UNIT 2

VOICE

The ways in the relationship between a verb and the noun phrases associated with it can be changed without changing the basic meaning of the sentence. The active and passive make up the system e.g. Her chauffeur took her to the airport / She was taken to the airport by her chauffeur.

INFORMATION GAP

(in communication between two or more people) a situation where information is known by only some of those present. In communicative lgg teaching it is said that in order to promote real communication between students, there must be an I____ G_____ between them, or between them and their teacher. Without such a g____ the classroom activities and exercises will be mechanical and artificial.

NOTIONAL (FUNCTIONAL) SYLLABUS

A N______ S________ is one whose language content is organised according to meanings which the learner needs to express, (making requests, expressing past events, expressing hypothetical present meaning, describing location) and the exponents which are used to communicate them. For example, for function Making Requests, possible exponents would be Can/Could you + inf. (Can you open the window?) Would you mind + ing (Would you mind opening the window) I wonder if you could/would mind (I wonder if you'd mind opening the window.) N______ S________ were the basis of the early communicative approach, and are associated with the work of the Council of Europe in the early 70s, led by Wilkins, van Ek, Richterich and Trim.

RELATIVE CLAUSE

A R___ C____ modifies a noun or noun phrase. For example in English: People who smoke annoy me. The book which I am reading is interesting. The pronoun which introduces a R__ C___ is known as a relative pronoun, e.g. who, which, that.

SITUATIONAL PRESENTATION

A approach to presenting language which involves creating a natural context (situation) in which the target language naturally arises.

RELATIVE CLAUSE

A clause which is attached to a noun phrase, which it modifies by giving extra information. E.g. The restaurant that we ate in last week has closed down; Jules, who had left before all the others, still had not arrived.

MULTIWORD VERB

A construction which is a combination of a verb and one or two particles. The particle can be an adverb or preposition or both e.g. cut off

DICTOGLOSS

A form of dictation whose aim is to highlight differences between a student's current linguistic level and that of the target language. It differs from a dictation in a number of respects: (a) it is not intended to test or focus on accuracy of spelling, morphology or syntax; (b) it is spoken at normal speed; (c) students (usually) work collaboratively together to reconstruct the text. The students' versions are then compared against the original and language work, if desired, can be done.

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

A language teaching method where language items are presented as orders, commands and instructions, requiring the learners to respond by carrying them out e.g. Teacher says ' stand up', students stand up.

TEST/TEACH/TEST TASK/TEACH/TASK

A lesson paradigm (=shape) which starts with the students' using the target language in some kind of exercise or task, while the teacher notices what kind of gaps exist in the students' linguistic knowledge. In the second phase, the teacher fills those gaps by focusing on language, and then finally students carry out another task or do another exercise using the language again, hopefully more accurately and fluently.

PREFIX

A letter or sound or group of letters or sounds which are added to the beginning of a word, and which change the meaning or function of the word. e.g. English un- which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite: kind - unkind

SUFFIX

A letter or sound or group of letters or sounds which are added to the end of a word, and which change the meaning or function of the word. e.g. English -ness which usually changes an adjective into a noun: kind - kindness

AFFIX

A letter or sound, or group of letters or sounds (= a MORPHEME), which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word.

DE-LEXICALISED VERB

A verb used with a noun phrase with the general meaning of "perform the action indicated by the noun". Examples : have, take, make and do in the following sentences : She had lunch/ We took a break / I made a mistake / He did the shopping. Parrot (2000) calls these "empty verbs". "Empty" because as he states "they contribute little or no meaning to the expression". Therefore, the meaning must be carried in the whole collocation but it is mainly found in the words following our D____ V____

INTEGRATIVE TEST

AN I____ T_____ is one that requires a test taker to use several language skills at the same time, such as a dictation test, which requires the learner to use knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, and listening comprehension.

GUIDED DISCOVERY

An alternative approach which is often used nowadays is G____ D_____. The language which will be focused on is built into a text (reading or listening). The students first work on the text to ensure overall comprehension of its content, and then move on to the language focus stage where they see several of the examples of the target language extracted from the text and the concept check questions below them. This may be provided in their textbooks or the teacher may give it to them in a handout. Individually or in pairs they then look at the examples and questions and decide their answers before a full class follow up check. This has the advantage of ensuring that everyone is processing the language actively, and working at a level of cognitive depth which is conducive to aiding understanding and retention.

INDUCTIVE APPROACH

An approach to language teaching where learners are given examples of language items in use, and then have to work out the rules from the examples. The rules themselves can be explicitly stated by learners or left unstated. = learners word out rules by examples

BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING

B____ U____ processing makes use of the information present in the input to achieve higher level meaning.

DEMAND HIGH TEACHING

D___ H___ T_____ is based on the basic premise is that learners are capable of much more than they are often asked and the tasks and techniques used in class become rituals and ends in themselves. It has called for teachers to do less 'covering' of material and instead focus on the potential for 'deep learning. "We are simply suggesting adjustments to whatever it is you are already doing in class - ways of getting much greater depth of tangible engagement and learning." How can we transform "undoable" or "low" demand into "doable demand"?

DUMMY OPERATOR

D____ O______ is the name given to the first auxiliary verb in a verb phrase, which is used for grammatical operations such as inversion, negation etc. Examples : - in I'm going to the supermarket the operator is be. The interrogative would be formed by inverting BE and the subject : Are you going to the supermarket? - in I'll be going to the supermarket later the operator is will. It would carry the negative particle not in a negative sentence : I won't be going to the supermarket

DYNAMIC VERBS

D_____V______ express activity and processes (e.g. run, come, buy, read). When they express something that is actually in progress, the progressive form of the verb can be used, for example: She is reading the paper. Some English verbs such as have and think, can be used statively, describing a state, or dynamically, describing an action or activity, for example: statively: I have a really bad headache. (state) dynamically: We are having a party tonight. (activity) statively: I think (opinion, mental state) dynamically: I'm thinking hard (mental activity)

DYNAMIC VERBS OR EVENT VERBS

D______ V_______ are seen as referring to an occurrence with a distinct beginning and end. The distinction made is that D______ V______verbs can be used with either simple or progressive aspect. Anne held up her hand / Ann was holding up her hand. It rained heavily that day / It was raining heavily that day.

FUNCTION

F___ is the communicative purpose or use of an utterance, which may be at odds with its form. For example, the function of 'Would you mind...?' In 'Would you mind lending me £20?' and 'Would you mind turning the noise down?' Is very different; in the first, the function is that of requesting, in the second, commanding, or compelling.

GUIDED DISCOVERY

G___ D____ also known as an inductive approach, is a technique where a teacher provides examples of a language item and helps the learners to find the rules themselves. For example, the learners are shown a problem page containing various examples of the second conditional 'If I were you,.....'. They identify the structure and then the rules for making it. It is regarded by many teachers as an important tool. It encourages independence, makes learning more memorable, and if analysis is done in groups is a meaningful communicative task. It is important, however, to understand that some learners are resistant to this approach.

INFIX

I____ refers to changes within a word: e.g. Tagalog -um- which shows that a verb is in the past tense: sulat "to write" - sumulat "wrote"

INFLECTED LANGUAGE

I______ language is one with a complex system of verb or noun endings, nouns marked for gender, etc.

JIGSAW READING/LISTENING

J___ R____ or J___ L____ are integrated skills activities. Participants first have to read or listen to a text in order to extract information. They then pool the information (speaking) with participants who have listened to or read a text containing different information in order to complete a task. Example : In groups, students have to plan a holiday within a certain budget. Each member of the group has access to a text describing a different holiday resort, with accommodation details, travel information etc. They then have to discuss where they want to go, where they want to stay, how they will travel etc and choose the place for their holiday

LANGUAGE AWARENESS

L___ A___ is the knowledge that teachers have of the underlying systems of the language that enables them to teach effectively.

GUIDED DISCOVERY

Language teaching approach whereby students work out rules and patterns on the basis of a number of samples given. They may be provided with a set of questions aimed at directing them towards the meaning and form of the target language.

DISCRETE-POINT TEST

Language test that measures knowledge of individual language items, such as a grammar test with different sections on tenses, adverbs, and prepositions. D_____-P_____ tests are based on the theory that language consists of different parts (e.g. grammar,pronunciation, and vocabulary) and different skills (e.g. listening, speaking, reading, and writing) and these are made up of elements that can be tested separately. Tests consisting of multiple-choice items are usually D_____-P_____ tests.

SCANNING

Looking rapidly through a text, without actually "reading" it, in order to locate a word, phrase or predictably formulated piece of information known to be included in that text.

PROPER NOUN

P____ N____ are those which name one specific entity - eg : Karen, Microsoft, France, etc. They may be : Names/Titles given to people : David, Dr. Watson, Mummy, Names given to animals, houses, roads, boats etc : Rex, The Titanic, Loch Ness, Flamsteed Road, Rose Cottage, Calendar items - January, Monday, Geographical places and features - Europe, Scotland, Edinburgh, Greenwich, Mount Everest, Organisations, businesses etc - Oxfam, Microsoft, The United Nations Newspapers and Periodicals - The Guardian, Newsweek, Cosmopolitan, These nouns refer to a person or thing which is unique. e.g. New York, Maria. They all have capital letters and are typically personal or geographical names.

STATIVE VERB

S______ V_____ usually refer to a state (an unchanging condition). They express emotion, knowledge, belief (e.g. love, hate, know) and show relationships (e.g. belong to, equal, own). As S______ V_____ describe a state of affairs, they do not occur in the progressive form, for example: Monica owns a house. not *Monica is owning a house.

BARE INFINITIVE OR BASE FORM

The B___ I____ is the base form of the verb used without the infinitive particle to. It may be used : (a) After the dummy operator do. Examples : I do like those shoes / He didn't see her (b) Following a modal auxiliary. Examples : We must go. / We can start now (c) After certain other verbs including, make, have, let, help and verbs of perception.Examples He made her go. She had him mow the lawn He helped her pack. She felt him touch her arm. They heard the car start. (d) After the expressions had better / had rather. Examples : You had better leave. I'd rather not go

SUBJECT

The agent in a sentence or clause that causes the event expressed by the verb. e.g. He gave her the money back.

CONCEPT QUESTIONS

The name for a type of question designed to check and guide learners' understanding of a new language item by isolating its core meanings e.g. for 'She used to smoke': Does she smoke now? Did she in the past? Did she do it once or regularly?

OBJECT

The person or thing that is affected by the action of a transitive verb in a sentence or clause e.g. You heard ME

GRAMMARING / GRAMMATICISATION

The process by which a sequence of words is fine tuned in order to reduce ambiguity and create a more complex message than just words can express e.g. She work project 3 month She'll be working on the project for 3 months.

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

The process of providing information to decision-makers, after a course of instruction, about whether or not the programme was effective and successful: S____ ASS______

CRITICAL AGE (HYPOTHESIS)

The theory that there is an period (e.g. age 2 until puberty) during which language can be acquired rapidly and perfectly, after this it is no longer possible to achieve the same level.

COLLOCATION

Two or more words that commonly co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. e.g. have breakfast

TOP-DOWN PROCESSING

Using pre-existing "knowledge of the world" - eg knowledge of discourse conventions, topic, cultural or social norms - in order to interpret meaning while reading or listening. It is a way humans analyze and process language as part of comprehension and learning. T___ D___ P____ makes use of "higher level", nonsensory information to predict or interpret "lower level" information that is present in the data.

STYLE

Variation in speech or writing, usually in a range from casual to formal, depending on the situation, the person addressed etc e.g. Good morning / Hi.

STATIVE VERBS OR STATE VERBS

Very often verbs are described as if they are either S_____ or dynamic. S_____ V_____ are seen as those which describe something unchanging: I know that!/ I agree. / I remember her well. / I love chocolate! / He's from London. These states can only be expressed using simple aspect - the progressive is impossible in any of the above examples.

SKIMMING

When S_______, we go through the reading material quickly in order to get the gist of it, to know how it is organized, or to get an idea of the tone or the intention of the writer. An example of S______reading might be looking through a newspaper. The reader would be likely to flick through the pages looking at the headlines and photos, and maybe quickly reading the opening paragraph of articles that look interesting. But only once s/he had decided that an article was definitely of interest or relevance would s/he start reading more intensively.

READING FOR DETAIL

When the reader wishes to fully understand and retain the specific information that the text contains - for example, if you are reading an academic text and taking notes as you go.

ADJACENCY PAIR

a sequence of two related utterances by two different speakers. The second utterance is always a response to the first. In the following example, speaker A makes a complaint, and speaker B replies with a denial: A: You left the light on. B: It wasn't me! The sequence of complaint - denial is an A___ P____ Other examples: greeting - greeting, question - answer, invitation - acceptance/non-acceptance, offer - acceptance/non-acceptance, complaint - apology.

SCHWA

a short vowel usually produced with the tongue in a central position in the mouth and with the lips unrounded. In English, it occurs very frequently in unaccented syllables, e.g. -mous in fam@s, -ment in movem@nt and in unstressed words in rapid speech, e.g. to in /t@ teIk/ to take.

ELISION

the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech. For example, in rapid speech in English, suppose is often pronounced as [sp@Uz], factory as [`faektri] and mostly as [m@usli].

PPP

three-stage model of lesson design. In the first, language rules are provided for / elicited from students, then analysed. In the second stage, students are encouraged to focus on producing the language accurately, through practice exercises, and in the final stage, the students are encouraged to use the language more freely and in more natural settings.

INTRUSION

when an extra consonant is added at the end of a word to link it to a following word starting with a vowel, this is known as I_______. In English, an in_______ /r/ is often added, especially before and. For example: ChinaR and Japan / LenaR and Sue