist* personality therapy structured?

focuses on *learning* skills and changing *behaviors* through operant conditiong ex: *token economies* are one such technique

recognition threshold (attenuation model)

for every possible input, an individual has a certain threshold or "amount of activation required" in order to perceive it. The lower this threshold, the more easily and likely an input is to be perceived, even after undergoing attenuation ✴︎ Every word was believed to contain its own threshold that dictated the likelihood that it would be perceived after attenuation

crack

form of cocaine that can be smoked quick and potent ⟶ *highly addictive*

*Idealism* is assumed to be acquired by a person in what stage of cognitive development?

formal operational

The hippocampus communicates with other parts of the limbic system through an extension called the ______________.

fornix

The center of the macula is the ____________, which contains only cones.

fovea

Over time, where do memories move?

from hippocampus ⟶ *cerebral cortex* things like our name, birth dates, parents' faces

Broca's area is in what lobe?

frontal

In what lobe is the *primary motor cortex*?

frontal located on the *precentral gyrus* just in front of the *central sulcus* that divides the frontal and parietal lobes

mirror neurons

frontal and parietal loves neurons fire both when action is performed and *when individual observes someone else performing that action* largely involved in *motor* processes, but also related to empathy & vicarious emotions

A child plays with a tool set, noting that a nail can only be hit with a hammer. When a friend suggests that the handle of a screwdriver can be used to hit a nail, the child passionately objects. This is an example of:

functional fixedness

According to Adler, what is more motivating to an individual - his past experiences or his expectations of the future?

future (*subjective* & fictional) this is his idea of *fictional finalism* or what "who I'd be if everything were perfect."

____________ are collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the CNS.

ganglia

What theory states that pain sensation is reduced when other somatosensory signals are present?

gate theory of pain

What is the *extrapyramidal motor system*?

gathers info about body position and carries it to the CNS, but does *NOT* function directly through motor neurons

What is the fifth stage of Freud's psychosocial development?

genital

What role does the *nondominant* hemisphere play in spatial processing?

geometry, sense of self

What specific receptor has been shown to be directly responsible for the strengthening of synaptic connections?

glutamate receptor called the *NMDA receptor*

The longer amount of time between sessions of relearning, the ___________ the retention of the information later on.

greater (Hermann Ebbinghaus' *spacing effect*)

Sitting, crawling, walking are examples of...

gross motor skills

What are the bumps and folds of the brain called?

gyri and sulci respectively

hypnopompic hallucinations

hallucinations when waking up Mnemonic: *pop*ping out of bed

What are the 7 universal emotions?

happiness sadness contempt surprise fear disgust anger

What role does the hypothalamus have in fluid balance?

has its own *osmoreceptors* that can trigger the release of ADH to ↑ water reabsorption when electrolyte balance is off

What is the limitation to the logical thought that children can employ while in the concrete operational stage?

have to be working with concrete objects or information that is directly available it can't be abstract!

How would someone with the *N-ach* personality trait view low risk situations?

he would *avoid* them because easy tasks will not generate a sense of achievement

How would someone with the *N-ach* personality trait view high risk situations?

he would *avoid* them because they don't like to fail Explanation: they're prideful

How would someone with the *N-ach* personality trait respond is he figured out that success was unlikely?

he would stop striving for it

Gross and fine motor abilities progress from top to bottom or bottom to top?

head to toe!

What sort of help would a *person-centered* therapist be able to offer his client?

helps the client *reflect* on problems, make choices, generate solutions, take positive action, determine their own destiny reconcile the differences b/w the various selves reduce stress-inducing *incongruence* does NOT *give* solutions or diagnoses

Galton's would attribute one's intelligence to...

heredity he coined phrase *nature vs. nurture* (Galton's novel is "Hereditary Genius")

Types of opiates and opioids

heroin morphine opium prescription pain meds (oxycodone, hydrocodone)

Chess players use ___________ to make decisive moves.

heuristics Explanation: looking at every possible move would take way too long. Heuristics help quickly rule out some possible moves

Fibers connected to the base of the cochlea respond best to _______ frequency sound. This is called *tonotopic organization*.

high

Hallucinations may result from ____________ levels of dopamine.

high

Imposter Syndrome

high achiever *underestimates* ability and achievement, despite evidence often experienced by successful minorities ⟶ they feel they have fooled others into thinking that they are deserving of recognition, respect, and acceptance and that their success is due to chance Ex: very common in grad/medical school, especially after graduating (Polzer)

Parvocellular cells have ____________ spatial resolution and ___________ temporal resolution.

high spatial low temporal *better for detecting shape*

According to William Sheldon, all tall people were...

high-strung and aloof

Beta waves have _____ frequency & _____ amplitude

high; low

Alcoholism in low SES

higher rate 👎, but they tend to enter recovery sooner and at higher rates 👍

Who did George Kelly use as a model to theorize about human nature?

himself hence, *personal construct psychology*

A child has experienced nervous system damage and can no longer coordinate the movements to dribble a basketball, although she can walk. Which region of the central nervous system was most likely affected? A. Forebrain B. Midbrain C. Hindbrain D. Spinal cord

hindbrain Explanation: The hindbrain controls balance and motor coordination, which are needed for dribbling. The midbrain manages *sensorimotor reflexes* that also promote survival. The forebrain is associated with emotion, memory, and *higher-order cognition* Spinal cord likely not damaged since child can walk.

The _____________ creates long-term explicit (episodic) memories.

hippocampus

Long-term memory is primarily controlled by the ___________.

hippocampus ❗️but over time memories are moved to the cerebral cortex!

Where is short-term memory primarily housed?

hippocampus (also converts STM ⟶ LTM)

The explicit memory system is controlled by the ____________.

hippocampus (medial temporal lobe) = the *conscious* memory of experiencing the actual emotion (*episodic memories*: memories *about* emotions rather than stored emotions)

What makes up the *limbic system*?

hippocampus, amygdala, septal nuclei

What did Freud contribute to the study of *personality*?

his *structural model* ￫ id, ego, superego

How are Freud's Defense Mechanisms grouped? (Note, there's no clear consensus, just know the most popular and be familiar with all on this chart)

https://ibb.co/gvheJp Note, there's no clear consensus, just know the most popular and be familiar with all on this chart

weakness of information processing theory

human brain handles more than just facts (rational): emotions, sensations, memories (irrational aspects of existence) virtually ignores environmental, cultural, genetic influences on info processing

Activity in the basal ganglia requires consistent communication with each of the following regions EXCEPT the: spinal cord peripheral nervous system hypothalmus cerebral cortex

hypothalamus

The ____________ controls the pineal gland

hypothalamus direct connection to retina, thus ↓ light activates melatonin release

What are *case-control* observational studies?

identify # of subjects with or without a certain outcome, and then look *backwards* to assess how many subjects in each group had exposure to a particular risk factor. Ex: 100 patients with lung cancer and 100 patients without lung cancer are assessed for their smoking histories

What is *phrenology*?

if a certain trait was well-developed, then that part of the brain would enlarge and push out against the skull, creating a *bump* These bumps could be felt to determine psychological strengths and weaknesses

What part of our memory stores conditioning effects?

implicit memory

If imbalanced in the *blood* humor, what type of personality would result according to the ancient Greeks?

impulsive & charismatic Mnemonic: to remember the element: asth*matic*s need air (charis*matic*) Mnemonic: to remember the element: Edward Cullen (vampire = blood) is charismatic and impulsive (jumps off trees)

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response *after association with reinforcement* indicates a reward is potentially available Ex: a dolphin trainer becomes the *discriminative stimulus* that food (primary reinforcer) will soon be available if they hear a clicking sound (secondary/conditioned reinforcer).

When does sleep paralysis usually occur?

in the morning when waking up

conduction aphasia

inability to repeat words with intact spontaneous speech production and comprehension injury to the *arcuate fasciculus*

What is the unfavorable outcome of not having passed the *industry vs. inferiority* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

inadequacy, inability to act in a competent manner, low self-esteem

Role of emotion in decision making

includes emotions experience while decision is being made *AND* emotions one *expects* to feel

β-amyloid plaques

incorrectly folded copies of the *amyloid* precursor protein, where insoluble β-pleated sheets form and then deposit in brain

Hypnotic induction is when the hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and ______________ his level of concentration.

increase

How can one increase the confidence level?

increase the size of the confidence interval to make it more likely that the true value of the mean is within the range. i.e. the confidence interval must get *wider*

Long-term memory is a result of what?

increased neural *connectivity*

sin __________ going from 0° to 90°

increases

Reinforcement ______________ the likelihood of a behavior.

increases ❗️doesn't matter if it's "positive" or "negative".

Cocaine MOA

increases reuptake of monoamines inhibits *Na+/K+ ATPase* that reuptakes NE, so increases levels of NE in your brain also blocks dopamine and serotonin reuptake this blocking results in *potentiation* and prolongation of central & peripheral actions

Reaction time _____________ in early adulthood.

increases steadily

Where are independent vs. dependent variables placed on a graph?

ind ⟶ x-axis dep ⟶ y-axis

According to Jungian psychology, ______________ is a process of psychological integration whereby the personal and collective unconscious are brought into consciousness, active imagination, or free association to be assimilated into the whole personality

individuation

What is the *Moro reflex*?

infant extends the arms, then slowly retracts them and cries in response to a sensation of falling

What is the *rooting reflex*?

infant turns his or her head toward anything that brushes the cheek

What brain structure is at work during reflexive reactions to sudden loud noises?

inferior colliculus

spacing effect

information is retained better if there is a longer period of time between sessions or relearning hence spacing out studying >>>> cramming

What is a parameter?

information that is calculated using *every person in a population*

What is acetylcholine's effect on cardiac muscle cells?

inhibitory

How does *glycine* act as a neurotransmitter?

inhibitory, like GABA, causes *hyperpolarization* by Cl⁻ influx into the neuron acts mostly in *spinal cord* and *brainstem* motor neurons

How did Freud define *instincts*?

innate psychological representation of a *biological* need Two categories ① Life instincts (*Eros*) ￫ quest for survival thru thirst, hunger, sex ② Death instincts (*Thanatos*) ￫ unconscious wish for death and destruction

Types of *dyssomnias*

insomnia narcolepsy sleep apnea sleep deprivation

What are the primary factors that influence emotion?

instincts arousal drives needs

classical conditioning =

instincts and biological responses

_______________ is a defense mechanism where reasoning is used to block confrontation with an unconscious conflict and its associated emotional stress where thinking is used to avoid feeling

intellectualization

____________ validity is the tendency of the same experiment to produce the same results when repeated.

internal Explanation: it identifies causality in a study b/w the independent and dependent variables

What type of validity provides support for causality?

internal validity

state-dependent effect vs. context effect

internal vs. external Ex of *state-dependent*: drunk or manic Ex of *context*: underwater

What are the most numerous types of neurons?

interneurons

Types of motivation

intrinsic extrinsic

What is a *nomothetic approach*?

investigating *traits* that everyone has/shares to some degree to examine personality *traits* are compared across/among people

The ____________ divides the front of the eye into the anterior and posterior chambers.

iris

Barriers to problem solving

irrelevant information *functional fixedness* *mental set* *confirmation bias* and other biases *heuristics* unnecessary constraints intuition (when wrong) emotions

A solid cube of ice is completely submerged in a glass of water, with no ice above the water level. After the ice melts into the liquid phase, the level of water in the glass...

is lower Explanation: Ice = less dense than water, bc molecules spaced farther apart, meaning for the same # of molecules in both phases, the ice is larger. Since it's fully submerged, as it melts, the ice will "shrink" bc the molecules pack together more tightly as liquid. Since there is less volume overall, net level of water will ↓

How does the embryonic midbrain (mesencephalon) further divide?

it doesn't

Describe what the *beneficence* pillar of research ethics encompasses.

it must be our intent to cause a *net positive change* for both the study population and general population - must do our best to minimize potential harms

How can the ego be thought of as the *organizer* of the mind?

it receives its power from - and can never be fully independent - of the *id* It is constantly giving and taking between the id and reality

What is important to remember about *dishabituation*?

it's *temporary* and always refers to changes in response to the *original stimulus*, not the new one

How does the *biological perspective* explain personality?

it's a result of genetic expression in the brain

Based on opponent-process theory, what clinical features would be expected with withdrawal from cocaine use?

it's a stimulant, causing euphoria, restlessness, ↑ HR, temp, and anxiety According to this theory, cocaine withdrawal should be the *opposite*: depressed mood, fatigue, ↓ HR, temp, and apathy

Why is there a dip in the graph for the "alarm" stage of general adapatation syndrom?

it's also called the *compensation* stage, and this trend is due to the onset of shock and your body initially responds to lower the resistance *catabolic stage* ⟶ cortisol and other stress hormones (epi, NE) in layman's terms, this is pretty much the workout... The immediate training effect that leads to the degradation of muscle tissue and energy substrates

What is the physiological reason for the Babinski reflex?

it's normal if it occurs in babies under 1 year and is explained by low myelination of the corticospinal tracts it is pathological in adults, which can be explained by upper motor neuron lesion and diseases that cause demyelination

How is *self-efficacy* different from *self-esteem*?

it's our belief in our *ability to succeed* self-esteem is how we feel about ourselves in general (self-worth)

What is the equation used to find the probability of two or more *independent* events occurring at the same time?

it's the product of their probabilities alone: P (A and B) = P(A) × P (B) ex: the probability of getting heads on a coin flip 2x in a row is: 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.25 since each time the probability is the same (independent events)

How is low *self-efficacy* different from *learned helplessness*?

it's usually situational, and often we have not done much to try to correct it. We just accept we are not good in this particular area and there's not long-term failure ⟶ depression (as is common w/ learned helplessness) It is when we are placed in a *consistently hopeless* scenario (long-term) where self-efficacy can be diminished to the point where *learned helplessness* results.

According to William Sheldon, all short, stocky people were...

jolly

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information Ex: comparing a group of individuals, the one with glasses is clever. Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual # information = *base rate fallacy*

What refers to the ability to tell where one's body is in 3-D space?

kinesthetic sense (a/k/a proprioception)

What role does the *dominant* hemisphere play in audition?

language-related sounds

To maintain a certain level of confidence, a larger *standard deviation* requires a _____________ confidence interval.

larger

What is the fourth stage of Freud's psychosocial development?

latency

Which part of the thalamus is involved in the *visual* pathway?

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) Mnemonic: *L*ateral = *L*ight

The _________________ is referred to as the hunger center because it has special receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluids.

lateral hypothalamus (LH) Mnemonic: When the LH is destroyed, one *L*acks *H*unger

Secondary drives are related to ______________.

learning include accomplishments and emotions

Besides vision, areas in the occipital lobe have also been implicated in what processes?

learning & motor control

discovery learning

learning based on insight and understanding (Piaget)

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Which language theory states that language development occurs due to preferential reinforcement of certain phonemes by parents and caregivers?

learning theory (B.F. Skinner) - Behaviorism

In most people, which hemisphere is dominant?

left

In what hemisphere is Broca's region found?

left

Jumping rope with friends involves what hemisphere of the brain?

left

The ___________ prefrontal cortex is associated with positive emotions.

left

Which side of the frontal lobe is associated with positive feelings?

left

When looking at the cocktail party effect, it was found that people with stronger working memory are __________ likely to hear their name said while in a busy room with lots of people.

less Explanation: strong working memory would indicate that you are so absolutely immersed and focused on the conversation or task at hand that outside stimuli, such as your name, will not distract you

Parents are less likely to corrects errors of ___________ versus errors of __________.

less likely to correct errors of *grammar* compared to errors of word choice

How does Freud view girls in the phallic stage?

less morally developed w/ less stereotypically female behavior due to *penis envy*: Briefly, the girl desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy. The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this creates great tension. The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take on the female gender role

What role does the *dominant* hemisphere play in vision?

letters, words

How can Freud's stages of psychosocial development be paralleled to the *drive reduction theory*?

libidinal energy creates internal *tension*, which we aim to *reduce* through certain behaviors

Gardener argues that Western cultures value which abilities over all others?

linguistic and logical-mathematical Explanation: we base intelligence on IQ tests!

Cocaine medical use

local anesthetic due to vasoconstrictive properties limited use, mostly in nose and throat ❗️these properties are also what cause heart attacks and strokes recreationally

round window

located just below the oval window, second entrance to inner ear *allows the perilymph in the cochlea to actualy move back and forth with the stapedial footplate* ⟶ remember, fluids are *incompressible* As the stapes footplate moves into the oval window, the *round window* membrane moves out, and this allows movement of the fluid within the cochlea, leading to movement of the cochlear inner hair cells and thus hearing. If the round window were to be absent or rigidly fixed (as can happen in some congenital abnormalities), the stapes footplate would be pushing incompressible fluid against the unyielding walls of the cochlea. It would therefore not move to any useful degree

log A × B = ?

log A + log B

logA/B = ?

log A - log B

What is responsible for the conversion of short-term to long-term memory?

long-term potentiation Explanation: remember, STM only requires neurotransmitters LTM requires increased neural *connectivity*

Dreaming in REM sleep is ____________ and more vivid than NREM sleep.

longer

Language acquisition: 2-3 years

longer sentences (3 words or more) vocab grows exponentially grammatical errors *increase* (child is internalizing complex rules) ￫ includes *errors of growth*

How can you tell the difference between a *linear graph* and a *semilog graph* if both display straight lines?

look at the *axes* a linear graph will have the same amount of space between each unit a semilog plot (see picture), assigns only one axis normal unit spacing, while the other one is assigned spacing based on a ratio (usually 10, 100, 1000, etc.).

After *theory of mind* has developed, we begin to become aware of judgement from the outside world and react to those judgements, either by maintaining, modifying, downplaying, or accentuating different aspects of our personality. This construct, which relies on others reflecting our *selves* back to *ourselves* is called...?

looking-glass self

agnosia

loss of ability to recognize objects, people or sounds though usually only one of the 3 caused by physical damage to the brain (stroke, MS, etc.)

dementia

loss of cognitive function

Fibers connected to the apex (end) of the cochlea respond best to _______ frequency sound. This is called *tonotopic organization*.

low

Magnocellular cells have _____________ spatial resolution and ____________ temporal resolution.

low spatial high temporal *better for detecting motion*

The __________ the recognition threshold, the more easily and likely an input is to be perceived, even after undergoing attenuation.

lower Ex: words like "help" and "fire" have very low thresholds and info like your name, address have *permanently low thresholds* and will be able to come into awareness under almost all circumstances This is why you can hear your name at a loud cocktail party!

Alpha waves frequency/amplitude

lower frequency than beta, higher than theta greater amplitude than beta, lower than theta

What region of the eye corresponds to the central visual field?

macula center of the macula is the *fovea* (only cones) What is the central visual field? ￫ *shortest distance light has to travel to reach the retina*; best visual acuity

Where are *otoliths* located?

maculae hair cells within the *utricle* & *saccule*

What does the *hypothalamus* do?

maintains homeostasis

What are *central traits*?

major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer ex: honesty, charisma

availability heuristic

making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind 📸 look at the newspaper

Too much serotonin causes...

manic states, insomnia, etc.

Motor homunculus

map showing portion of motor cortex devoted to each body region

Language acquisition: 9-12 months

marked by babbling

Early cognitive development is characterized by...

mastering the physical environment

When does the *Babinski reflex* disappear?

may start disappearing at 12 months, but is considered normal in children up to 2

What measure of central tendency is a good indicator when all of the values tend to be fairly close to one another?

mean It is *not* the best when there are outlier, which can shift the mean toward one end of the range

WISC exam

measures intelligence similarly to IQ test, but *specialized for a subpopulation* of children ages 6-16

Which part of the thalamus is involved in the *auditory* pathway?

medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) Mnemonic: *M*edial = *M*usic

Q₂

median

What measure of central tendency is best when outliers are present?

median It is *less useful* for data sets with very large ranges (distance b/w largest and smallest data points) or multiple modes

In left-skewed graphs, typically which is greater, the mean or the median?

median > mean

Damage to which region of the hindbrain could most likely result in irregular heartbeart and labored breathing? Thalmus Pons Medulla oblongata Cerebellum

medulla oblongata

dual-coding theory

memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes (verbal association & visual images), since either can lead to recall. Ex: *word* "Dad" and *picture* of Dad can recall same information this type of coding builds redundancy & increases the chance that info can be retrieved and used effectly when cued (Paivio)

4 dopaminergic pathways

mesocortical mesolimbic nigrostriatal tuberoinfundibular

Drug addiction is mediated by what pathway?

mesolimbic pathway (part of the *medial forebrain bundle*) ⁂ dopamine main NT in this pathway ① Pleasurable stimulus (drugs activate to greatest degree, but also food, sex, etc.) ② Dopamine produced in VTA (ventral tegmental area of the midbrain), sends off to many parts of brain: - amydgala (emotion) - nucleus accumbens (motor functions - let's take another bite, hit, etc.) - prefrontal cortex (attention/planning - helps us focus on pleasurable stimulus) - hippocampus (temporal lobe, memories) ③ Body likes this, let's do it again! ④ Continued activation of this pathway, dopamine goes ↑ but serotonin goes *down* ↓ ⁂ serotonin is responsible for *satiation*, hence why the more drugs you take, the more you need - you're no longer satisfied

Which division of the brain would provide reflex reactions to visual or auditory stimuli? Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain Spinal Cord

midbrain

What makes up the *brainstem*?

midbrain, hindbrain

What region is associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli?

midbrain, specifically superior colliculus (receives *visual* sensory input) and inferior colliculus (receives auditory sensory input)

Crystallized intelligence peaks in _____________.

middle adulthood declines with age

The neural crest cells ultimately become what?

migrate to other sites in the body to differentiate into a # of different tissues (PNS)

threshold of conscious perception

minimum of stimulus energy that will create a signal large enough in size and long enough in duration to be brought into awareness

What neurological factors affect observational learning?

mirror neurons

information processing model

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages *encoding, storage, retrieval*

What role does serotonin play in the body?

modulates mood, sleep patterns, eating patterns, dreaming

The catecholamines along with serotonin all fall under the category of ______________ neurotransmitters.

monoamine or biogenic amine ✷serotonin or *5-HT* (a type of *indolamine*) is derived from tryptophan, and the catecholamines are derived from tyrosine

Moray (1969) dichotic listening task

more proof for late selection model of attention: paired electric shocks with a word to condition a galvanic skin response (GSR) when the word was spoken. A GSR was produced even when the word was presented to the unattended ear and the participants were unaware of it

incentive theory of motivation

motivation is the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments

In probability, when using the word "and"...

multiply the probabilities

Where are the receptors for proprioception mostly found?

muscles and joints

What role does the *nondominant* hemisphere play in audition?

music

The optic chiasm contains fibers crossing from the __________ side of the retina of both eyes.

nasal (info from *temporal* visual fields)

What is the difference between *ethnic identity* and *nationality*?

nationality is defined by *political borders* ethnic identity is that into which we are *born* and is influenced by language, common ancestry, & cultural heritage

Describe what the *respect for persons* pillar of research ethics encompasses.

need for honesty b/w subject & researcher; usually prohibits *deception* - includes *informed consent* - investigator cannot *coerce* (violates autonomy) - subjects can withdraw at any time - includes *confidentiality* as well

The natural logarithm (ln) of any number less than 1 will always be (+/-).

negative Explanation: Since ln(1) = 0

taking an aspirin

negative reinforcement Explanation: taking an aspirin removes a headache, so the next time you have a headache, you are more likely to take one This is specifically *escape learning*

Peptides that are involved in neurotransmission are called _______________. How are they different than neurotransmitters?

neuromodulators/neuropeptides more complicated mechanism in the postsynaptic cell so they act *slower* but have *longer* effects on the postsynaptic cell than nt's. ex: endorphins

In response to the anxiety caused by *fixation*, a child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a functional mental disorder known as __________?

neurosis

______________ is a class of functional mental disorders involving distress but neither delusions nor hallucinations

neurosis

__________ is the trait exemplified by emotional arousal in stressful situations.

neuroticism (Eysenck)

Sensory and short-term memory are transient and based on what physiological mechanism?

neurotransmitter activity

What is meant when a group of *outcomes* is said to be exhaustive?

no other possible outcomes Ex: flipping heads or tails are the exhaustive outcomes of a coin flip: these are the only 2 possibilities

What role does the *dominant* hemisphere play in spatial processing?

none really

What role does the *nondominant* hemisphere play in movement?

none really

expressive aphasia

nonfluent aphasia Broca's Words are on "the tip of the tongue"

receptive aphasia

nonsensical Wernicke's sentences devoid of meaning ⁂ they often believe they are speaking and understanding perfectly well

Which adrenal medulla chemical acts as a neurotransmitter?

norepinephrine

What is the *prefrontal cortex*'s role in memory?

not to store memory traces, but to *remind the individual that he has something to remember at all*

How do you handle fractional exponents?

numerator = exponent denominator = root

What marks the beginning of representational thought?

object permanence

object permanence

objects continue to exist even when out of view "peek-a-boo" only fun for a baby who does *not* have this yet

law of *similarity*

objects that are similar tend to be grouped together

What was Skinner's view of how personality develops?

obviously a Behaviorist it's "simply a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time"

In what lobe is the *visual cortex* (*striate cortex*)?

occipital

latent learning (operant conditioning)

occurs without a reward but is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced Ex: rats that were carried through a maze (latent) and then incentivized with food for completing the maze on their own * performed just as well as rats trained to run the maze, being rewarded along the way

Biological basis of drug dependence

old thought was that addiction is all about lack of willpower, but we see that on top of environment, it can also stem from genetics comes from rat models: given cocaine after pushing lever, very soon started displaying drug seeking behavior and increase dosage if allowed *negative consequences don't affect an addicted brain the same way that they affect a normal brain* ex: when you give a normal rat a food it likes plus something that makes it sick, it will learn to avoid that food (event though it likes it) but if you give an addicted rat a drug it likes plus something that makes it sick, it still wants that drug

How would George Kelly view the anxious person?

one who is having difficulty constructing and understanding the *variables* in the environment

approach-avoidance conflict

only one choice, goal, or event, but the outcome could have both positive and negative elements Ex: job promotion - ① more $ ② more stress

What is the *N-Ach* personality trait?

or *need for achievement* people with this trait are concerned w/ achievement and have high pride in their accomplishment

What is *extirpation*?

or ablation surgical removal of certain parts of the brain to observe the consequences

What is the *Hawthorne effect*?

or observation bias "the behavior of study participants is altered simply because they recognize that they are being studied'

sample selection bias

or simply *selection bias* bias introduced by systematically excluding some members of the population according to a particular attribute

What is the first stage of Freud's psychosocial development?

oral

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

What are *secondary traits*?

other personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence only appear in close groups or specific social settings

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; problem solving skills

What is a *reference group*?

our self-concept depends on who we are comparing ourselves to Ex: A doctor might make a $200,000 salary that most would call them "rich"; however, that doctor probably evaluates himself against other doctors, some of which are surgeons who make $500,000, so he would not consider himself "rich". The group of doctors to which he compares himself is his *reference group*

survivorship bias

our tendency to focus on the winners in a particular area and try to learn from them while completely forgetting about the losers who are employing the same strategy Ex: "Richard Branson, Bill Gates, and Mark Zuckerberg all dropped out of school and became billionaires! You don't need school to succeed."

Which specific hair cells are involved in *amplifying* incoming sound?

outer hair cells (OHC) that are connected to the tectorial membrane

If the mean and median are far from each other, this implies what?

outliers or a skewed distribution

What is the unfavorable outcome of not having passed the *initiative vs. guilt* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

overcome by fear of punishment so child unduly *restricts himself* OR overcompensates by *showing off*

How are all senses processed?

parallel processing

Vision is processed through _____________, while color is detected by ______________.

parallel processing cones

What are some ways in which we employ *bottom-up* processing?

parallel processing feature detection

Which lobe controls manipulation and orientation?

parietal

In what lobe is the primary *somatosensory cortex* located?

parietal located on the *postcentral gyrus* just behind the *central sulcus*

What region of the brain helps you read a map?

parietal lobe (central part) as it is responsible for spatial processing

illusive superiority

part of the dunning-kruger effect: a cognitive bias in which unskilled people have *illusory superiority*, making poor decisions and reaching erroneous conclusions, but their incompetence denies them the metacognitive ability to appreciate their mistakes. This means unskilled individuals *overestimate* their own ability and experts *underestimate* their own ability.

Meyer's Loop

part of the optic radiations that must pass through the *temporal lobe* by looping around the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle. longer path, hence more prone to defect Contains input from the inferior retinal quadrants, which represents the superior visual field quadrants

Baum's Loop

part of the optic radiations that travel *straight back through the parietal lobe* to the occipital lobe in the retroventicular limb of the internal capsule to the visual cortex. shorter, more direct path contains input from the superior retinal quadrants, which represents the inferior visual field quadrants

What is the role of the *lateral geniculate nucleus* in visual processing?

part of the thalamus that receives segregated input from the two eyes and projects to the primary visual cortex its mainly involved in temporal and spatial processing

What cells detect *shape*?

parvocellular cells

When examining distributions, what represents *modes*?

peaks on the distribution

According to Bandura, who is the most important role model for adolescents?

peers

Who are *teens* most influenced by?

peers

Instinct theory of motivation

people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts

*Thresholds* relate to sensation or perception?

perception Definition of *threshold*: minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception ❗️Exception: absolute threshold is sensation because it determines whether or not sensory receptors are activated at all or whether they sense but are not stimulated enough to produce an action potential

law of *prägnanz*

perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible *governs all other Gestalt principles*

escape learning

perform a behavior to terminate an ongoing unpleasant stimulus ⁂ It's the kind of reaction where you say to yourself: "Just get me the heck out of here." There's an element of surprise in this type of conditioning, bc you're thrown into a situation where you have to find a way to get out Ex: A scary fire breaks out - you weren't expecting it, but you react appropriately but *escaping* using the exit door

What archetype is likened to a mask that we wear in public? It's the part of our personality that we present to the world and is adaptive to our social interactions.

persona

During what stage of Freud's psychosexual development does the child start to sublimate (*de-eroticize) his/her libidinal energy?

phallic once sublimated completely ⟶ latency

What is the third stage of Freud's psychosocial development?

phallic/Oedipal ⟶ males Electra ⟶ females

___________________ is the study of subjective experience

phenomenology related to *humanism*

___________ refers to the actual sound of language.

phonology

obstructive sleep apnea

physical blockage in pharynx or trachea prevents airflow

3 Components of emotion

physiological cognitive behavioral

________________ is the normal temperature of the skin to which objects are compared to determine if they feel "warm" or "cold."

physiological zero

What makes up the *outer ear*?

pinna (auricle), external auditory canal, and tympanic membrane

The *id* functions according to the ____________ principle.

pleasure Aim: achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension

The natural logarithm (ln) of any number greater than 1 will always be (+/-).

positive Explanation: Since ln(1) = 0

pay check

positive reinforcement

What is the fifth stage of Kohlberg's moral development?

postconventional - *social contract* corned with: *social mores* which may conflict with laws and *individual rights* Mnemonic: A *post*man comes to your door and offers you a secret *contract* from an exclusive club that disagrees with a new law saying everyone has to be the same, so they are fighting for individual rights.

What is the sixth stage of Kohlberg's moral development?

postconventional - *universal human ethics* concerned with: *abstract* principles Mnemonic: Next week, the same *post*man comes to your door and offers you another *contract* in one hand, but in his other hand he has a copy of *Universe* Magazine. It's a symbol that this club makes abstract decisions about things they can't always see, but know to be ultimately right.

Endolymph is rich in what element?

potassium

What is the problems with graphs that contain breaks?

potential to distort scale (i.e. enlarging the difference b/w bars)

What is *Gestalt therapy* and what class of psychology does it fall under?

practitioners take a *holistic* view of the self, seeing each person as a complete person rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or dirves. *humanistic*

____________ refers to changes in usage, wording, and inflection based on context.

pragmatics

The *gate theory of pain* is based on (pre/post) synaptic inhibition of pain produced by other somatosensory signals.

pre

What is the first stage of Kohlberg's moral development?

preconventional - *obedience* concerned with *avoiding punishment* Mnemonic: Imagine a *pre*acher surrounded by *bees* (o*bee*dience) in church. He doesn't want the audience to see him kill the bees.

What is the second stage of Kohlberg's moral development?

preconventional - *self-interest* concerned with: *gaining rewards* a/k/a the *instumental relativist* stage Mnemonic: It's Sunday, so there's a *fish* fry, and the *pre*acher starts smacking the *bees* with a *fish* (*selfish*) but doesn't kill them. He wants to be given a raise for getting the churchgoers to give more money on Sundays.

preparedness (learning)

predisposition to learning behaviors because they coincide with natural behaviors Ex: birds naturally peck when searching for food, so rewarding them with food in response to a pecking-based behavior works well

Alertness is maintained by neurological circuits in the __________.

prefrontal cortex at the very front of the brain

Symbolic thinking is indicative of what stage of cognitive development?

preoperational

When asked to remember a list later, which effect has been shown to last longer?

primacy at first, people remembered both the beginning and the last parts of the list but now that time has passed, they can still recall the first few items, but memory of the last items fades Explanation: recency effect shown during the experiment was most likely a result of the last items still being in STM. The primacy effect led to better storage.

What is the primary site of visual processing in the brain?

primary visual cortex

What region of the brain is involved in color perception?

primary visual cortex

A man who has committed adultery is convinced his wife is cheating on him, despite a lack evidence is an example of what type of defense mechanism?

projection

Which of Freud's defense mechanisms describes when individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others?

projection Ex: "I hate my parents" is the undesired feeling that turns into ⟶ "My parents hate me"

What type of area is the somatosensory cortex?

projection destination for all incoming senses: touch, pressure, temp, pain

Sensory stimuli are transmitted to _________________ in the brain, which further analyze the sensory input.

projection areas

The *Rorschach inkblot test* utilizes which defense mechanism to gain insight into a client's mind?

projection ￫ the goal is for the client to project her unconscious feeling onto the shape Different people will see different things according to these feelings

Scaffolding (Vygotsky)

providing the learner with hints or clues for problem solving in order to allow the student to better approach the problem in the future (Vygotsky)

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the *absence of sensory input* complex interplay b/w various NTs, especially serotonin ↑ heart rate, BP & body temp dilation of pupils sweating

________________ theorizes that all mental processes are *not* spontaneous but are determined by the unconscious or preexisting mental complexes

psychic determinism

In one word, what did Freud base his notion of development on?

psycho*sexual*

In one word, what did Erikson base his notion of development on?

psycho*social*

Erikson constructed the stages of development as...

psycho-social Explanation: Personality develops in a *predetermined order*, and builds upon each previous stage (*epigenetic principle*). The crises encountered at each stage are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social).

*Object relations theory* falls under what realm of personality theories?

psychoanalytic (psychodynamic)

The relationship between the physical nature of stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they evoke is studied in what field?

psychophysics

__________ is the trait exemplified by nonconformity or deviance.

psychoticism (Eysenck)

What are the ages for the *genital stage* of Freud's psychosocial development?

puberty ⟶ lasts through adulthood

Questions with pie charts are likely asking for what kind of information?

qualitative they usually represent demographics Ex: smallest/largest group; % occupied by one or more groups combined

Unreliable data suffers from what type of error?

random

sleep spindle

rapid burst of high frequency brain waves during stage 2 sleep that may be important for learning and memory 12-14 Hz

An anorexic girl states the following when confronted about losing weight too quickly, "I'm in complete control of my weight, and besides, it's good that I am not overweight like most Americans." What defense mechanism is she using?

rationalization

Which of Freud's defense mechanisms describes the justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society?

rationalization

Which of Freud's defense mechanisms describes when individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites?

reaction formation

What kind of goals would someone with the *N-ach* personality trait set for themselves?

realistic

List the general pathway for *somatosensation*

receptors transduce signal ↓ CNS ↓ somatosensory cortex (in parietal lobe)

_______________ is the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation.

reciprocal determinism Explanation: People *choose* environments that suit their personalities, and their personalities determine how they will feel about and react to events in those environments.

What types of memory remain *strong* in the elderly?

recognition and skill-based memory semantically meaningful material may even allow recall to remain strong *event*-based prospective memory

EEG (electroencephalogram)

records an average of the electrical patterns within different portions of the brain 19 electrodes placed on scalp for 20-40 min, or continuously in an in-patient setting used to study sleep and seizures

What is one way to prevent retroactive interference?

reduce the # of interfering events *this is why it is best to study in the evening about an hour before sleep*

What is the role of context in the recognition threshold proposed by the attenuation model of attention?

reduces threshold required to recognize stimuli by creating an *expectancy* for related information: context acts via *priming*, wherein related information becomes momentarily more pertinent and accessible - lowering the threshold for recognition in the process Ex: "the recess bell rang", where the word *rang* and its synonyms would experience a lowered threshold due to the priming facilitated by the words that precede it

While the *id*'s needs are basic, the *superego*'s need are...

refined and focused on the ideal self: perfectionists, makes us proud of our accomplishments, imposes guilt at failures

What is *rCBF*?

regional cerebral blood flow, a noninvasive mapping procedure that detects broad patterns of neural activity based on blood flow to different parts of the brain

Faced with stress, older children may return to earlier behaviors, such as thumb sucking, throwing temper tantrums, or clinging to their mothers. Which of Freud's defense mechanisms are they exhibiting?

regression

Skinner explained language acquisition by ___________.

reinforcement Explanation: parents repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like the language they speak. Over time, infant perceives that certain sounds have little value and are not reinforced, while other have high values because they have been reinforced

variable-ratio schedule

reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses, but such that the average # of performances to receive a reward is ~ constant operant conditioning (reinforcement) Ex: Rat rewarded w/ pellet after 2 button presses, then 8, then 4, then 6 *fastest* and *most resistant* to extinction Mnemonic: *V**R* = *v*ery *r*apid and *v*ery *r*esistant Real life example: gambling

variable-interval schedule

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals operant conditioning (reinforcement) Ex: rat must wait 60 s, then 90 s, then 30 s and it keeps switching before it gets a pellet. In each case, once the interval elapses, the next press gets a pellet

fixed-ratio schedule

reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses operant conditioning (reinforcement) Ex: rat gets a pellet every 3rd time it presses a bar in its cage

fixed-interval schedule

reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed operant conditioning (reinforcement) Ex: rat gets 1 pellet, then waits 60 s. The first lever press after 60 s gets a pellet, *but subsequent presses during those 60 s accomplish nothing* *easiest to extinguish*

spotlight theory of attention

related more to visual attention and refers to the idea of where one focuses attention in one's visual field, as opposed to where one moves his or her eyes found that people were about 50 milliseconds faster to detect light when given a clue than not — a significant advantage. What this suggests is that something other than the eyes, which don't have time to shift, has moved to the area where the light was expected: it is our *attention* moving around the visual field, often remarkably independent of our actual gaze direction Indeed even if we're looking directly at something, and when we don't expect to see it, we're no more likely to notice it than if it appears on the edge of our vision ^ MAGICIANS USE THIS TRICK ALL THE TIME WHEN MAKING STUFF DISAPPEAR *Criticism*: attention is object-based, *not* location based (early selection theory)

Describe the theory of *functionalism* in neuropsychology.

relates *physiology* to environmental adaptation ex: difference b/w organisms living in cold (conserve heat) and warm climates (release heat) or a person's choice to remain optimistic despite a loved one's poor health prognosis

What happens to our bronchi during *sympathetic* activation?

relax Explanation: allows for ↑ oxygen exchange Mnemonic: asthmatics need bronchodilators when they can't breath

If imbalanced in the *phlegm* humor, what type of personality would result according to the ancient Greeks?

relaxed & affectionate Mnemonic: water goes with the *flow*

time-based prospective memory

remembering to do an action at a particular point in time

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future 2 types: ① event-based ② time-based

event-based prospective memory

remembering to perform a task at some point in the future *when primed by a trigger event* Ex: Remembering to buy milk when walking past the grocery store

A stroke affecting the arcuate fascicles will result in an inability to _____________.

repeat words heard ❗️but can still talk spontaneously

primary circular reactions

repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance (behavior is repeated b/c it is soothing) 1-4 months

What is the difference between *repression* and *suppression* according to Freud?

repression ￫ *unconscious* forgetting, i.e. after trauma suppression ￫ *conscious* forgetting, e.g. "I'm not going to think about that right now."

What is practically wrong with the "Do as I say, not as I do" phrase?

research suggest that children usually *model* what parent *did* rather than *model* what parent *said*

waves during meditation

resembles stage 1 with slow alpha and theta

What are *archetypes*, according to Carl Jung?

residues of our earl ancestors that are universal symbolic representations of particular types of people, objects, ideas, or experiences big emotional element, e.g. having a mother and father; God and Devil, etc. may differ b/w cultures

reappraisal

rethinking the meaning of emotionally charged events in ways that alter their emotional impact Ex: when you're being followed, a potentially stressful situation, you constantly have to monitor the situation and look for developments that either make it less/more threatening and alter your next action accordingly.

Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the _____________ to keep the cortex awake and alert.

reticular formation (brainstem(

What is the innermost layer of the eye?

retina

Where are rods and cones?

retina

duplicity theory of vision

retina contains photoreceptors specialized for light/dark detection and for color detection (2 types): rods and cones

serial position effect

retrieval cue that appears while learning lists; higher recall for the first few and last few items on the list

context effects

retrieval cue where memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding occurred

priming

retrieval cue where recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory

While not perfectly linear, memory loss in Alzheimer's disease tends to proceed in a ____________ fashion.

retrograde Explanation" loss of recent memories before distant ones

______________ amnesia is memory loss of events that transpired before the brain injury

retrograde they *can* form new memories though, but have lost some of the old ones

shaping (operant conditioning)

rewarding increasingly specific behaviors takes time, but helps instill extremely complex behaviors

The ___________ prefrontal cortex is associated with negative emotions.

right

Which side of the frontal lobe is associated with negative feelings?

right

The retina contains more of which type of photoreceptor cell?

rods (~ 120 mil) cones only ~ 6 mil

As one moves further away from the *fovea*, the concentration of rods ___________ and the concentration of cones _____________.

rods increase cones decrease *at* fovea, theres are only cones retina itself has more rods though

formal sanctions

rules or laws used to reinforce or punish behavior

Our identities are believed to be organized according to a hierarchy of ___________.

salience Explanation: we let the *situation* dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment

In the preoperational stage, children make judgements based on the most _____________ aspect.

salient i.e. most noticeable or important

What is a *fMRI*?

same basic technique as MRI but measures changes associated with *blood flow* specifically ✴︎very useful for studying neural activity, since ↑ blood flow = ↑ brain activity

In an adoption study, what is the *sample group* and what is the *control group*?

sample: adoptive family of the adopted child control: biological family of the adopted child

In a twin study, what is the *sample group* and what is the *control group*?

sample: monozygotic twins control: dizygotic twins

During what stage of stress appraisal can the organism cope with the stress by determining its intensity?

second Explanation: assesses harm, threat and challenge here. In the primary stage, it's only seeing if the stress is even relevant, nothing to do with intensity yet

What symptom might result if *GABA* were deficient?

seizures

What is the most common impediment to establishing *generalizability* in research?

selection bias Explanation: subjects used for the study are not representative of the target population

____________ allows one to pay attention to a particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli in the background require attention.

selective attention example: cocktail party effect

What is the unfavorable outcome of not having passed the *generativity vs. stagnation* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

self-indulgent, bored, self-centered

Which stage in Kohlberg's moral reasoning is also called the *instrumental relativist* stage?

self-interest "What's in it for me?" Still egocentric in outlook but with a growing ability to see things from another person's perspective. Action is judged right if it helps in satisfying one's needs or involves a fair exchange. "I'll scratch your back, you scratch mine."

What is the strongest type of encoding?

semantic then acoustic then visual

____________ refers to the association of meaning with words.

semantics

Which part of the middle ear detects *rotational* acceleration?

semicircular canals (3) ✴︎ each in a different plane Mnemonic: circles *rotate* 🌀

Which term best matches with *transduction*: sensation or perception

sensation

sensorium

sensory environment

What is the *central sulcus*?

separates frontal and parietal lobes

Which part of the amygdala is involved with feelings of pleasure, pleasure-seeking behavior, and addiction>

septal nuclei

Which neurotransmitter in the central nervous system helps regulate the sleep cycle? Dopamine Serotonin GABA Endorphins

serotonin

What is the definition of *personality*?

set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations

What does the *anterior hypothalamus* regulate?

sexual behavior sleep, body temp

Which of Jung's archetypes is responsible for the appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness?

shadow

The *7±2 rule* involves what part of memory?

short-term

The *serial position effect* involves what part of memory?

short-term

heuristics

shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make decisions

Neutral stimuli can be referred to as _____________ if they have the potential to be used as a conditioning stimulus.

signaling stimuli

What is the relevance of the field of *phrenology* to modern understanding of the brain?

since been proven false, but paved the way for *neuropsychology*

Which approach states that behavior is primarily determined by the environment and context?

situational approach

somnambulism

sleepwalking

Fixation during the anal stage would lead to either excessive orderliness (anal-retentiveness) or ____________ in the adult.

sloppiness it's important to remember that it can be either one!

Growth hormone secretion peaks during ____________ sleep.

slow wave

Children spend more time in ____________ sleep than adults.

slow-wave Explanation: they are growing

Are smaller or larger samples subject to more random variation?

smaller Explanation: If only one person is selected, he or she may be an outlier, but if a much larger sample is selected, an outlier will have less effect on results

The thalamus processes all senses except...

smell

What is the only sense that does not pass through the thalamus?

smell

Compared to Freud, Alfred Adler's focus was not sexual but...

social theory focused on immediate social imperatives of family and society and their effects on unconscious factors

Classify Albert Bandura in one word.

social cognitive (under the umbrella of *behaviorism*)

The biological perspective of personality is in most contrast with what other theory?

social cognitive ✴︎ biological ￫ our physical brain shapes our personality ☆ social cognitive ￫ interaction w/ environment shapes our brain

Vygotsky falls under what field of psychology?

social constructivism 📸shows Vygotsky's core concepts

Compared to Freud, Karen Horney views personality to be a result of...

social influences, esp. interpersonal relationships - childhood *social* tensions > sexual - childhood anxiety > latent desires (but she still was a believer in the unconscious) - womb envy > penis envy

The ______________ theory explains language acquisition as being caused by a motivation to communication and interact with others.

social interactionist theory Explanation: Biological foundation for language develops ￫ children exposed to language ￫ brain groups sounds and meanings together. Then, as child interacts w/ others, certain brain circuits are reinforced, while others are de-emphasized ⟶ atrophy.

Which portions of the peripheral nervous system mostly utilize *acetylcholine*?

somatic ￫ efferent (motor) parasympathetic small portion of the sympathetic (ganglia and innervates sweat glands) ✷it's both excitatory and inhibitory in muscle cells!

Acetylcholine is used by which division/s of the nervous system

somatic ￫ muscles! parasympathetic CNS ￫ alertness

pacinian corpuscles

somatosensory cells that respond to *deep pressure and vibration*

Meissner's corpuscles

somatosensory cells that respond to *light touch*

Free nerve endings

somatosensory cells that respond to *pain and temperature*

Ruffini endings

somatosensory cells that respond to *stretch*

avoidance learning

some sort of signal is given before the aversive stimulus occurs, so you react appropriately to prevent being stuck in such an awful situation. Ex: Talking to a teacher in the hallway, and all of a sudden the fire alarm went off. You make your way to the exit door and be long gone before the fire broke out.

What phenomenon is at play when a person hears a story of something that happened to someone else, and later recalls the story as having happened to him or herself.

source-monitoring error

phonological store

speech perception acts as an *inner ear* and holds information in a speech-based form (i.e., spoken words) for 1-2 seconds. ￫ Spoken words enter the store directly. ￫ Written words must first be converted into an articulatory (spoken) code before they can enter the phonological store (this is accomplished by the *articulatory control process*)

articulatory control process

speech production acts like an *inner voice* rehearsing information from the phonological store. It circulates information round and round like a tape loop. This is how we remember a telephone number we have just heard. As long as we keep repeating it, we can retain the information in working memory. also converts written material into an articulatory code and transfers it to the *phonological store*

What role does the *dominant* hemisphere play in language?

speech, reading, writing, arithmetic

What is usually used to calculate *p-values*?

standard deviation Explanation: it's most closely linked to the *mean* (average) of a distribution

How does the embryonic forebrain (prosencephalon) further divide?

starts off as 1 swelling, then becomes the... ① telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system) & ② diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, pineal)

How does the embryonic hindbrain (rhombencephalon) further divide?

starts off as 1 swelling, then becomes... ① myelencephalon (becomes medulla oblongata) and ② metencephalon (becomes pons and cerebellum)

Information about a *sample* is called a ___________.

statistic

In the *autonomy vs. shame and doubt* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development, what is the child's predominant social setting?

still the family

In the *initiative vs. guilt* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development, what is the child's predominant social setting?

stillll the family

James-Lange theory of emotion

stimulus ⟶ physiological arousal ⟶ cognitive labeling of emotion ✷ requires connection b/w sympathetic nervous system and brain "I must be angry because my skin is hot and my blood pressure is high."

emotional memory

storage of the actual *feelings* of emotion associated with an event; unconscious When experiencing a similar event later on, these emotions may be retrieved. (amygdala)

acquisition (operant conditioning)

strengthening of a reinforced response.

long-term potentiation

strengthening of neural connections resulting from increased neurotransmitter release and adding of receptor sites the *same* level of pre-synaptic stimulation converts into greater level of post-synaptic potential

According to Adler, what drives the personality?

striving for superiority can enhance the personality when benefitting society OR yield disorder when being selfish

According to William Sheldon, people who were neither short/stocky nor tall were...

strong and well-adjusted

_____________ refers to the perception of nonexistent edges in figures, based on surrounding visual cues.

subjective contours

Which of Freud's defense mechanisms is the transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors?

sublimation Ex: sexual urges sublimated into artistic creativity or drive for business success

What are the ages for the *latency stage* of Freud's psychosocial development?

sublimation of libido ⟶ puberty

adaptive coping strategies

successful in reducing negative stress/emotions; do not have long-term costs ✴︎ use of *buffers*: social networks, hardiness, internal locus of control *active* ￫ assertiveness ￫ socializing ￫ exercise ￫ time management ￫ problem-focused strategies ￫ emotionally-focused strategies

How could an error in instrument calibration affect the mean?

such an error would render all data collected with the faulty instrument *invalid*, and so the mean would not be a true value.

What brain structure is responsible for the "deer in headlights" appearance we get when startled?

superior colliculus (along w/ activation of the sympathetic nervous system) it's the part of the midbrain that is involved in reflexive eye *movement*

Which part of the ear localizes sound?

superior olive (brainstem)

Where is Wernicke's area located?

superior temporal gyrus of temporal lobe

A cancer patient in great discomfort decides to put on a happy face because his family is visiting him today. What defense mechanism of Freud's is he employing?

suppression

Which of Freud's defense mechanisms represents a more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting?

suppression

What holds the *lens* in place?

suspensory ligaments connected to the ciliary muscle

alarm stage of GAS

sympathetic response ACTH ⟶ cortisol adrenal medulla ⟶ epinephrine & norepinephrine

What division of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for stimulating *orgasms*?

sympathetic!

____________ involves the order in which words are put together.

syntax

Invalid data suffers from what type of error?

systematic

When it is not possible to calculate the *standard deviation* for a normal distribution because we are not given the entire data set, what can be done to find an approximate value for the standard deviation?

take ¼ of the range It *must* be a normal distribution

Taste chemoreceptors are known as...

taste buds

What is *speech shadowing*? What areas of the brain must be intact for successful completion of this task?

technique used to research both stuterring and speech perception: participants recite along w/ auditory inputs, which can be presented to one *or* both ears. If diff. messages are presented to each air (dichotic listening test) speech shadowing can ensure that the person is paying attention to the auditory input to the correct ear *temporal lobe*, *parietal lobe*, *frontal cortex*

Psychologists consider what age a peak period for encoding in a person's life?

teens and 20's Explanation: When asked about the most pivotal events in their lives, most elderly say their most *vivid memories* are of events during these times

In what part of the forebrain is the basal ganglia found?

telencephalon

In what part of the forebrain is the cerebral cortex found?

telencephalon

In what part of the forebrain is the limbic system found?

telencephalon

Which part of the embryonic forebrain is the most sophisticated, housing the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system?

telencephalon

The amygdala is in what lobe?

temporal

The hippocampus is in what lobe?

temporal

Wernicke's area is in what lobe?

temporal

Where is the *auditory cortex* located?

temporal lobe speech, music, other sounds

Which lobe controls the ability to distinguish and interpret others' facial expressions?

temporal lobe, and it's *lateralized* ￫ right hem more active than left some input from occipital lobe too weak in children, develops w/ age women better at it than men

The *visual radiations* run through which brain lobes?

temporal ￫ Meyer's loop (fiber *input* from inferior retina carrying info representing *superior* visual field) parietal ￫ Baum's loop (fibers *input* from superior retina carrying info representing *inferior* visual field)

What is the only *necessary* criterion from HIll's criteria in order to establish causality?

temporality

discrimination testing

tests human perception ability stimulus varied until a difference is noticed

acquisition (classical conditioning)

the *initial* stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. ❗️Remember, just because a CR has been acquired, it does not mean that it is permanent!

What is the criticism against Kohlberg's moral development?

the *postconventional* views are found more in *individualistic* societies, and don't really apply to (and are even *biased* towards) *collectivist* cultures. Also, his research was only performed on males.

Taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the *id* and the id's *pleasure princriple* is called...

the *secondary process*

According to Jung, what was the point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious, and the conscious mind?

the *self* It strives for *unity* and is symbolized by the mandala

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

the *simultaneous* arousal of the nervous system and cognitive response lead to action ✷ thalamus processes sensory info and sends it to cortex (cognitive) and sympathetic nervous system (arousal) at the same time ✷ action is secondary response to stimulus ✷ does *not* explain vagus nerve (conveys info from peripheral organs back to CNS, bypassing thalamus) "I am afraid because I see a snake and my heart is racing...Let me out of here!"

haptic perception

the active exploration of the environment by touching and grasping objects with our hands part of *sensory memory*

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information Example: at the beginning of a new school year, teachers learning a new set of students' names can no longer remember the names of previous years' students

What is the *Babinski reflex*?

the big toe is extended and the other toes fan in response to the brushing of the sole of the foot

What is *top-down* processing?

the brain recognizes the whole object and then the components based on these expectations *concept-driven* ⟶ uses memories & expectations

How does Carl Jung define the *ego*.

the central operating system in the field of consciousness. Jung listed *five* functions that the ego operates with: 1) *Stability of personality*: Ego tries to keep general personality reasonable stable over time. This is to keep you from suddenly acting outside of your character and/or your strongest sides that you have developed over time. 2) *Stability of identity*: This is to keep you from thinking that you are suddenly a different person than you were before you went to sleep, but also has long term effect. 3) *Cognition*: Ego helps us to process information (via thinking or feeling), to problem solve and to store memories. 4) *Executive functioning*: Our ability to deal with the everyday demands of the world. For example how to use a fork and knife or brushing teeth in the evening/morning. 5) *Reality testing*: Expect and obey the natural laws of physics. You don't start to think that you can fly off from a top of a roof without consequences (gravity)

According to Vygotsky, what was the engine driving cognitive development?

the child's internalization of *culture*: rules symbols language

seriation

the concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension (such as length)

How did Lawrence Kohlberg believe that personality develops?

the development of *moral thinking* unlike Freud (resolving urges) and Erikson (resolving conflicts)

What is the definition of *identity crisis* as coined by Erikson?

the failure to achieve ego identity during adolescence

In the *trust vs. mistrust* stage of Erikson's psychosocial development, what is the child's predominant social setting?

the family

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information Example: moving to a new place, you had a hard time learning the new address because you're so used to the old one

alcohol myopia

the inability to think about consequences and possible outcomes of one's actions due to alcohol intoxication, creating a *short-sided* view of the world

bruxism

the involuntary grinding or clenching of the teeth that usually occurs during sleep and is associated with tension or stress

Weber's Law

the just noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant *proportion*, not a constant amount!

Whorfian (linguistic relativity) hypothesis

the lens through which we view and interpret the world is created by language INFLUENCE OF LANGUAGE ON COGNITION Weakness: predicts that if the language has less words for a concept, they have limited perceptual ability of that concept. This is wrong: just because Eskimos have 100s of words to describe different aspects of snow, that does not mean that English-speakers cannot distinguish characteristics of snow.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

What is the relationship between the degree of *salience* of one identity and the degree of *conformity* to role expectations of that identity?

the more salient (more it changes from situation to situation), the more we conform to the role expectations

What happens deep within the cochlea as sound is transduced?

the outer two *scalae* of the cochlea are continuous with the oval and round windows of the cochlea. ↓ Thus, sound entering the cochlea thru the *oval window* causes vibrations in the perilymph within these scalae. ↓ These vibrations are transmitted to the basilar membrane. ↓ The *round window* bulges out to permit the (incompressible*) perilymph to move within the cochlea ↓ The *hair cells* in the organ of Corti convert the physical stimulus into an *electrical signal* ↓ The electrical signal is carried to the CNS by the auditory (vestibulocochlear) nerve. https://ibb.co/dcbGO0

central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing deals with *problem solving/reasoning* the *controller*, less about storage (this is where the other components fall) Like the company boss: he will collect information from a number of different sources. If we continue applying this metaphor, then we can see the central executive in working memory integrating information from two assistants (the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad) and also drawing on information held in a large database (long-term memory). Ex: 2 activities sometimes conflict, such as driving a car and talking. Rather than hitting a cyclist who is wobbling all over the road, it is preferable to stop talking and concentrate on driving. The central executive directs attention and gives priority to particular activities

phonological loop

the part of working memory that stores and processes verbal, auditory, and written information deals with *reading* 2 parts: ① *phonological store* ￫ speech *perception* ② *articulatory control process* ￫ speech *production*

In studies in which there is a particular population that would be most likely to benefit, how should the burden of risk be distributed?

the population that would be most likely to benefit should assume a greater proportion of the risk

Why do variable-ratio schedules provoke the fastest response?

the rat will continue pressing the bar quickly with the hope that the next press will be the "right one"

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response (albeit a weak one)

prosody

the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices affects *pragmatics*

Why might the motor and somatosensory cortexes be placed so close together?

the somatosensory *feels* and the motor cortex *reacts* There is even a *sensorimotor cortex* that shows how interrelated the two cortexes are

functional fixedness

the tendency to use objects only in the way they are normally utilized, which may create barriers to problem-solving

*Place theory* of hearing.

the theory that different areas of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies due to changes in thickness of the membrane

problem-solving dream model

the view that dreams can help us find creative solutions to our problems and conflicts because they are not constrained by reality The idea of *"I'll sleep on it."* (Cartwright - cognitive)

what was Kohlberg assessing when presenting subjects with hypothetical moral dilemmas?

their *reasoning* behind the appraisal. not interested in the choice of right or wrong bc either could be justified

What theory holds that key components of gender identity are transmitted through *cultural and social* means?

theory of *gender schema* - it's a *cognitive* theory that suggests that children gradually form their gender identity gradually as they learn about the network of themes and associations within their own culture. - In addition, gender schema is closely linked to *self concept*. Children, therefore, engage in gender appropriate behavior motivated by the desire to be "good" girls or "good" boys ex: as children develop and begin to identify certain toys as "boy toys" and "girl toys. https://ibb.co/nmidtp

The ability to sense how another's mind works is referred to as...

theory of mind "mind reading ability" originally proposed by Premack & Woodruff

arousal theory of motivation

theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation *Yerkes-Dodson Law* shows that performance is optimal at medium level of arousal

What explains the loss of details after sensation by rods and cones?

there are way more of these photoreceptors than ganglion cells, so *one* ganglion cell is responsible for details from *many* photoreceptors *As the number of photoreceptors that converge through bipolar neurons onto one ganglion increases, the resolution decreases*

When a study has *confidence*...

there is no difference b/w the populations and they correctly failed to reject the null hypothesis

waves during stage 1 sleep

theta irregular, slower frequency, higher voltage

waves during stage 2 sleep

theta, sleep spindles, K complexes

Whereas the utricle and saccule contain *otoliths* that help transmit linear acceleration, how do the semicircular canals communicate rotational acceleration?

they are arranged perpendicularly to each other (3 diff. planes), and each ends in a swelling called an *crista ampullaris* where hair cells reside. When the head rotates, *endolymph* in the semicircular canal *resist that motion* bending the underlying hair cells, which send a signal to the brain

How does the actual patient assist during electrical stimulation of the brain?

they are awake and alert and must assist the neurosurgeon

What do fixed-interval and fixed-ratio schedules have in common (besides the obvious)?

they both often have a brief moment of *no responses* after the behavior is reinforced The rat will stop hitting the lever until it wants another pellet, once it has figured out what behavior will get it.

Korsakoff's syndrome is caused by ___________ deficiency.

thiamine (B₁)

What is going on hormonally during the exhaustion stage of GAS?

this is overtraining... Too much stress will result in "burnout", "overload", "adrenal fatigue", etc... In this state the athlete's endocrine system begins to shut down, as it can no longer keep pace with the high stress loads placed upon it. An athlete in this state will typically have a deficient thyroid, severely impaired immune system, ↑ cortisol levels, terrible sleep patterns, inhibited insulin response, etc... They are basically a bag of s*** at this point

A child may struggle to ride a bicycle on her own, but with the help and guidance of a parent, she may be successful. What would Lev Vygotsky say about this situation?

this skill is currently within the child's *zone of proximal development* *IOW*, this skill is in the process of development, and required the help of a "more knowledgeable other" to fully develop.

Piaget's Conservation Task

this task has to do with mental manipulations ￫ a child in the preoperational stage fails & thinks that just because the physical appearance changes that there is a change in the amount of something. If two identical glasses are filled with the same amount of water and then one is dumped to a taller, skinnier glass a child will think that the taller glass has more water in it. ￫ Children in the *late* preoperational period often succeed at some of these tasks, but fail to provide adequate justifications for their judgments. ￫ It is not until the *concrete operational* period that children can reliably supply logical justifications, such as reversibility, for conservation.

late selection theory

this theory presumes that even supposedly unattended stimuli enter the sensory storage system and are only filtered out late in the process if not relevant at the time *limitation is in the response system*, not the perception (Deutsch & Deutsch)

Early intervention in childhood improves IQ, especially for what kind of children?

those in low-enrichment environments

How *specialized* are auditory nerve fibers?

though they *look* different and respond differently to input from other neurons, for the most part there is *very little* specialization and are nearly interchangeable ❗️One notable exception: some have high thresholds (low spontaneous✴︎ rates), while some have low thresholds (high spontaneous rates) ✴︎spontaneous = firing in the absence of sound stimulation.

How does the hippocampus communicate with other portions of the limbic system?

through a long projection called the *fornix*

How is the endocrine system tied to the nervous system?

thru hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

Elderly individuals have the most trouble with ____________ memory.

time-based prospective memory Ex: they would have a hard time remembering a doctor's appt. scheduled for 1 PM

Positive in the context of conditioning means...

to add something

Negative in the context of conditioning means...

to take something away

Déjà vu is an example of ____________ processing.

top-down Explanation: recognizes a similar experience and it's searching for the connection! This is one difficulty with top-down processing: it's hard to discriminate b/w slight differences b/w similar objects

"Where's Waldo" is an example of what type of processing?

top-down Explanation: we have a mental idea of what we're trying to do (find Waldo) amidst this mess. If we were using bottom-up, we'd be looking at each individual person with no real goal (no expectations), but instead, we are guided by a concept and then try to recognize the components

When is REM most frequent?

towards the morning

People who are more reserved and less outspoken in groups also tend to enjoy solitary activities and avoid overstimulation. These behaviors fall under the label of introversion. What theory of personality is being used in the above analysis?

trait theory, specifically *factor analysis* (Hans & Sybil Eysenck)

What are *cardinal traits*?

traits around which a person organizes his or her life

What is the role of *acetylcholine* in the peripheral nervous system?

transmits nerve impulses to muscles

Methadone

treatment for opioid addiction a long-acting opioid with lower risk of overdose

True or False: People with type A personalities are more prone to heart disease

true example of a well-known *type theory*

True or False: the retina is considered part of the central nervous system.

true! Explanation: develops as an outgrowth of brain tissue

The minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli is called the ____________.

two-point threshold

What divides the outer ear from the middle ear?

tympanic membrane

What is a *token economy*?

type of behavior modification often used in *inpatient* setting in which desired behavior is rewarded with "tokens" (privileges, treats, other reinforcers)

The *Myers-Briggs Type Inventory* falls under what category of personality theories?

type theory

International Phonetic Alphabet

unambiguous system of writing of all the known phonemes of *all human languages*

Low femininity *and* low masculinity is defined as...

undifferentiated

New or complex tasks require _____________ attention.

undivided and thus, *controlled processing*

dunning-kruger effect

unskilled individuals *overestimate* their own ability and experts *underestimate* their own ability.

maladaptive coping strategies

unsuccessful in reducing negative emotions and associated with long-term costs that outweigh the benefit of short-term reduction of negative emotions *passive* external locus of control, *avoidance*, eating, substance abuse, catharsis, displaced aggression, etc.

Olfactory chemoreceptors are localized in olfactory epithelium in the ____________ part of the nasal cavity.

upper

How can you identify the type of *skewed distribution*?

use the *tail* not the bulk of the curve the actual direction of the bulk of the skew is *opposite* from the visual shift in data

How did the *Myers-Briggs type inventory* (MBTI) play upon Carl Jung's ideas?

used his 3 dichotomies and added one more: *Judging* (J) vs. *Perceiving* (P) - judging prefers *orderliness* - perceiving prefers *spontaneity*

informal sanctions

used to reinforce or punish social behavior *without* depending on rules established by social institutions Ex: ostracization, praise, shunning

What is an *MRI*?

uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body

How is *random error* usually overcome?

using a large sample size

How can statistics be used to estimate population *parameters*?

using comparatively large or repeated samples i.e. you can't just use a single small sample and project those findings about the population

Which part of the middle ear detects *linear* acceleration

utricle: *horizontal* acceleration ↔ saccule: *vertical* acceleration ↕ https://ibb.co/evS8mL

Behaviors learned through _____________ schedules are the hardest to extinguish.

variable-ratio ✴︎ In other words, they stick with you the most!

The ___________ prefrontal cortex is critical for experiencing emotion.

ventral specifically the *ventromedial prefrontal cortex* controls emotional responses from amygdala and is involved in decision-making.

What portion of the hypothalamus is essentially the *satiety center*, signaling that we are full?

ventromedial Mnemonic: When the *V*entro*M*edial *H*ypothalamus (*VMH*) is destroyed, one is *V*ery *M*uch *H*ungry (never satiated!)

Lesions in what brain area might lead to obesity?

ventromedial hypothalamus, which controls satiety

K complex

very high amplitude (high voltage) pattern of brain activity associated with stage 2 sleep that may occur in response to environmental stimuli half-second duration

accommodation (monocular cue)

very weak cue

The __________ refers to the portion of the bony labyrinth that contains the utricle and saccule.

vestibule

How are facts stored?

via semantic networks

During study design, a company wishing to market a drug to severe diabetics proposes to enroll only mild diabetics. Which principle of research ethics is the company violating? Are there any research concerns in this proposed study besides ethics?

violating the principle of *justice* by choosing participants that are not part of the target population also introducing *selection bias*

What supports the bulk of the eye on the *inside*?

vitreous

hypnagogic hallucinations

vivid sensory phenomena that occur during the *onset* of sleep Mnemonic: hypna*go*gic hallucinations occur when *go*ing to bed

operant conditioning =

voluntary behaviors linked to consequences

The *phlegm* humor was associated with what element?

water Mnemonic: saliva = water

categorical perception

way of categorizing *phonemes* marked by the distinction between speech sounds, separating language from noise and also seeing subtle differences between speech sounds that change meaning also helps to appreciate that people pronounce things differently

What is the definition of *learning*?

way we acquire new behaviors in response to a stimulus

law of *closure*

when a space is enclosed by a group of lines, it is perceived as a complete or closed line

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

The development of abstract thinking is dependent upon increases in ___________ memory and mental capacities.

working

problem-focused strategies for stress management

working to overcome a stressor ￫ reaching out to friends/family ￫ confronting issue head on ￫ creating and following a plan of problem-solving actiosn

According to Horney, how would a highly-threatened child use her 3 security-striving strategies?

would use *one* of the strategies rigidly and exclusively, carrying this strategy into adulthood

Why is observational behavior *not* synonymous with imitation?

you can use it to teach individuals to *avoid* behavior as well Ex: children in Bobo Doll exp watched adult get scolded after attacking the doll were less likely to be aggressive

What is a real-life example of *theory of mind* at work?

you understanding how a friend is interpreting a story while you tell it, and possibly how they might be judging you

Language acquisition: 12-18 months

~ 1 word per month use *inflection* and *gestures* to convey desired meaning e.g. "Apple?" (while pointing to an apple in the store) context is crucial

When does the rooting reflex disappear?

~ 4 months

How many phonemes are there in the English language?

~ 40

What is a type I error?

α, false positive The probability of mistakenly rejecting the null hypothesis. In other words, you claim that a statistically significant difference exists, when in reality is does *not*.

What is a type II error?

β, a false negative The probability of wrongly failing to reject the null hypothesis. In other words, you reported no difference between 2 populations, but one actually *does* exist

Factors that protect against intellectual decline

↑ education ↑ frequent intellectual activities ↑ socialization stimulating environment

Marijuana side effects

↑ heart rate STM loss paranoia Hallucinations (high doses)

amphetamines

↑ release of dopamine, NE, and serotonin at the synapse ↓ their reuptake ↑ arousal, ↓ need for food and sleep euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, paranoia ❗️stroke, brain damage, withdrawal = depression, fatigue, irritability

log (n × 10ᴹ) = ?

≅ m + 0.n Ex: Estimate log 7,426,135,420 log ( 7.43 × 10⁹) ⟶ 9 + 0.743 = 9.74 (actual 9.87)

-log (n × 10⁻ᴹ) = ?

≅ m - 0.n ✴︎works for pH and pKa Ex: If the Ka of an acid is 1.8 × 10⁻⁵, what is its pKa? pKa = -log(1.8 × 10⁻⁵) pKa ≅ 5 - 0.18 pKa ≅ 4.82 (actual 4.74) Ex: If [H⁺] = 0.001, find the pH & pOH. pH = -log(10⁻³) pH = 3 **if it's a power ten, then this is not an estimation, it's right on! pOH = 14 - pH pOH = 14 - 3 pOH = 11

According to Piaget, cognitive development occurs from which two processes? (Piaget's Theory of Learning)

① *ADAPTATION* - how new information is processed & involves the child's changing to meet situational demands. Happens in two different ways: a.) *assimilation* - the process of classifying new information into existing schemata. Results in *equilibrium*. if the information does not fit into an existing schemata, we get *disequilibrium* and accommodation is the result: b.) *accommodation* - the schemata is modified to encompass the new information. Equilibrium again. ② *EQUILIBRATION* - the search for "balance" between self and the world, and involves the matching of the child's adaptive functioning to situational demands (i.e. dictates whether the child will assimilate or accommodate) Equilibrium keeps the infant moving along the developmental pathway, allowing him or her to make increasingly effective adaptations.

What were the 3 dichotomies of personality as described by Jung?

① *Extraversion* (E) vs. *Intraversion* (I) ② *Sensing* (S) vs. *Intuiting* (N) ③ *Thinking* (T) vs. *Feeling* (F)

What are the categories into which psychologists have historically categorized *personality*?

① *Psychoanalytic* (psychodynamic) ② *Humanistic* (phenomenological) ③ *Type and Trait* ④ *Behaviorist* ⑤ *Social Cognitive* ⑥ *Biological*

What are the three necessary pillars of *research* ethics?

① *Respect for persons* - includes autonomy, informed consent, and confidentiality ② *Justice* - dictates which study questions are worth pursuing and which subjects to use ③ *Beneficence* (more inclusive than the medical tenet) - requires us to do the most good with the least harm

In what ways do we create *false memories*?

① *confabulation* - internal (by brain) ② *misinformation effect* - external ③ *source-monitoring error* - external

How is the *superego* subdivided?

① *conscience* ￫ collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished ② *ego-ideal* ￫ proper actions for which a child is rewarded ultimately both are replaced by a sense of "wrong" and "right", respectively instead of parental rewards and punishments

What are the four core ethical tenets in *medicine*?

① Beneficence ￫ act in patient's best interest ② Nonmaleficence ￫ avoid treatments or interventions where potential for harm outweighs potential for benefit ③ Autonomy ￫ respect patients' decisions and choices about their own healthcare ④ Justice ￫ treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly

What are the 3 traits/dispositons that Allport believed made up personalities?

① Cardinal ② Central ③ Secondary

List the auditory pathway.

① Cochlea ⟶ ② thru vestibulocochlear nerve (2 parts: auditory nerve & cochlear nerve) and MGN ⟶ ③ auditory cortex (temporal lobe) ✷ Sound information also projects to both the... - *superior olive* which *localizes* sound - *inferior colliculus* which is involved in the *startle reflex* https://ibb.co/dBo3Lf

Calculate the standard deviation for the following data set: 1, 2, 3, 9, 10

① Determine the mean: 1+2+3+9+10/5 = 5 ② Then, find difference between each data pt and the mean, and square this value. Best to use a table (see figure) ③ Now find SD by: σ = √Σ(xᵢ - x̄)²/√n - 1 σ = √16+9+4+16+25/√5 - 1 σ = √70/√4 σ = √17.5 σ ≅ 4

What are the two types of learning that fall under *Aversive Control*?

① Escape learning ② Avoidance learning these are also negative reinforcers

Steps in problem solving

① Frame the problem - create mental image or schematic ② Generate potential solutions (poss from mental set, etc.) ③ Test them ④ Evaluate results, considering other potential solutions that may have been easier or more effective

What are the 4 theories explaining formation of *identity*?

① Gender (*Gender Schema* - Sandra Burn) ② Moral (Kohlberg) ③ Psychosexual (Freud) ④ Psychosocial/Social (Erikson)

What are the 3 steps involved in the *looking-glass self*?

① Imagine how we appear to other people ② Imagine how these people judge/evaluate us ③ We form a self-concept of ourselves (either favorable or unfavorable) based on those perceived judgements

Describe the crossing over that occurs in the visual pathway.

① In both eyes, temporal visual field projects to the nasal side of the retina, and nasal visual field projects to the temporal side of the retina ② However, at the *optic chiasm*, only the info from the *nasal* side (temporal visual fields of each eye) crosses over, and the info from the temporal side (nasal visual field) does NOT cross over This means that all fibers corresponding to the left visual field from *both eyes* (orange) goes to the right side of the brain and all fibers corresponding to the right visual field from *both eyes* (green) goes to the left side of the brain

List the *olfactory* pathway.

① Olfactory nerves ⟶ ② Olfactory bulb ⟶ ③ Olfactory tract ⟶④ higher order brain areas (e.g. limbic system)

4 pillars of information processing model

① Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli ② Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making ③ Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems ④ Problem solving is dependent not only on person's cognitive level, but also context & complexity of the problem

What are the states of consciousness?

① alertness ② sleep ③ dreaming ④ altered states of consciousness

What do all 8 of Freud's defense mechanisms have in common?

① all deny, falsify, or distort reality ② all are unconscious EXCEPT *suppression*

What are the 3 types of conflict?

① approach-approach ② approach-avoidance ③ avoidance-avoidance

What are the two major types of learning?

① associative ② observational

What are the two types of *encoding*?

① automatic ② effortful

According to Chomsky, what are the 2 components of language?

① base - innate ② transformational - comes w/ interaction

What makes up the *inner ear*?

① bony labyrinth (bathed with *perilymph*) (a.) vestibule (central part of bony labyrinth, behind cochlea) (b.) semicircular canals (c.) cochlea all the above are continuous with each other and *filled* with membranous labyrinth ② membranous labyrinth (within bony labyrinth; bathed itself with *endolymph*) (a.) cochlear duct (b.) utricle & saccule (c.) semicircular ducts https://ibb.co/cQUSff

THC acts on what receptors?

① cannabinoid ② glycine ③ opioid

What are the two types of *associative learning*?

① classical conditioning ② operant conditioning

Categories of *consciousness-altering drugs*

① depressants ② stimulants ③ opiates ④ hallucinogens

How was Carl Jung's classification of the mind differed from Freud's?

① ego ￫ conscious mind; has 5 functions ② unconscious ￫ two parts: (a.) *personal unconscious*: housed the *complexes* (b.) *collective unconscious*: housed the *archetypes*

What are the two types of *explicit memory*?

① episodic ② semantic

What are the two types of long-term memory?

① explicit (declarative) ￫ facts & stories ② implicit (nondeclarative/procedural) ￫ skills & conditioning effects

What is the order of the visual pathway?

① eye ⟶ ② *optic nerves* ⟶ ③ *optic chiasm* ⟶④ *optic tracts* ⟶ ⑤ *LGN* ⟶ ⑥ *visual radiations* ⟶ *visual cortex*

What are the 3 methods used to determine the degree of genetic influence on individual differences between people?

① family studies ② twin studies - raised together, and raised apart for both MZ (100%) and DZ (50%) ③ adoption studies - has shown that adopted kids' IQs were similar to their biological parents; same with criminal activity (hence, > genetic component)

What are the two types of intelligence?

① fluid ② crystallized

types of sensory memory

① iconic (visual) ② echoic (auditory) a third is also haptic (touch)

To Freud, what influences our behavior/personality?

① id, ego, superego ② *instincts* (a.) life instincts (b.) death instincts

According to Piaget, a student's ability to solve *conservation* problems depends on an understanding of what three basic aspects of reasoning?

① identity ￫ realizes that material remains the same if nothing is added to or subtracted from the material ② compensation ￫ realizes that changes in one dimension can be offset by changes in another ③ reversibility ￫ realizes that a change may be canceled out by mentally reversing the steps and returning to the origin

When can *bimodal distributions* be analyzed as two separate distributions?

① if there is sufficient separation of the two peaks, or ② if a sufficiently small amount of data within the valley *Note* that even in these cases, they do not *have* to be analyzed separately. We can still apply the same measures of central tendency and distribution

What are the two possible paths from maintenance rehearsal?

① keep it in working memory to prevent forgetting ② store it in STM (and eventually LTM)

What two methods involve association of words on a list to a preconstructed set of ideas?

① method-of-loci ￫ items associated w/ location ② peg-word mnemonics ￫ images associated w/ numbers

Which somatosensation subsets share a pathway in the spinal cord?

① pain & temperature ② pressure & vibration

List the order in which the following skills shift during development. - self-oriented - parent-oriented - other-oriented

① parent-oriented ↓ ② self-oriented ↓ ③ other-oriented

List the important Jungian archetypes

① persona ② anima ③ animus ④ shadow

*Somatosensation* refers to what 4 touch modalities?

① pressure ② vibration ③ pain ④ temperature

3 types of retrieval

① recall ￫ retrieval and statement of previous knowledge ② recognition ￫ identifying a piece of info learned ③ relearning ￫ easier to learn something a second time. Info indeed stored but not readily available for recall

What are the 3 parts (*scalae*) of the *cochlea*?

① scala vestibuli ￫ one end that surrounds the organ of Corti hearing apparatus; filled with perilymph and continuous with both the oval and round windows ② scala media ￫ contains the actual hearing apparatus known as the *organ of Corti* which contains hair cells bathed in *endolymph*. Covered by the *tectorial membrane* ③ scala tympani ￫ other end that surrounds the organ of Corti hearing apparatus; also filled with perilymph and continuous with both the oval and round windows *all 3 scalae run the entire length of the cochlea* Great pic: https://ibb.co/g3sCwL

What are the 3 kinds of *cones*?

① short- ② medium ③ long-wavelength

During what stages of sleep do most *sleep-wake* disorders occur?

① slow-wave sleep (3 + 4) and ② NREM sleep

*Outliers* may be caused by what three factors?

① true population variability (anomalies, like someone 7 ft tall) ② measurement error (in which case, data point is left out) ③ non-normal distribution

What are the 4 humors?

①Blood (sanguine) ￫ air ② Phlegm (phegmatic) ￫ water ③ Black bile (melancholic) ￫ earth ④ (yellow) bile (choleric) ￫ fire

How do our brains change as we age?

￫ high *neuroplasticity* ⟶ much less ￫ *synaptic pruning* ￫ *long-term potentiation*

THC MOA

📸 hyperpolarization (depressant) also a stimulant and hallucinogen

*Compensation* develops in what stage of cognitive development?

📸this falls under *conservation* (one of the three reasoning techniques needed for conservation)