Unit 1: Scientific Foundations of Psychology

the scientific method (module____, page____)

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions. process: 1. theories 2. hypothesis 3. research and observations 4. confirm, reject, or revise replication: if other can replicate the original observations with different participants, materials, and circumstances, confidence in finding's reliability grows

Pos/Cons of Various Types of Research

Case study: Pros: detailed and often many resources allocated (quicker at times); in-depth + further study Cons: Incorrectly generalizing from a small sample size, no breadth of subjects (lead to bias) Naturalistic observation: Pros: Uninfluenced, pure (natural environment, where no bias) Cons: Issues with observing some people, not others (inherent bias), observations may be incorrect/confounding variables Survey study: Pros: Quick, large sample size, ability to randomize and receive a lot of information Cons: Wording, length, lack of randomization can influence everything; can be inaccurate Experiment: Pros: control variables and analyze effects Cons: placebo effect, dangerous/unethical; confounding variables

confounding variable (module 6, page 56)

a factor other than the independent variables studied that may skew the dependent variable results and render the experiment inconclusive ex: studying effects of number of hours of sleep on testing ability, but a confounding variable could be noise level during sleep, which effects quality too

placebo (module 6, page 55)

a harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed for the control group so that the patients only experience psychological changes, not major biological changes in health to ensure that all of the experimental steps are not causing unwanted confounding variables ex: a sugar pill identical to a similar treatment medication used in control group

correlation (module 6, page 50)

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together (how well either factor predicts the other, depend on each other) ex: sleep and test scores correlate with one another, not necessarily causation Illusory correlation: a relationship is perceived where one does not exist (or stronger than reality) --> gamblers thinking they are on a lucky streak (probability stays the same for each new round)

experiment (module 6, page 54)

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variables) avoiding confounding variables is so important!!

statistical significance (module 8, page 71)

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an outcome occurred by chance if below 5%, we can reject null hypothesis and declare that another variable led to the change

mean (module 8, page 67)

arithmetic average of a distribution, added total scores, divided by total numbers/subjects

clinical psychology (module 3, page 25)

assess and treat people's phobias, mental illnesses, and disorders (without prescribing medication, simply talking and exercises) --> administer and interpret tests + conduct research a typical psychologist used to talk about important issues in one's life

random assignment (module 6, page 54)

assigning participants to treatment groups by complete chance, minimizing bias between people and differences in groups (random meant to model population or at least be a representative sample) Ex: picking random numbers one through 10 on a number generator, giving those numbers to ten subjects in the sample and splitting based on numbers into a control and experimental group

normal curve (module 8, page 68)

bell-shaped, symmetrical curve that describes distributions of data (ensure that you are more than one deviation away in the graph)

psychiatry (module 3, page 25)

can also perform psychotherapy but are licensed to prescribe medication and aid the physical effects of disorders on the body if a person suffers from extreme depression, they would visit a psychiatrist who could perform an evaluation and potentially prescribe medications for them such as anti-depressants

standard deviation (module 8, page 68)

computed measure of how much the scores varied around the mean curve

critical thinking (module 1, page 5)

definition: a thinking style that involves skepticism, curiosity, and open-mindedness in an effort to avoid harmful bias; also analyzes everything from starting assumptions to final conclusions to form a position (examines assumptions, determines hidden biases, weighs/investigates evidence and tests conclusions) example: tracking effects of global warming throughout history using scientific evidence, instead of using recent weather events to dictate whether global warming is occurring or not

debriefing (module 7, page 62)

describing the experiment after completion to a subject with an explanation of purpose and any deception during study

natural selection (module 2, page 14)

evolutionary process proposed by charles darwin that stated that certain traits are inherited by organisms that can help/prevent them from surviving or reproducing; inherited traits that benefit survival are likely passed down to following generations ex: a polar bear's white coat is passed down generation after generation likely due to its benefit when it comes to camouflage and insulation evolutionary psychology: study of evolution in terms of behavior and mind (uses natural selection to determine why certain behaviors/thinking are passed down and how do they make us similar/different/better apt for survival) --> how are humans alike because of our common biology and evolutionary history? behavior genetics: study of relative influence of genetics and environmental impacts on behavior --> how do we individually differ because of our diverse genes and environments?

case study (module 5, page 44)

examines an individual or group in depth in the hope of revealing things true of us all; offer directions for future study (can provide interesting ideas, not generalizations) ex: little Albert and little Hans, brain damage, children's minds, and animal intelligence most of early knowledge about the brain came from case studies of individuals who suffered a particular impairment after damage to a certain brain region; Piaget based his conclusions on a few children

informed consent (module 7, page 62)

giving a patient enough info for them to decide whether they want to be in the experiment at all ex: my neighbor decided not to participate in experiment because they believed it was dangerous

scatterplot (module 6, page 50)

graph of dot clusters, which represent two variable values (x, y) the slope of the line implies direction/relationship between variables amount of varying distances of dots = scatter (determines correlation coefficient, strong correlation = ± 1, weak correlation is closer to 0)

counseling psychology (module 3, page 25)

helping people overcome crises and challenges (educational, relationship, and workplace); help them work better with those around them --> administer and interpret tests + conduct research school counselor can advise a student on how to overcome challenges at home to spend more time at school

control group (module 6, page 54)

in an experiment, the group NOT exposed to the treatment; comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment + ensures no issues or unforeseen circumstances took place (usually control group is the well-known expected result) Ex: experiences the placebo on the market while experimental tests

experimental group (module 6, page 64)

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment (experiences one version of independent variable) Ex: The group that receives the new medication on the market

biopsychosocial approach

integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis to any situation, emotion, or behavior (complement one another as only together do they form a complete-ish picture) ex: rachel is feeling sad (biological: sleep-deprived, psychological: anxious/stressed about test, social-cultural: parent is placing immense stress on rachel to succeed due to her own strict upbringing)

cognitive psychology (module 2, page 13)

investigation of how humans recognize, process, and internalize (remember) info also, how thinking + emotion impact/interact with disorders such as anxiety and depression this type of psychology focuses on how our minds analyze and keep information

operational definition (module 5, page 42)

list of operations that should be used in a research study (steps that are carefully worded) human intelligence = operationally defined as measurement of intelligence test example: sleep deprivation is defined as x hours less than a person's normal sleep

surveys (wording effects; module 5, page 47)

looks at many cases i much less depth than a case study (self-reporting behaviors or experiences); a technique to ascertain a self-reported attitude or behavior or particular group usually by questioning a representative from that group (random sample) ex: 68% of humans say that religion is important in their daily lives WORDING EFFECT: words used to make survey questions may influence opinions and choices of takers just from connotations of words used

median (module 8, page 67)

middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it/below it

cognitive neuroscience (module 2, page 13)

mixture of cognitive psychology (study of mind) and neuroscience (study of brain); perception, thinking, memory, and language allows biological take on cognition, not just emotional/thinking this type of neuroscience focuses on how our minds analyze and keep information

double-blind procedure (module 6, page 55)

neither the experimenter nor the subject knows to what group the subjects are in to minimize placebo effect (treatment bias) and attention/care from physicians who are especially attentive to those on treatment by subconscious bias ex: subjects and administrators have no idea who received the placebo or any of the medications tested during trials

naturalistic observations (module 5, page 45)

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate & control the situation (many individuals) does NOT EXPLAIN behavior, only DESCRIBES it ex: watching chimpanzee societies in the jungle, recording racial differences in students' self-seating patterns in a school lunchroom)

community psychology (module 3, page 25)

psychologists that work to create a safe and healthy environment rather than heal or change an individual; emphasis on community building a person who works at a high school to create an inclusive and less stressful environment for students

basic research (module 3, page 24)

pure science that is pursued to increase scientific knowledge base someone working to figure out how a neuron is fired in the brain, how a person responds to stimuli, etc. educational, personality, social, generic research

sample and reliability of data

representative samples are better than biased samples (eliminating bias) less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable (limited confounding variable) more cases are better than fewer (sample size)

random sampling (module 5, page 47)

sample that fairly represents population (every individual has an equal chance to be chosen and represent their communities in a study) oversampling bias exists; too great of a proportion present in sample when ratio is not real in general pop.

psychology (module 2, page 13)

science of behavior and mental processes - behavior: anything an organism does that can be recorded and observed - mental processes: internal/subjective experiences that we can INFER from behavior observed if someone is excessively looking down during a presentation, we can infer that they are anxious or nervous about public speaking helps encompass both observable behavior and inner thoughts/feelings

humanistic psychology (module 1, page 11)

study of "potential for personal growth" b/c behaviorism and Freudian psychology are too limiting and exclude growth outside of conditioned behavior and childhood experiences

positive psychology (module 2, page 16)

study of human growth and success (flourishing/thriving) goal is to focus on strengthening and pushing for the virtues that may help individuals, groups, or even communities thrive (goals: happiness and fulfillment) ex: practicing gratitude is meant to help students feel more mindful and in-the-moment with their themselves and their families (focusing on the positive, rather than the bad/stressful)

applied research (module 3, page 24)

tackling practical problems using psychology working with offices and groups to tackle issues that come up that can be solved from a psychological perspective

range (module 8, page 68)

the difference btwn highest and lowest scores in distribution

independent variable (module 6)

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied on dependent variable ex: the number of hours a student slept before a test

culture (module 2, page 15)

the lasting ideas/behaviors/values shared by a community and passed on from one generation to another life values and superstitions are often passed through generations

level of analysis

the level (e.g., individual, organizational, societal) at which observations are made by analyzer, or at which causal processes operate

nature-nurture issue (module 2, page 14)

the longheld controversy over the relative impact that genes vs. experience have on the growth and development of behaviors or psychological traits nurture works on what nature provides is a particular behavioral, for example, arising from the way parents raised a child (nurture) or did it get passed down genetically (nature) socrates/plato (nature): sided with inheritance of character and intelligence while some ideas are gained aristotle (nurture): all thoughts and ideas come from external sources locke (nurture): tabla rasa (blank slate) descartes (nature): particular ideas are innate

mode (module 8, page 67)

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

dependent variable (module 6, page 56)

the response variable is measured in regard to impact of independent variable on it (outcome measured as it changes to apply it to some form of study

behaviorism (module 1, page 10)

the study/science of behavior (psychological focus) that focuses on observable behavior only study behavior in response to conditioning rather than feelings that aren't quantifiable/measurable

hindsight bias (module 4, page 38)

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (a roadblock to critical thinking, pushed as part of common sense) of course, i knew that that presidential candidate would win!

scientific mindset/attitude (curious, humble, skeptical)

this mindset, when applied to critical thinking, allows people to remain open-minded, yet skeptical of competing ideas or our own observations curiosity: questioning the world around you methodically and spontaneously and searching for relationships between ideas humility: remaining open-minded and understanding that ideas will not always end up as expected skepticism: being cautious and aware of bias and errors to promote credible information

overconfidence (module 4, page 39)

we think we know more than we do (confidently answer factual question even if wrong) (a roadblock to critical thinking, pushed as part of common sense) the capital of California is San Francisco, obviously