Unit 2: Global Resource Consumption and Security

What is peak oil?

the hypothetical point in time when the global production of oil reaches its maximum rate, after which production will gradually decline.

Biocapacity

the land and water to provide resources for humanity.

Carrying Capacity =

the amount of people an area of land can support (persons/land).

Diet

the foods and beverages a person eats and drinks

What is the most beneficial energy profile for a country?

Diverse

"Disposable Income"

Income remaining for a person to spend or save after all taxes have been paid.

FAD vs. FED

(Food Availability Deficit) physical factors vs. (Food Entitlement Deficit) human factors.

What are the 3Rs?

reduce, reuse, recycle

Problems caused by water shortages and water pollution:

- Drought - Crop Failure - Livestock Deaths - Famine - Groundwater Depletion

Stores where we can find water:

- Oceans (97.2%) - Ice sheets and Glaciers (2.15%) - Groundwater - Freshwater Lakes - Saline Lakes and Inland Seas - Soil - Atmosphere - Streams and Rivers

State the year in which total oil stocks were at their peak.

1998

What categories can causes of water shortages be divided into?

Water shortages can be divided into a number of categories. Physical water shortages is when there is not enough surface or groundwater to meet the demand for it. Economic water shortages is when water exists, but for some reason it can not be fully utilised, maybe because extraction and piping is too expensive or treatment of polluted water is too expensive and the technology does not exist.

Safe Drinking Water:

Water that is safe for human consumption. The water must be free from harmful pollutants and bacteria that could make people ill.

State two examples of goods that can be (a) recycled, (b) reused, or (c) reduced.

(b) Reuse goods to extend their lifespan: - Bring-back schemes where containers are refilled (eg. milk bottles). - Used goods put to another use rather than thrown out (eg. plastic bags used as bin liners or old clothes used as cleaning cloths).

A little history leading up to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG's):

- 1992: Earth Summit in Rio. Hosted by the UNDP/UNEP on the theme of a sustainable future for all countries. A document followed the Summit called "Agenda 21", which could be considered as the "bible" or "blueprint" for sustainable development but was a very dense and complex document, not very useable by countries. - 2000: the 8 Millennium Development goals were introduced, focusing on sustainable development only in the least developed countries (LIC's). - 2015: the MDG's ended and were replaced by 17 SDG's, focusing on sustainable development in all countries (all different levels of development).

What are photovoltaics?

- A method of converting sunlight to electricity using layer of minerals (metals, eg. silicon) that either readily give up or absorb electrons. - Arranged on large panels that absorb sunlight (heat from the sun), even on cloudy or rainy days.

Managing Water Scarcity and building Water Security - Case Study: Singapore - How big is Singapore?

- Approximately 40 km by 25 km. - Considering Singapore's population of 5.5 million people, a lot of its land is still green. It uses this rainforest belt to store fresh water.

Explain why the ecological footprint of HICs is greater than that of LICs?

- As countries develop, their consumption of resources increases. - Diets change, and the consumption of water and energy consumption. - As countries increase their standard of living, their resource use increases. - Ecological footprints are used to measure resource increases.

Comment on the export of waste to China.

- China imports more than 3 million tonnes of waste plastic and 15 million tonnes of paper and cardboard annually. - A third of the UK's waste plastic and paper is exported to China each year. - Low wages and a large workforce mean that this waste can be sorted much more cheaply in China, despite the distance that it is transported.

What is the cornucopian theory?

- Cornucopian, label given to individuals who assert that the environmental problems faced by society either do not exist or can be solved by technology or the free market. - Cornucopians hold an anthropocentric view of the environment and reject the ideas that population-growth projections are problematic and that Earth has finite resources and carrying capacity (the number of individuals an environment can support without detrimental impacts).

What is energy security?

- Energy security is the association between national security and the availability of natural resources for energy consumption. - Access to cheap energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies. However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among countries has led to significant vulnerabilities.

Food security analysts look at the combination of the following three main elements:

- Food availability - Food access - Food utilization

What are some SDG's that link to resource stewardship?

- Goal 1 (No poverty): Fair trade to ensure no-one is living on less than $1 a day. - Goal 2 (Zero hunger): Ensuring sustainable food production systems. - Goal 3 (Good health & wellbeing): Managing chemicals better to reduce illnesses & deaths. - Goal 6 (clean water & sanitation): Increasing water quality by reducing manufacturing pollution. - Goal 7 (affordable & clean energy): improving energy efficiency and increasing renewable energy throughout value chains. - Goal 14 (life below water): Sustainably manage and protect marine areas eg. addressing plastics and other pollutants. - Goal 15 (life on land): achieve sustainable management of forests through responsible and efficient use of resources.

The UN's role in the water-food-energy nexus is very linked to the Sustainable Develop Goals. Some SDGs that are clearly linked include:

- Goal 2: Zero Hunger, which connects to food security. - Goal 14: Life below water, which connects to water security. - Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy, which connects to energy security.

What is the greywater system?

- Greywater is any wastewater generated from your laundry (sinks and appliances), bathroom (baths, showers, basins) and kitchen (sinks and dishwashers), before it has come into contact with the sewer. - It does not include toilet wastewater, which is classed as blackwater. - So it can be reused again for different domestic needs where that water is applicable (eg. water for the garden).

Think of economies as a system, with:

- Input (Raw materials, Resources, etc.) - Processes (Processing, Manufacturing & Waste, etc.) - Outputs (Products, Profit, Waste, etc.)

Which countries in Europe have (a) the best and (b) the worst rates of recycling?

- Lithuania recorded the highest recycling share with 74%. It was followed by Cyprus with 64% (figure from 2015) and Slovenia with 62%. - With only 24.6% of its plastic waste recycled, Estonia came in last in the ranking. Finland (25.4%) and France (25.8%) completed the bottom three.

Description of the location and scale of the Canadian tar sands operations:

- Located beneath the boreal forests in the country's Alberta province. - Canada's oil sands is the third largest proven crude oil reserve in the world behind Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. - Canada's oil tar sands operation is the first supplier to the USA as a single country, which offers the USA high levels of energy security.

What are the positives of recycling?

- May reduce new material harvested/exploited to make products. - Usually requires less energy than manufacturing a new products. - Reduces material going to landfill. This may be short term only.

Sustainability

- Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. - It has three main pillars or elements: economic, environmental, and social. These three pillars are informally referred to as people, planet and profits.

Where is most of the growth in the middle class predicted to occur?

- Most of the growth in the middle class is predicted to be in Asia. - By 2030, China and India together will represent 66% of the global middle-class population and 59% of middle-class consumption

Why are so few phones recycled?

- Part of the reason that fewer than 10 per cent of mobile phones are dismantled and reused is that phones and other devices are becoming increasingly complex and made of smaller and smaller components. - The failure to recycle is also leading to shortages of rare-earth minerals to make future generations of electronic equipment.

renewable vs nonrenewable energy

- Renewable energy (sources) capture their energy from existing flows of energy, from on-going natural processes, such as sunshine, wind, flowing water, biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. Infinite in supply. - Non-renewable energy comes from sources that will run out or will not be replenished in our lifetimes—or even in many, many lifetimes. Most non-renewable energy sources are fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Or Nuclear fuel. They are finite.

Renewable energy is very...

- Renewable energy is very location/region specific. - Not applicable to all locations.

From a linear to a circular economy:

- Reuse Economy is the most realistic one, because it does use some raw materials and end-up with some non-recyclable waste, however still tries to recycle and reuse.

What does sanitary landfill aim to reduce?

- Sanitary landfill aims to reduce the environmental impact of landfill by controlling groundwater contamination, CH4 production and the visual appearance of the pile of waste. - The opposite approach is to just "dump" the waste (an open dump).

Which types of energy pathways are preferred by countries?

- Short energy pathways are better for energy security, as they minimise risks/vulnerabilities on the way. - Local energy pathways (keeping it within the own boarders) is also favoured because it minimises major vulnerabilities, namely geopolitical tensions.

Managing Water Scarcity and building Water Security - Case Study: Singapore - Introduction:

- Singapore has experienced economic growth and development since it gained independence in 1965. - Singapore is a city-state, which basically means it is a city sized country.

Photovoltaic vs. solar thermal

- Solar photovoltaic panels produce electricity, while solar thermal systems produce heat. - While both of these processes are energy efficient, solar photovoltaic only works during the day when the sun is out.

Description of how the tar sands are processed to produce usable oil?

- Tar sand is either strip mined or produced by injecting high pressure steam into the ground to melt the bitumen and get it to flow to the surface. - To process tar sand into usable energy it requires complex refining that is also highly energy intensive and polluting. This relates back to easily accessible sources of oil that we are starting to run out of - people are turning to sources of oil which are "dirtier" (need more processing and refining) and more difficult to extract.

Are the 3Rs in random order?

- The 3 R's are not in random order. - They are in the order of the most desirable to least desirable action, in terms of the resulting impact on resource consumption and the environment.

What is FSC?

- The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), established in 1933 in response to those concerns over global deforestation. - It is an international non-profit, multistakeholder organization that promotes responsible management of the world's forests. - FSC has developed a system of forest certification and product labelling that enables consumers to identify responsibly sourced wood, paper and other forest products. - Ikea lost its FSC certification a while ago and fought hard to get it back.

How much does the world still rely on fossil fuels?

- The availability of energy still relies heavily on fossil fuels, which account for 80% of global energy consumption. - The biggest consumers are the USA, China and Europe (together accounting for more than half of all fossil fuel consumption).

Linear vs. Circular Economies

- The circular economy eliminated resource extraction and replaced with recycling. - But this is difficult to do 100% (to never extract new resources & only reuse), because both in making and consumption there is usually some sort of waste involved. - Circular economy is trying to mimic the natural world. - It's not about one company but the interconnected supply pathways.

What is the efficiency of photovoltaics?

- The efficiency of photovoltaics is the % of sunlight converted into energy. - Nowadays, this is around 30% and it's becoming more and more energy efficient over the years.

Outline the problems associated with incineration.

- The high initial capital cost. - Toxic ash: this is usually equal to 10-20% of the mass of the original waste, and still needs to be disposed of in landfill. - Air pollution: Carbon dioxide, particulates, etc. which can lead to other environmental problems such as acid rain, smogs and hence health issues (eg. lung cancer).

Why is there an increase in e-waste?

- The increase in e-waste is happening because there's so much technical innovation (tv's, mobile phones, and computers). - The lifetime of products is also shortening. In 2012 China generated 11.1 million tonnes of e-waste, followed US with 10 million tonnes. - However, per capita figures were reversed: on average, each American generated 29.5 kg of e-waste, compared to less than 5 kg per person in China.

What is the relationship between development and energy consumption?

- The previous graph shows a strong positive correlation between GDP (wealth) and energy use by country. - The upward slope at almost 45 degree and the relative tight fit of the points indicates the strong positive relationship. - The points are close to each other and there are not many outliers = strong correlation (close to the trend). - From this one can conclude that the more energy people have, the wealthier the country becomes. The relationship between the GDP as it increases results in a higher energy consumption.

Explain how the use of water affects energy resources.

- The use of water affects energy resources, because producing energy uses water, and providing freshwater uses energy. - All sources of energy (including electricity) require water in their production processes: the extraction of raw materials, cooling in thermal processes, in cleaning processes, cultivation of crops for biofuels, and powering turbines.

What are energy pathways?

Energy pathways are the flows of energy from producer to consumer. These include: - Oil Pathways - Gas Pathways - Electricity Pathways

How is the water-food-energy nexus central to sustainable development?

- The water-food-energy nexus is central to sustainable development as demand for all three is increasing, driven by a rising global population, a rising global middle-class, rapid urbanization, changing diets and economic growth. - Agriculture is the largest consumer of the world's freshwater resources, and more than one-quarter of the energy used globally is expended on food production and supply.

What is underpopulation?

- Underpopulation occurs when there are far more resources in an area (such as food, energy and minerals) than can be used by the people living there. - Canada could theoretically double its population and still maintain its standard of living. - Countries like Canada and Australia can export their surplus food, energy and mineral resources, they have high levels ot immigrants, and it is possible that their standard of living would increase through increased production if their population were to increase.

There are several ways we produce steam for turbines:

- Using the heat from controlled nuclear fission to heat water - Burning fossil fuels to heat water - Using heat from the sun to heat water (solar thermal) - Using geothermal heat to heat water - Burning biomass or biogas to heat water

Examples of reduce:

- Water conserving shower heads - low flush toilets - Energy efficient appliances - Stop Food Waste (eg. Dumpster Diving! or Buy Nothing Day = counter Black Friday & hyper-consumption) - Reduction (or "reduce") includes using less energy such as turning off lights when not needed. - Using only the amount of water needed when boiling a kettle.

Moving forces can also be used to spin turbines:

- Wind power - Tidal energy - HEP - Hydro Electric Power - Wave energy

What is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch?

- an area in the north pacific ocean with slowly rotating surface water meaning that trash slowly accumulates and forms massive mats of plastic trash. - the plastic breaks down into smaller pebbles & gets into the ecosystem as animals eat it.

Why are man-made diseases such as diabetes and obesity more common in MICs?

- lack of dietary education. - still emerging economies.

Energy security has many aspects:

- long-term energy security mainly deals with timely investments to supply energy in line with economic developments and environmental needs. - On the other hand, short-term energy security focuses on the ability of the energy system to react promptly to sudden changes in the supply-demand balance.

What does this graph show?

- the blue arrow shows the point on time which was mistaken for being "peak oil", as it just turned out that OPEC held back oil coming to the market. - The white region shows the supply of more high quality oil/liquid oil that is currently decreasing. - The darker the regions, the more expensive they are and harder/riskier to extract and less energy efficient.

Examples of Renewable energy sources region specificity:

- wind energy: potentially along the coastline. - HEP energy: lots of flowing water, hence better in an area with a bit of terrain/slope/gradient & hills to store water reservoirs. - solar power: dry seasons, however places like Norway may also use seasonal solar power due to long summers, etc. - Biomass: useful in regions with lots of arable land.

What are the top 3 uses of water?

1. Agriculture 2. Industry (industrial life) 3. Domestic use (residential use - homes, shops, etc.)

What similarities and differences can you see in terms of the strengths and challenges Ethiopia & Egypt face in terms of resource security (Food, water & energy).

1. Agriculture is a dominant sector in both countries, with more than 70% of Ethiopia's population still employed in the agricultural sector, but services have surpassed agriculture as the principal source of GDP. 2. Egypt has comparatively a more diverse economy, making it less dependent on a single source of GDP. 3. Rapid population growth in both countries. 4. Water security heavily depends on the Nile River for both countries. 5. Egypt built the Aswan Dam and Lake Nasser (huge reservoir of water) where it uses more than 80% of this dam for irrigation of water in agriculture. Egypt's GDP went up through the Aswan Dam and Lake Nasser, as it did not have a reliable water supply in earlier years, but they could finally grow enough food for themselves, and even had excess which they export now (around 20% of their food gets shipped to other countries) which was beneficial for their urbanisation & industrialisation (growing GDP = more trade & commerce). = Egypt is around 30-40 years ahead in terms of its economy. = Egypt has permanent food supply year round, whereas Ethiopia only seasonally.

Suggest two reasons why the total resource consumption per capita decreased between 1980 and 1995, even though global resource extraction was increasing.

1. An economic downturn could result in less consumption even though companies are still extracting more resources. 2. The implementation of sustainable policies rising in countries would cause resource extraction to continue but so per capita usage fall.

What is NATO's role in Energy security in Lithuania?

1. Become more independent =. increase its availability to other/alternative energy sources/pathways, diversifying their energy profile. = If they can get other energy sources than Russia = more independency & sovereignty. 2. Massive ship called "Independence" is in their minds literally an emancipation from Russia, as this great store of gas allows them to be less dependent on gas prices of their former only one energy supplier, namely Russia's Gazprom. After-all, if the only source of gas is Gazprom then they can charge Lithuania a lot. This risk is diminished by diversifying their energy profile. 3. But one could argue that Lithuania's dependency is shifting from Russia to NATO, however with NATO their linking them to more countries, hence a more diverse energy profile.

What are the advantages of landfill?

1. Cheap waste disposal option. 2. Jobs will be created for local people. 3. Lots of different types of waste can be disposed compared to other methods. 4. The gases given off by the landfill site could be collected and used for generating power.

When did the China stop importing foreign waste?

1. China has long been the biggest global importer of scrap plastic and paper, which it processes for other uses. 2. But the Chinese government introduced a new policy in January 2018 as part of a major clean-up effort and campaign against "foreign garbage" that has drastically reduced low-grade solid waste imports and caused an upheaval in international supply chains.

What are some examples of factors contributing to the FED (affecting food security)?

1. Conflict 2. Politics 3. Aid 4. Distribution 5. Food price fluctuations 6. Access 7. Production 8. Poverty 9. Inflation 10. Wage decrease 11. Shift to export crop production (as countries become more industrialised they export more resources than they have available to support their own population) 12. Power shortages 13. Rising energy prices 14. Production of biofuels

Possible negative factors affecting energy security:

1. Conflicts in energy production regions (causing energy production is interrupted). 2. Conflicts inhibiting transmission or transport of energy (where energy dependence of a region on another country is a huge factor). 3. Price fluctuations (eg. if oil prices go up it bad for countries that are dependent on imported energy supply, vice versa). 4. Finite nature of some energy source 5. Environmental regulations or agreements (Climate Change & Paris Agreement). 6. Natural hazards (eg. Fukushima earthquake and tsunami putting nuclear powerplant completely out of function). 7. Accidents (eg. Chernobyl - the testing of the nuclear power plant in northern Ukraine going wrong in 1984, which had affect on long-lasting, still existent radiation in the region, also caused a lot fo countries to review nuclear energy and stop it entirely). 8. Range of energy sources 9. Changing demand for energy supply.

Suggest one reason why country A does not fit the general pattern.

1. Country A does not fit the trend because it has a higher GNI per person than would be expected given its ecological footprint. 2. Country A could have very good environmental policies including things like recycling/less landfill.

Suggest two ways in which declining water availability might threaten a country's energy security.

1. Declining water availability might reduce the input of water into reservoirs in hydro-electric power generation schemes, so a country that is heavily dependent on hydro-power may be unable to generate as much electricity as previously and may be unable to meet demand. 2. Water is also vital to many processes in the generation of energy, such as with steam, cooling & cleaning (machinery). Therefore, reduced water availability would affect the efficiency and effectiveness of energy generation, hence limiting energy security.

Why do some countries import and others export e-waste?

1. Developed countries (HIC's) would prefer to export their electronic waste due to the high cost of recycling (3R's) in their own countries. 2. Many wealthy countries send their recyclable waste overseas because it's cheap, helps meet recycling targets and reduces domestic landfill. 3. In contrast, safety standards for recycling facilities in developing countries are worryingly low. 4. For developing countries (LIC's) taking in the rubbish is a valuable source of income.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Renewables:

1. Do not release pollutants, such as greenhouse gases or chemicals that contribute to acid rain. 2. They will not run out, because they are renewable. 3. Risk to energy security is diminished, when relying on alternative energy sources that are adapted to your region/climate/location. 4. As renewables become more energy efficient = cost effective/price goes down. 5. More laws/regulations/incentives/policies made by governments in favour to expand renewables. 1. Fossil fuel resources are still economically cheaper to exploit, and the technologies to harness renewable energy sources are not available on a large scale.

What are the impacts of importing e-waste (for example in China)?

1. E-waste is made up of hundreds of different materials and contain toxic substances and precious metals such as lead, mercury, etc. 2. Once in landfill, these toxic materials seep out into the environment, contaminating land, water and the air. 3. Workers at these sites suffer from illness. 4. Guiyu in China has been described as the e-waste capital of the world. 5. Most of the recycling takes place in people's homes. 6. The industry is worth $75 million to the town each year, but Guiyu's population has elevated rates of lead poisoning, cancer-causing dioxins, and miscarriages.

Summarize Egypt's strengths & challenges in terms of resource security (Food, water & energy):

1. Egypt faces major water, food and energy security challenges which are magnified by the political instability and severely decreasing economic growth since the 2011 revolution (Arab Spring). 2. The Nile is Egypt's only renewable water source; threatened by GERD. 3. In regards to energy, Egypt is heavily dependent on its oil and gas reserves. The energy demand is likely to grow due to increasing energy consumption in the agriculture and water sector, and the growing population and economy. 4. One in five Egyptians are currently experiencing food insecurity as a result of structural issues in the food supply system. 5. Water shortages will have a severe impact on Egypt's food security. Of Egypt's total water supply, 80% is used for agriculture. As water availability shrinks and available agricultural land is used, Egypt's food production capacity will fall.

How can the fashion industry become more sustainable?

1. Fashion out of forests, using fibres from tress/wood instead of cotton. This uses 60% less virtual water and releases 15 times less carbon emissions. However, sustainable forestry is needed for this. 2. Bamboo fibres in tropical climates are also an alternative. 3. Both are affordable sources of fibre for textiles.

Why does the fashion trail (industry) need to become more sustainable?

1. Fast-fashion and people starting to treat clothes as a disposable good, because it's so increasingly cheap. = Today, given the fast and cheap production of clothing, 85% of textiles end up in land fills or are incinerated. 2. 10% of the global carbon emissions are linked to the fashion industry. That is more than all the international flights and maritime shipping emissions combined. 3. Produces 20% of global waste water. = When we wash synthetic fibres, they release micro-plastics that end up polluting our oceans. 4. 10, 000 litres of water are embedded in 1kg of cotton (enough for just 1 pair of jeans), which is a lot of virtual water to begin with, equivalent to the amount of water a human drinks over a period of 10 years.

What are the disadvantages of landfill?

1. The site will look ugly (disamenity). = Landfills need to be located relatively close to the source of waste to be economic, so they tend to be found near areas of high population density. 2. When biodegradable waste such as food decomposes anaerobically, it releases methane, which, is a greenhouse gas and contributes to air pollution & global warming. Plus, it is explosive and causes fires on landfill sites. 3. Local streams could become polluted with toxins seeping through the ground from the landfill site. = Not be able to use for redevelopment as it might be too polluted. = Many areas already struggle to find suitable new landfill sites. This shortage of space will become more acute as the amount of waste continues to grow.

Advantages & Disadvantages of fossil fuels:

1. Fossil fuels are currently relatively cheap and plentiful. 2. Advance technologies have been developed to allow safe extraction and the technology already exists for their use (eg. combustion engine). The technology for controlling pollution from these fuels also exists. 3. Power output is the highest at the moment. Oil and gas have a particular advantage in that they can be delivered over long distance by pipeline. 1. Non-renewable source - will eventually run out, hence unsustainable. 2. Release carbon dioxide (CO2 ) when burnt - greenhouse gas - causes global warming. 3. Oil spillages from tankers and burst pipelines can severely damage natural ecosystems, and it's very expensive to clear up this type of pollution (eg. Deepwater Horizon). 4. volubility of oil prices (OPEC controls oil produced and the share). = Political tension, not only war but who controls the prices & flow of wealth. 5. smog = urban air pollution (eg. China with coal factories due to industrialisation).

Factors which make Energy Pathways vulnerable:

1. Geopolitical connections between countries (e.g. Ukraine-Russia). This emphasises political tensions caused when energy pathways cross a boarder, as is the case with Crimea and Russia wanting to secure its energy pathways for the future. 2. War: e.g. Gulf war - 'Straits of Hormuz' as there is a lot of oil underneath these countries and a lot of oil is also shipped through this small opening (the 'Straits of Hormuz'), which is a pressure point that has led to a lot of conflict and modern-day piracy on the coast of Somalia even, as gas & oil is removed from ships that want to reach the Mediterranean Sea, but have to pass by this region. 3. Strikes by energy workers (e.g. port workers interrupting the energy pathway). 4. Damaged infrastructure from natural disasters. / Disintegration of infrastructure (e.g. pipelines).

Describe and suggest reasons for the pattern of energy consumption shown by this graph:

1. In the early 1800 the world population was very dependent on biomass for energy. The population was largely rural and burned biomass such as wood, charcoal, peat, dung (poop), whale oil, etc. 2. Industrialisation in Europe and other regions, across the 1800's led to rapid increase in the use of coal as a cheap, efficient and readily available energy source due to an increase in transportation and factories. 3. Petroleum (oil) was discovered in the 1800's but was mainly used for lamps. In the post world war II era, the use of oil expanded very rapidly as transport was revolutionised (including cars) and the use of plastics expanded greatly. 4. Hydro energy grew in the 1900 with major infrastructure programs in areas of the world suited to this type of energy generation (eg. the "Great Leap Forward" in the United States during the Great Depression - putting unemployed men to work for the construction of dams using rivers such as the Colorado river). 5. Nuclear grew in the post war era but is limited in location and extent due to the cost and required technology. 6. The 2008 economic crash is also visible and coal is now increasing again, because of the industrialising of countries like China & India that are seeing a rising middle-class and a rise in the coal industry.

Suggest some reasons why Egypt has higher resource security (Food, water & energy) than Ethiopia:

1. Inefficient use and inequitable distribution of water resources in Ethiopia suggest that Egypt has a higher resource security → Even though it is dependent on the Nile River = water scarcity, it is economically more developed and has more efficient water transportation, irrigation, etc. systems. → will depend upon management. 2. A lack of infrastructure and basic services, such as safe drinking water, education and healthcare, contribute to Ethiopia's poverty as well. 3. Malaria, HIV and other diseases often kill Ethiopia's workforce who provide for their families. 4. About 80% of Ethiopia's people work in agriculture. Because agriculture is the primary source for Ethiopia's economy, most of its population takes up much of its rural areas than its urban. Smallholder farmers form the largest group of poor people in Ethiopia. These farmers lack basic infrastructure, socially and economically, such as health care and educational facilities. They depend on their agriculture for most of their living essentials. Because so many of these farmers live in poverty, they also lack the ability to update their tools to grow better crops. 5. The consequences of the war with Ethiopia's neighboring country, Eritrea, have been compared to those of World War I, leaving a legacy of economic burden in the country, with millions of dollars spent by an already poor economy. 6. Furthermore, Ethiopia's poverty is also caused by rising global market prices. Because of the increase in prices, the situation in the country has worsened. With restrictions to access food and other supplies, households have limited resources and cannot purchase the necessary amount of things such as food and fertilizer.

Suggest two reasons for the changing importance of nuclear energy.

1. Issues associated with safety/radiation leaks from nuclear energy have changed its importance and reduced country's desire to take the risks. 2. The relative cost of constructing nuclear power stations compared with other sources of power has changed its importance, because LIC's may be more reluctant to pay and afford such investments due to their lack of means.

Advantages & Disadvantages of nuclear power:

1. It does not emit carbon dioxide and so does not contribute to global warming. 2. The technology is readily available. 3. A large amount of electrical energy is generated in a single plant. = It is very efficient, especially in comparison to fossil fuels: 1kg of uranium contains 20,000 times more energy than 1kg of coal. 1. The radioactive waste from nuclear power stations is extremely dangerous and remains so for thousands of years. How best to dispose of this is still an un resolved problem. = The associated risks to the radioactive waste are high. 2. It is impossible to build a plant with 100% reliability and there will always be a probability of failure, as happened in the Chernobyl disaster. The more nuclear power plants = the higher the probability of a disastrous failure somewhere in the world. 3. The energy source for nuclear energy is uranium which is scarce and non-renewable. Its supply is estimated to last for only the next 30-60 years depending on demand. 4. It takes a long time to build a new nuclear power plant.

How are sanitary landfills preferable over "open-dumps"?

1. It has a clay liner on the outside to prevent groundwater contamination. 2. There is also a gas recovery system in place through pipe lines to extract methane and use it as fuel as it burns cleanly. 3. They also cover the landfill to add a visual appearance of the pile of waste, as it can then be used for recreational activities if it is solid waste covered with gras, etc. 4. Sanitary landfills are preferable environmentally, socially and aesthetically, but are more expensive.

What is the largest store of water?

The Oceans are by far the biggest store of water. They dominate the amount of water available, 97% of all water is found in our oceans.

Managing Water Scarcity and building Water Security - Case Study: Singapore - What are Singapore's Four National Taps?

1. Local Catchment (a part of Singapore's sustainable water supply, which relies on rainwater) has increased from 3 to 17 reservoirs. 2. Imported Water making up about ½ of Singapore's water supply. Singapore is aiming to drastically reduce this source so that they are not dependent on another country. 3. NEWater involves recycling waste water directly back to drinking water and this started about 15 years ago. However, it is expensive to clean (filter), now that's almost "too clean" for people; it tastes like nothing and it's used for industrial purposes, technology, etc. instead, or put into reservoirs to absorb some "taste". Additionally, as this water originally came from "waste", such as the sewage system, many Singaporeans do not trust it and it took a lot of convincing, persuasion, campaigns from the governments and companies to market. 4. Desalinated Water is the most recent addition as efficiency and fuel prices made it affordable about 9 years ago. However, it is a very expensive process that takes a lot of energy and results in a yield of CO2 emissions.

Describe the positive and negative social impacts of the Canadian "Tar Sands" - the shift to "dirty oil":

1. More employability, rapid growth of rural populations and small towns increasing their economic output and potential economic growth = some way of development/"better quality of life". 2. However, on the flipside, there is an increased worsening of health by the people nearby these industries, due to their lowered, unsafe accessibility to fresh water, which has shown correlation with cancer and other illnesses. 3. Especially, Canadian first-nations people are getting sick due to their proximity to the contaminated lakes and many of which are reliant on hunting and direct fresh water resources for living are therefore treated unfairly.

What is optimum population?

1. Optimum population is the number of people who, when working with all the available resources, will produce the highest per-capita economic return. 2. It is the highest standard of living and quality of life. 3. If the size of the population increases or decreases from the optimum, the standard of living will fall. 3. This concept is dynamic and changes with time as techniques improve, as population totals and structures change, and as new materials are discovered.

What is overpopulation?

1. Overpopulation occurs when there are too many people, relative to the resources and technology locally available, to maintain an adequate standard of living. 2. Bangladesh, Somalia, and parts of Brazil and India are overpopulated as they have insufficient food and materials. 3. They suffer from natural disasters such as drought and famine and are characterized by low incomes, poverty, poor living conditions, and a high level of emigration. 4. Bangladesh has a population density of over 1,000 people per square kilometre, and is overpopulated.

How does the resource nexus show that all three components are interlinked?

1. People, landscapes and ecosystems are all affected by these three vital resources. 2. Energy, Food and Water are all affected by demand, supply and assets. 3. Food production, processing and transport need energy. + Clean water supply needs energy. 4. Energy production needs water, and impacts water quality and availability. 5. Food production needs clean water, and impacts on water quality and availability. For instance, polluted water would damage the food security. 6. Fossil fuel extraction, energy crops, etc. impact food supply. For instance, using a lot of land to grow energy sources, such as biofuels would diminish the areas needed to grow food and hence effect food supply. 7. Water infrastructure and use impacts on fish stocks, food supply and land use.

Causes of water shortages:

1. Population Growth 2. Pollution 3. Domestic Demand 4. Agricultural Demand 5. Industrial Demand 6. Sewage 7. Climate Change 8. Political tensions 9. Groundwater Depletion 10. Energy Production

Describe the environmental impacts of oil production using tar sand:

1. Producing oil from tar sand releases x3 the volume of greenhouse gases as producing conventional oil. + It has a much higher carbon footprint due to the large amounts of heat that need to be added to melt bitumen, which makes it not energy efficient. 2. The tar sands have also led to huge deforestation rates and contaminated water that's a by-product of the process used to turn the Bitumen into usable fuel. This water contains leftover Bitumen as well as solvents used to separate Bitumen from the sand mixture and is known as tailings, which has also contributed to biodiversity loss.

Suggest two disadvantages of recycling materials as a strategy to reduce resource consumption.

1. Recycling can be expensive; some nations/cities may not be able to afford the technology. 2. Recycling involves transporting waste to processing centres; transport and processing requires expenditure of energy such as fossil fuels, which leads to more emissions.

What are the negatives of recycling?

1. Recycling often involves "down-cycling". Many materials do not maintain their original quality during recycling. The material therefore ends up being made into a lesser product with poorer materials = down-cycling. For instance, higher grade plastics made become lower grade plastics when recycled. + The result of down-cycling is that new raw materials are then harvested to make the original products. + Recycling process can be energy hungry. Energy = natural resources. 2. Recycling products can be more expensive than making new products often. 3. Effective recycling depends on public participation. 4. Effective recycling usually requires government policies and incentives.

The order of the 3Rs:

1. Reduce = conservation. Consume less of everything and therefore reduce consumption of natural resources. Most effective in terms of reducing natural resource use and resource stewardship. 2. Re-use = waste reduction. If you buy a product use it as many times as possible before disposing of it. 3. Recycle = materials used to make a product are re-processed to make another product. Least effective in terms of reducing natural resource use as the reprocessing requires energy and often material resources.

How is it important for governments and companies to think of the Water-Food-Energy Nexus?

1. There are 2 billion middle class people in the world today. By 2030 this number is predicted to have risen to 5 billion. 2. In order to transform the current system and sustain the QoL we are currently living in governments, NGOs, businesses and citizens need to shift from thinking about the WEF and natural resources as separate issues, towards thinking about their interconnectedness. 3.The food needed to sustain an increased population will require more water and energy. Producing energy requires water, to cool power plants or produce biofuels. Making water safe for human consumption requires energy to clean it and energy is also required to distribute it.

Advantages & disadvantages of tidal power:

1. Renewable source 2. Cheap to run (no fuel costs) 3. Can be switched on when needed 4. Very reliable - The dams that block the flow of water form large artificial lakes that can be used for leisure purposes, as food sources and for irrigation as well as electricity generation. 5. No direct polluting gases produced 1. Visual pollution (spoils the view) 2. Damage to valley habitats by flooding, involving loss of habitats, farmland and displacement of people. 3. The cost of building dams is high. 4. May lead to increased erosion rates downstream and disrupt the flow of natural river systems. 5. May restrict the flow of sediment, thereby affecting ecosystems or farming downstream. 6. Can block access to ports for shipping 7. Trapped and rotting vegetation can produce greenhouse gases such as methane

Advantages & disadvantages of HEP:

1. Renewable source 2. Cheap to run (no fuel costs) 3. Can be switched on when needed 4. Very reliable - The dams that block the flow of water form large artificial lakes that can be used for leisure purposes, as food sources and for irrigation as well as electricity generation. 5. No direct polluting gases produced 1. Visual pollution (spoils the view) 2. Damage to valley habitats by flooding, involving loss of habitats, farmland and displacement of people. 3. The cost of building dams is high. 4. May lead to increased erosion rates downstream and disrupt the flow of natural river systems. 5. May restrict the flow of sediment, thereby affecting ecosystems or farming downstream. 6. Can block access to ports for shipping 7. Trapped and rotting vegetation can produce greenhouse gases such as methane

Advantages and disadvantages of wind power:

1. Renewable source 2. Cheap to run (no fuel costs) 3. No polluting gases produced 1. Expensive to build 2. Visual pollution (spoils the view) 3. Noise pollution (very noisy) 4. Unreliable (depends on the strength of the wind)

Advantages and disadvantages of solar power:

1. Renewable source 2. Solar cells can generate electricity at the top of mountains when there is no connection to the National Grid 3. Cheap to run (no fuel costs) 4. No polluting gases produced 1. Solar cells are not very efficient = It costs a lot of money to make them more efficient 2. Unreliable as it is not always sunny, especially in northern countries during winter months.

Advantages and disadvantages of biofuel energy:

1. Renewable source. 2. Less carbon emissions. When burned, they release as much carbon as they absorbed during growth, although some carbon dioxide will be released during production, eg. by the tractor. 3. Great potential for the circular economy. 4. Reduce our reliance on fossil fuels. 1. They produce emissions and require large amounts of land to grow the biofuel crop. 2. Biofuel crops may take up land once used for growing food crops, creating food scarcity and this pushes up the price of food and disadvantaging local people who cannot get the food to live. 3. Biofuel crops are often planted at the expense of natural ecosystems, when land is cleared to create space for growing the biofuel corp. 4. Needs a lot of labour.

Examples of reuse:

1. Reusable shopping bags 2. Greywater systems 3. Long life energy efficient light bulbs 4. Rechargable batteries 5. Second-hand furniture and clothing 6. Donate used items to charity 7. Reuse scrap paper 8. Buy used cars 9. Upgrade a computer rather buying a new one

Explain two reasons why diets are changing in middle-income countries.

1. Rising incomes in middle-income countries (growing global middle class) have given more people sufficient disposable income to incorporate more meat into their diets at the expense of vegetables and grains. 2. It has become more "fashionable" in many MIC's to pursue a more western diet, especially in countries like China, therefore people tend to eat more sugary foods and fast food.

Summarize Ethiopia's strengths & challenges in terms of resource security (Food, water & energy):

1. Since 2007, Ethiopia has achieved strong economic growth, making it one of the highest performing economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Yet, it remains one of the world's least developed countries, where one in three people live below the poverty line. 2. Ethiopia has high water availability with 90% of the Nile flow in the country and two rainy seasons. Still spatial disparities in water availability exist as water governance in Ethiopia is very poor. 3. Ethiopia has a high availability of potential energy sources as it is a water rich country = Hydropower makes up 99% of the totally generated electricity, and large investments (e.g. the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam) have been made. 4. In Ethiopia, agriculture is the foundation of the economy, employing 80% of the country's 82 million people however the unmechanized, small scale, rain-fed farming system is still highly dominated in Ethiopia and fails to cover its increasing population's food demand. 5. However the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam is one way by which they want to satisfy energy production/security, along with water & food security.

Managing Water Scarcity and building Water Security - Case Study: Singapore - How is Singapore dealing with the issue of water security?

1. Singapore has a limited amount area from which it can collect water. They try to capture as much rainwater as they can and put it in reservoir. In 1965 there were 3 and today this has increased to 17 water reservoirs. 2. More than 2/3 of the surface in Singapore is engineered to collect rainwater and send it to reservoirs. This goes to show that the Singaporean government is thinking very carefully about maximising water availability via enhancing original bodies of water, etc. - The dark blue patches are the reservoirs and the green shows the catchment lands. Manmade channels are shown by the lighter blue lines.

Explain two geopolitical impacts of the rise in global oil consumption since 1990.

1. The increase in global consumption has led to geopolitical pressures in some parts of the world as oil-hungry countries seek additional supplies of oil to meet their anticipated future demand. 2. It has increased tensions in parts of the Middle East since that area has the world's largest oil reserves to which oil-importing countries such as the US want to preserve their access.

Suggest two reasons why the total ecological footprint of a country may grow very rapidly in the future.

1. The rise in wealth of the people of China means that they can afford more consumer goods which take up more resources such as oil and minerals. 3. Some countries have seen a large increase in population size. These have to be fed which takes up more land for agriculture.

"Discretionary Income"

Disposable income available for spending and saving after an individual has payed taxes and purchased the basic necessities of food, clothing, and shelter.

What are examples of passive solar energy?

1. Thick and insulated walls: they prevent heat output in winter and keep the house cool in summer. 2. Ceilings with external ventilation: Roofs receive a lot of radiation in the summer. If they have cross ventilation, this heat dissipates. It works like a passive solar cooling system. 3. Orientation to the sun: South-facing windows are capable of capturing more energy, which is making max. use of the sunlight especially in regions of the northern hemisphere. 4. Having a floor that is good at absorbing heat (thermal mass).

What are some examples of factors contributing to the FAD (affecting food security)?

1. Torrential Rain (floods) 2. Drought 3. Climate change 4. Environmental degradation 5. Desertification 6. Crop disease 7. Pest infestation 8. Hurricane

Referring to the graph, describe the relationship between GNI per person and ecological footprint.

1. positive relationship 2. Country A is an anomaly (provide EVIDENCE of the graph = data) to the main trend/range of countries. 3. clustering of nations with low values for both variables.

Describe the trends shown by the graph.

1. solid waste produced is rising over time and declines a little after 2005 (mention EVIDENCE/DATA). 2. landfill/incineration is always much larger than recycled. 3. recycled not taking off until 1980s 4. recycling increasing as a proportion of solid waste.

If companies decide to reduce the level of embedded water in their products, then:

1. they will make their goods more sustainable = resource efficient. 2. they would also make it financial efficient (prosper economically if they can see the connection between the Water-Food-Energy Nexus and their agenda), by reducing the amount of water needed in the process of manufacturing, transporting goods, etc. = cost-effectiveness = contribute to the main motivations of companies, which is to make profit. 4. Not only can their own company balance their resource- & cost-efficiency, but also suppliers within the supply-chain (all steps in production) will benefit from this sustainable development.

State the minimum ecological footprint in global hectares for a country with a GNI of US$20 000 per person.

2.1 to 2.2

How much food is thrown out in Europe annually?

90 million tons of food are thrown out in Europe annually.

What is a proven oil reserve?

A proven oil reserve is a body of oil that is located and is recoverable using current technology at a cost that makes it economically profitable.

Energy security

Access to clean, reliable and affordable energy sources required to meet a countries present and future needs in a sustainable manner (socially, economically and environmental). As energy has often been a source conflict between nations, energy security is often defined as being key to national security and sovereignty.

Water security

According to the UN: A population's sustainable access to adequate & acceptable quantities of quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, socio-economic development, ensuring protection against pollution, disasters, preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability.

What are the possible advantages and disadvantages of waste incineration?

Advantages of incineration: 1. Produces heat and electricity 2. Could reduce burning of fossil fuels 3. Metals can be extracted from the ash 4. It reduces waste volume: Singapore has very little land, so it's a place lacking area for landfill and hence almost burns all of its waste through incineration. Disadvantages of incineration: 1. Expensive to build and maintain 2. Produces harmful pollutants 3. Recyclables could end up in the incinerator

Advantages and Disadvantages of an Expanding Global middle-class:

Advantages: - more income may increase the quality of life for individuals and governments. - more even global distribution of wealth may result in less conflicts. Disadvantages: - more resource consumption, because more people can buy what they want. - environmental impacts, such as climate change, loss of biodiversity, pollution (air, water, etc.).

How does agricultural demand cause water shortages?

Agricultural places by far have the biggest demand on water. With a growing population, global warming and the movement into less favourable agricultural regions, the demand from agriculture is only likely to increase in the future.

How does each of the energy sources basically work?

Almost all of the electricity generated in the world is produced by spinning turbine, which then spins a generator to make a flow of electrons (electricity). A common method used to spin a turbine is using steam.

How does energy production cause water shortages?

Although Hydroelectric power (HEP) is the most obvious form of energy that uses water, this water is released into rivers once it has passed through the dam. Other types of energy production hat use large amounts of water for cooling are for example, coal and nuclear power, which may pollute water or see it evaporated, removing it from local use.

What accompanies a nutritional transition?

An epidemiological transition, accompanies the nutritional transition.

What happens as easily accessible oil reserves become more difficult to find?

As easily accessible oil reserves become more difficult to find, the world is increasing to turning to more expensive and dirty sources of oil and gas: - Fracking - Deeper sea drilling - Tar sands / oil sands - Shale oil

How does industrial demand cause water shortages?

As the world's population grows and becomes richer our demand for industrial products grows. Many industrial products, particular things like processing metal use huge quantities of water and place increasing demand on resources. Also mining for the raw materials used in manufacturing use large quantities of water.

How does pollution cause water shortages?

As the world's population grows so does the demand for agricultural and industrial products. Our thirst for agricultural products is increasing the use of fertilisers and pesticides which often run off into rivers and lakes or leach down to groundwater stores. Like wise our increasing demand for industrial and at times relaxed environmental regulations mean more chemicals and metals are being released into water sources. Sewage treatment also often lags behind population growth so increasingly our rivers and lakes are being polluted by sewage.

How does population growth cause water shortages?

As with many of the world's resources, they are coming under increasing pressure as the world's population grows. The world's population now stands at about 7 billion, all of whom are placing increasing strain on water resources as they develop and get wealthier, which causes a greater demand and may result in the depletion of groundwater, as it takes longer to recharge. This means that population growth is cause that relates to both physical water scarcity and economic water scarcity, as not enough money is at hand to distribute and filter the water in many growing economies.

What is biofuel energy?

Biofuels are fuels made from plant materials. These include biodiesel, made from plant oils, and bioethanol, made by fermenting sugar and wheat.

How are the food indicators meat consumption per capita and sugar purchased per capita similar?

Both are very expensive sources of nutrition and higher in HICs.

Managing Water Scarcity and building Water Security - Case Study: Singapore - What is the least desirable of Singapore's Four National Taps?

By having 4 sources and reducing dependency on Malaysia and encouraging water conservation, Singapore has been improving their water security. = Imported Water (specifically from Malaysia) is the least desirable National Tap, because this source of water (water supply/supplier) makes them dependent. = Least reliable source of water. = water security is low. And is very vulnerable/uncertain/dependent on geopolitical affairs and tensions. = Singapore aims to meet 85% of its needs from NEWater and Desalinisation by 2060. They also aim to reduce per capita usage in order to reduce pressure on water infrastructure.

How does climate change cause water shortages?

Climate change is impacting the availability of water in many ways. Global warming maybe releasing freshwater from glaciers and ice sheets, but unfortunately much of it is running directly into the oceans. The subsequent rising sea levels are threatening many coastal freshwater wetlands as well as increasing the risk of saltwater intrusion into aquifers. Warmer temperatures are increasing the amount of evaporation from rivers and surfaces stores.

What are innovative/alternative energy sources that secure our energy security for the future?

Compressed Air Technology (CAT cars/motors): 1. Much less energy hungry than conventional cars that run on petroleum, because they run on air. + Much lower carbon footprint, because they only factor that may increase its emissions is the process by which the compressor generates the air into energy, however if that is "green" then there are zero emissions. 2. 90-100km/h, makes the CAT car adequate for urban life. + 100km on a tank of air = favourable in the city. 3. Sold to TATA (one of the biggest and oldest industrial groups in India), which would be beneficial if made marketable to this expanding middle-class in India as they tend to use more cars (growing by 13% per year) and this would be better for the environment, as well as for the people, as it would have the effect of lowering smog levels. 4. The conventional cars on the road are by much heavier than the light-weighted CAT cars, hence this would contribute to additional safety concerns (greater safety risks for CAT car drivers) Solar panels in Space: 1. Closer proximity to the sun = more long-term energy efficiency, because there is no ozone layer, no clouds, or dust that reduces the absorption of sunlight (gives you unfiltered sunlight). 2. Rather it is const-effective is still unknown, because it's really expensive & difficult to access, because it's in outer space & vulnerable to Meteor showers difficult to repair. 3. Potentially be exploited technology by countries that want to weaponise. Spray-on solar panels (nanoparticle "inks" that contain photovoltaic cells): 1. cheap & flexible, because they can be applied to all surfaces. 2. energy efficiency is currently still low, which may affect the cost-effectiveness. Only 7% of the captured sunlight is converted into energy = a lot lower than the conventional solar panel.

Food utilisation:

Consumed food must have a positive nutritional impact on people. It entails cooking, storage and hygiene practices, individuals health, water and sanitations, feeding and sharing practices within the household.

What is consumer culture?

Consumer culture is a culture that views the consumption of large quantities of goods as beneficial to the economy and a source of personal happiness.

How is biodiversity loss a problem caused by water shortages and water pollution?

Contaminated water and eutrophication can cause loss of biodiversity in wetland environments, but also just like humans can die of thirst and starvation, so can plants and animlas. Big animals like elephants which require large amounts of water often die in African droughts.

How is disease a problem caused by water shortages and water pollution?

Contaminated water can attract mosquitoes which can increase diseases like dengue and malaria. It can also cause the spread of diseases like hepatitis A and typhoid as well as things like diarrhoea.

Chronic Water Stress

Continuous/permanent state of water scarcity & lack of water security.

Why are countries like the USA and Canada turning to dirtier and more expensive sources of fossil fuels, like tar sand?

Countries and companies are pursuing these dirtier and more expensive sources of fossil fuels in order to increase their energy security, however, it is a short-term view of energy security, because it is a finite source of energy.

What is the problem with deep water drilling?

Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico is an explicit example highlighting the problems with deep water drilling: - Ten years after, this disaster continues to harm wildlife and the environment. - In its first month, BP spilled 30 million gallons of oil into the Gulf, three times the Exxon Valdez oil spill (another significant oil spill in the 80s from a ship). - Its economic impact is far worse. The Gulf fishing and tourism industries produce $3.5 billion to $4.5 billion a year. It cost BP $4 billion to contain and clean up the mess and another $4 billion to $5 billion in penalties. - 6000km of coastline were affected.

What are the major causes of death of water pollution (lack in water sanitation)?

Diarrhoea & Dysentery: - The use of water in hygiene is an important preventive measure but contaminated water is also an important cause of diarrhoea. - Water contamination and the lack of water sanitation is a major cause of death & illnesses. - Leading causes of death among children mostly in developing countries under five globally. More than one in ten child deaths is due to diarrhoea.

Describe the differences between Frances and Denmarks Energy Profile:

Energy profile refers to the energy mix (diversity), energy security, competitiveness, sustainability, and infrastructure of a country. - France is the most dependent country on nuclear energy because even though it is expensive to build the powerplant, it is the most energy-efficient supply. - Denmark does not use any nuclear energy but has a very diverse energy profile hence in the long-run it may be more stable for their energy security, because nuclear powerplants may result in dangerous, large-scale accidents with long-lasting effects.

energy profile

Energy profile refers to the range and mix of energy sources used by a region to try and meet their energy needs and how the energy is consumed.

Energy security is the...

Energy security is the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price.

What is FAD?

Food Availability Deficit (FAD) suggests that food shortages were caused by physical factors: local difficulties in supply, perhaps the result of drought or floods (two extremes of water availability).

What is FED?

Food Entitlement Deficit (FED): - The problem is with the political and economic framework in the area. - Rising costs of food relative to average incomes, are a major factor in the availability of food.

What is the FAO?

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

What are some possible indicators that might be use to quantify food consumption by a country or region?

Food availability indicators: - Food consumption in calories a day. - Meat consumption per capita. - Sugar purchased per capita consumption. - Fast-food (eg. McDonalds) locations in the world.

Food availability:

Food must be available in sufficient quantities and on a consistent basis. It considers stock and production in a given area and the capacity to bring in food from elsewhere, through trade or aid.

How does energy security come with national security in countries such as the USA?

For the United States, energy security comes from global markets, plentiful domestic supplies, and variety. Energy becomes a national security and foreign policy issue when energy insecurity affects a country's governing policies and how it uses and imports energy.

Energy pathways are the flows of energy from producer to consumer. What are some examples of gas pathways?

Gas pathways can occur via pipelines, shipped on boats, etc. - The main gas pathway is the trans-Siberian pipeline from Russia to Eastern Europe. - New gas pipeline planned to transport gas from the Middle East to Eastern Europe to decrease dependency on Russia (increase energy & national security).

Referring to the graph, describe the trend in total oil stocks since the year 2000.

Generally upwards though with numerous peaks and troughs, with a peak at around 2780 billion barrels in 2009 to a trough of 2650 billion barrels in 2010.

How is energy security linked to national security?

Geopolitics, as politics, especially international relations influenced by geographical factors effects energy security of a country and hence also its economic, political and social development. --> Weak energy security = unstable economy = vulnerable national security. --> Energy security is very linked to sovereignty, as sovereignty involves self-rule and security of resources and people in a country. = If a country's energy profile relies heavily on the importation of energy sources, then their sovereignty is at risk, due to their dependency on other countries.

What is geothermal energy?

Geothermal Energy is electricity generated by harnessing hot water or steam from within the earth. For example, Iceland has so much controlled volcanic activity near the surface, so that is is the no. 1 producer of geothermal electricity.

What is one of the SDG's that focuses on a Circular Economy?

Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production. - Links directly to the concept of a circular economy, but all SDG's are linked and many link to resource stewardship.

Investing in alternative energy is the most effective way for a country to enhance their energy security". Discuss this statement.

Good answers: - Discussed a variety of clear examples of how investment renewable energy enhances energy security for about half of the answer.....for about ½ of the essay. - Also discussed 2(or 3) other factors that may enhance energy security (political stability, diverse energy profile, trade agreements, energy conservation methods.....) - Concluded whether investment in renewables is or is not the most effective way to enhance energy security. Bad answers: - Discussed all of the positive and negative features of renewables (NRTQ) - Discussed all of the positive and negative features of renewables vs non-renewables. (NRTQ) - Only discussed renewables as a means to improving energy security and did not consider any other means. - Discussed renewable energy and other ways to improve energy security but never addressed whether investment in renewables was the most effective

"The ecological footprint is the best measure of the relationship between population and resources for different countries." Discuss this statement.

Good answers: - explained how efp is calculated - Identified strengths (best measure) and some weaknesses (not the best measure) of efp as a measure: 1. Strength: theoretically measures all resources 2. Strength: useful for comparing different countries and useful for looking at change over time 3. Weaknesses: very complex to actually measure all resources consumed so it is often more of a representative measure than an actual measure of resource use..... so perhaps individual measures such as carbon footprint or rate of deforestation are more useful measures 4. Weaknesses: complex calculations trying and include all resources will lead to more potential error 5. Weakness: EFP is not just about resource use as it also include waste assimilation - Conclusion must return to whether it is the best measure by briefly referring to the strengths and weaknesses from the body of the essay. Bad answers: - Did not clearly explain how EFP is calculated and did refer to countries - Explained how EFP was calculated and how it measures the relationship between population and resources but did not discuss whether it was best measure. - Explained how EFP was calculated and discussed strengths and weaknesses but never returned the question of best in the conclusion.

Hunger vs. Starvation

hunger is the natural physical drive to eat, prompted by the body's need for food, while starvation is a condition of severe suffering due to a lack of nutrition.

How is groundwater depletion (subsidence and saltwater intrusion) a problem caused by water shortages and water pollution?

If aquifers begin to dry up or are used unsustainably, then the ground above can subside (collapse) or the aquifer can suffer from salinisation or saltwater intrusion. Subsidence is a problem common in parts of Mexico City.

How is famine a problem caused by water shortages and water pollution?

If cops are failing and livestock is dying then people will become undernourished and suffer from famine.

How are livestock deaths a problem caused by water shortages and water pollution?

If livestock don't have enough water to drink they will begin to die.

How is conflict a problem caused by water shortages and water pollution?

If there is a limited supply of water and water resources are shared conflict can arise. Many of the ongoing border disputes between Israel and Palestine are blamed on water shortages.

How is crop failure a problem caused by water shortages and water pollution?

If there is a shortage of water and farmers can not irrigate their crops then they begin to die.

How are refugees a problem caused by water shortages and water pollution?

If there is drought and famine then people are forced to relocate or face death. Unfortunately many of the countries that suffer from drought and famine have poor neighbours so refugees will be arriving in countries that are least able to cope and won't find relief from water shortage.

How is drought a problem caused by water shortages and water pollution?

If there is economic or physical water scarcity and water stress exists then drought can occur. Drought is below average supply of water over a prolonged period. Because drought is below average supply of water, even relatively wet country's like the UK can suffer from drought.

What are the 3 Waste Disposal Strategies:

If waste is not eliminated by the 3R's then it must be disposed of through: 1. Exporting of Waste to other countries 2. Landfill 3. Incineration of waste

How does groundwater depletion cause water shortages?

If water is used unsustainably i.e. more is taken out than is being recharged then aquifers can suffer from salinisation and saltwater intrusion. If you increase the concentration of water it can become too salty for human use. Also if you drain aquifers near coastal areas, then they can become full of saltwater, again making them useless.

How do political tensions cause water shortages?

In many countries or regions, water sources are shared e.g. the River Nile flows through eleven countries. At times some countries control large percentages of the shared resource, leading to shortages for other countries.

What are two countries with the largest emerging middle class and why?

India & China are two countries with the largest emerging middle class, because they have the largest population & booming economy.

Briefly suggest what is meant by "unconventional" oil and gas.

It is oil/gas not obtained from conventional oil/gas wells/drilling/extraction methods, such as tar sand.

Why are environmentalists very against the tar sands operations?

Most environmentalists hope that we move away from fossil fuels, but the tar sand operations are prolonging this shift to renewable energy sources, more energy efficient sources. Increasing and even worsening our dependency on the use of fossil fuels by projects such as the Keystone Pipeline, which is perpetuating and making the use of fossil fuels easier.

Non-renewable energy resources

Non-renewable energy supplies include fossil fuels (coal, gas and oil). Fossil fuels contribute to the majority of human-kind's energy supply and use is expected to increase to meet global energy demand. The impact of their product and emission varies widely. Fossil fuels cannot be renewed at the same rate they are used; this results in a depletion of the stock.

What is NATO?

North Atlantic Treaty Organization is a military alliance with other democratic countries after WWII, WESTERN Europe, Canada and the US that formed a defense alliance. They agreed to defend each other if attacked by the Soviet Union or other country.

Why is nuclear power controversial?

Nuclear power is a low-carbon, low-emission, non-renewable resource but it is controversial due to the problem of storing the radioactive waste and the potential scale of any accident.

nutritional transition

Nutrition transition is the shift in dietary consumption and energy expenditure that coincides with economic, demographic, and epidemiological changes. Specifically it refers to the recent transition of developing countries from traditional diets high in cereal and fiber often deficient in nutrients, proteins, and calories to more western pattern diets high in sugars, fat, and animal-source food, as well as highly processed foods.

Energy pathways are the flows of energy from producer to consumer. What are some examples of oil pathways?

Oil pathways can occur via railway, trucks on the highway, pipelines, etc. - The middle east exports the most oil, with approximately 4000 barrels to Japan, 3000 to Europe and 2000 to North America.

Suggest three reasons why total oil stocks may change from one year to the next.

Oil stocks (barrels of oil that have already been extracted and stored for future use) change due to changes in production and/or changes in demand/usage. 1. Geopolitical reasons eg Saudi Arabia over-extraction to flood the market and lower the price. 2. Stocks could increase due to new oil fields coming into production / decrease due to decline of existing fields. 3. Economic growth in major economies leading to increase in demand.

How much oil is consumed in the year 2000 from this graph?

Only around 20%! Remember that it's not the entire depiction, just the green, because it's a composite graph.

Food access:

People must be able to regularly acquire adequate quantities of food, through purchase, home production, barter, gifts, borrowing or food aid.

Access to food

Plays a role in determining the options available to the consumer. For example: -Living in a large city provides many shopping options. -Living in a rural area may limit food shopping venues.

What is Resource Stewardship?

Resource stewardship is "an approach to resource management which views humans as 'caretakers' = responsible for the natural world."

The graph shows the global extraction of several important groups of resources and per capita consumption rates. Referring to the graph, describe the trend in global biomass extraction between 1980 and 2010.

Rises initially (1980-1995) from 12 to 16 but then plateaus (1995-2010) at 16.

What is salt water intrusion?

Salt water intrusion is the movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers.

What causes the nutrition transition?

Several factors contribute to the nutritional transition in middle-income countries, including: 1. Rising incomes give people access to energy dense foods that were previously unaffordable. 2. Western diets are seen as being more modern and fashionable, and thus eating meat and fast foods become aspirations for the rising global middle-class with disposable income. 3. Economic development occurs in middle-income countries, trade links develop and a greater range of Western and other foreign foods becomes available. 4. Rising farm productivity makes some foods more affordable, widening access to a growing middle class.

Active Solar vs Passive Solar

Solar energy systems use the sun's rays for electricity or thermal energy: - Passive systems (solar heating) are structures whose design, placement, or materials optimize the use of heat or light directly from the sun. - Active systems (photovoltaic) have devices to convert the sun's energy into a more usable form, such as hot water or electricity.

What is solar energy?

Solar panels are fitted on a roof where infrared radiation from the Sun shines through the glass lid and heats the water in the pipes of the panels, generating electricity.

What are human factors that might affect access to safe water (quantity and quality)? In other words what physical factors can effect water security?

Some human factors affecting access to water: 1. Level of economic development, as wealthy countries have the technology to access and treat water supplies so that they are safe for human use. This can be via wells, canals, reservoirs, or the construction of desalination plants that convert sea-water into safe drinking water. 2. Urbanisation, as more urbanised places often see greater access to safe water supplies and the required infrastructure is often in place. 3. Level of contamination due to industrial waste, as some industries create toxic waste that can leak into water supplies. In some countries the laws preventing this are either weak or else not enforced, due to corruption. Also, toxic chemicals in land-fill waste sites can enter groundwater supplies. These include heavy metals like cadmium found in electronics. 5. Level of contamination due to agricultural practices, as pesticides, fertilisers and other agrochemicals can contaminate water supplies. 6. Conflict and war, as safe water supplies may become infrequent or stop completely due to destruction of equipment or the inability to maintain it.

What are physical factors that might affect access to safe water (quantity and quality)? In other words what physical factors can effect water security?

Some physical factors affecting access to water: 1. Amount of precipitation, as higher rainfall should mean more safe water for people to use. For example, seasonal distribution of precipitation, as rain falling all year means access to water all year. 2. Relief, as mountains and valleys create opportunities to construct dams and create reservoirs which store water for human consumption. 3. Evapotranspiration rates, as water is lost to the atmosphere quickly in hot dry places.

Standards of living are a result of the interaction between physical and human resources and can be expressed as:

Standard of living = (Natural resources x technology) / Population

What is subsidence?

Subsidence is the gradual caving in or sinking of an area of land.

food security

The "availability and access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet the dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life" [FAO].

What is the Aral Sea an example of?

The Aral Sea which is located on the border of Kazakhstan & Uzbekistan dried up, because of mainly the cotton prodcution and so much water being pumped out for irrigation of the cotton. This left behind a "toxic" sand, due to also the pesticides in the ground, causing major environmental disaster. It is considered an example of ecosystem collapse. The ecosystems of the Aral Sea and the river deltas feeding into it have been nearly destroyed, not least because of the much higher salinity.

How did the sunbelt make up for its physical water scarcity?

The Colorado River

What is tidal power?

The Moon's gravitational pull lifts the level of the seas twice a day and this is the force that gives us tidal power. At high tide, the sea is trapped behind a barrage/dam. The water is allowed to run out through pipes that lead back to the sea. As the water runs through the pipes it spins turbines that are linked to generators.

Briefly describe what is meant by the OPEC cartel.

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela) formed to fix prices and production quotas on oil.

What is the 3 Gorges Dam?

The Three Gorges Dam is a hydroelectric gravity dam that spans the Yangtze River in the Hubei province of central China. The Three Gorges Dam has been the world's largest power station in terms of installed capacity since 2012.

Calorific intake

The average number of calories consumed by different age groups.

What is Earth Overshoot Day?

The date when humanity has exhausted nature's resource budget for the year.

How does domestic demand cause water shortages?

The demand from households is not only increasing because there are more households in the world, but also because the amount of water they want is increasing with development. For example as peoples income increases and they move into permanent residences, they demand flush toilets, bath/showers, washing machines, dishwashers and green gardens, all of which use large amounts of water. Hence, increasing domestic demand in HICs and MICs can lead to physical water shortage as countries develop or have developed.

Why is the ecological footprint complex?

The ecological footprint is hugely complex, as there are a lot of immeasurable factors that need to be taken into account.

Global middle-class wave:

The global middle-class consumption will shift heavily toward China, India and other Asian countries, excluding Japan, as the higher income countries see their shares decrease.

Where does the majority of the world's energy come from?

The majority of the world's energy comes from non-renewable sources and this is unlikely to change much by 2030.

How is the middle-class defined?

The middle-class is an economic group within the larger population with enough income to buy wants, as well as needs ("Disposable income"/"Discretionary income").

What is happening to the % of water stored in the oceans?

The percentage of water stored in the oceans is increasing due to the two major causes of global sea level rise being thermal expansion caused by warming of the ocean (since water expands as it warms) and increased melting of land-based ice, such as glaciers and ice sheets.

What is happening to stores of water in glaciers and ice sheets?

The stores of water in glaciers and ice sheets are melting due to global warming. Icebergs are chunks of glacial ice that break off glaciers and fall into the ocean. When glaciers melt due to global warming, because that water is stored on land, the runoff significantly increases the amount of water in the ocean, contributing to global sea level rise.

What is an example of war/conflict over oil scarcity?

The struggle over energy resources, especially oil scarcity/fossil fuels has been a conspicuous factor in many recent conflicts, including the Iran-Iraq War of 1980-1988, the Gulf War of 1990-1991, and the Sudanese Civil War of 1983-2005.

Epidemiological Transition Model

The theory that says that there is a distinct cause of death in each stage of the demographic transition model. It can help explain how a country's population changes so dramatically.

What is wind energy?

The turbine consists of a generator in a nacelle at the top of a high tower. The wind turns the blades of the turbine and these, in turn, spin the generator, creating electricity.

What is happening to groundwater supplies?

The volume of groundwater in storage is decreasing in many areas around the world. Groundwater depletion is primarily caused by sustained groundwater pumping. Some of the negative effects of groundwater depletion: drying up of wells, etc.

Why does beef have a high water footprint?

The water footprint of beef is primarily impacted by how much and what the cattle eat, and where the feed comes from. This is because: Due to their great size, beef cattle eat massive quantities of feed but are inefficient in converting that feed to meat (compared to, say, chickens or pigs). More feed = more water. Most goes to watering the grass and feed that cattle consume over their lifetime.

What does the WEF nexus mean?

The water, energy and food (WEF) nexus means that the three sectors — water security, energy security and food security — are inextricably linked and that actions in one area more often than not have impacts in one or both of the others. For a country to develop sustainably they must balance these 3 types of security.

Resource Nexus

The water, energy and food security nexus according to the Food And Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), means that water security, energy security and food security are very much linked to one another, meaning that the actions in any one particular area often can have effects in one or both of the other areas.

Why are sources of energy, such as tar sand dirtier and more expensive?

These sources are relatively expensive as they are more difficult to extract and to process and they only become economically feasible as cheaper sources become depleted or when conventional oil and gas prices are quite high. They are also often dirtier (literally and environmentally) and more expensive.

How are the terms ecological footprint & carrying capacity similar and different?

They are the same idea of balance between humans and the resources they consume, but inverses.

State and outline the units used to measure the global ecological footprint.

Units: Global hectares (Gha; accept Global hectares/person). Outline: area of land and water required to produce the resources consumed.

Describe what is meant by "embedded/virtual water"

Virtual water is the amount of water that is embedded in food or other products needed for its production. For example, the water that is needed to make a piece of clothing takes the growth of the cotton, production, and manufacturing into account.

What is a water footprint?

the amount of fresh water utilized in the production or supply of the goods and services used by a particular person or group.

Virtual (or embedded) water

Virtual water is the volume of water used to produce consumer products. For example, the total volume of water used in a food product would include the water used in the agricultural process, but also the water used in packaging and shipping. Virtual water is essentially all of the "hidden" water behind a product.

What is the concept of virtual water (embedded water)?

Virtual water is the water used to create the goods and services that we consume and use. The embedded water concept is illustrated in the diagram with a bowl of pasta, which may hypothetically contain 200 litres of virtual water, although only two litres of boiling water is used to produce it at home. (virtual water = embedded water).

World Food Programme

WFP is both a humanitarian and development United Nations agency that works to eliminate world hunger by providing emergency food aid, to prevent death from famine and by promoting sustainable food security in developing countries.

Why is the distribution of water problematic for humans?

Water scarcity can have dire consequences for the people, the economy, and the environment. Without adequate water, crops and livestock diminish and people go hungry. Industrial, construction, and economic development is halted, causing a nation to sink further into poverty.

Why is the amount of embedded water large in products used for consumption?

We know that we use most water in the growing, hence agricultural sector.

Water Stress:

When the demand for water exceeds supply during a set period of time leading to shortages.

Physical Water Scarcity:

Where the demand for water is greater than the physical supply of water. Physical water scarcity does not have to be an arid environment.

Economic Water Scarcity:

Where there is water available, but for some economic reason it is not possible to fully utilise the source of water. This might be because extraction or transportation costs are too high, or because the water is polluted and it is not possible to treat it.

How does sewage cause water shortages?

With rapid urbanisation taking place in many cities around the world, infrastructure often does not keep up with new arrivals. The growth of informal settlements without proper sewage treatment can mean that human waste is often pumped directly into water sources. However, this is not only a problem in LICs, in London the sewer system can not cope and an estimated 39 million tonnes of sewage are dumped in the River Thames annually.

What is wood classified as? Renewable or non-renewable?

Wood is classified as a renewable energy resource, because trees can be planted and regrown within our life time. However, only if is harvested sustainably, so that it can regrow.

What are aquifers?

a body of permeable rock that can contain or transmit groundwater.

What is a nexus?

a connection or series of connections linking two or more things.

Famine

a severe shortage of food (as through crop failure) resulting in violent hunger and starvation and death

Virtual (embedded water) applies to...

all products, not just food.

What is eutrophication?

excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen.

Ecological Footprint =

the amount of land needed to support a group of people (land/person).

What is HEP?

hydro-electric power (HEP) is a reliable form of energy generation using turbines that can be switched on wherever energy is needed. Water is held behind a dam in a lake or reservoir high up a mountain. Rivers or rainfall fills the reservoir. When energy is needed, the water is allowed to run down through pipes to another lake lower down the mountain. As the water runs through the pipes it spins turbines that are linked to generators. The water can be pumped back up during the night when electricity is cheaper.

Sustainable Development

improving the quality of life in a country, by sustainable means.

Malnutrition

lack of proper nutrition, caused by not having enough to eat, not eating enough of the right things, or being unable to use the food that one does eat.

renewable energy sources

renewable energy sources include solar, hydroelectric, geothermal, biomass and tidal schemes. They can be large scale (such as country-wide schemes of energy generation) or small scale (microgeneration), within single houses or communities. Renewable energy resources are sustainable because there is no depletion of natural capital.

Resource Consumption of the global middle-class is _____.

rising.

What is the EU Administration aiming to do to counter food waste?

shorten the supply chain (making food go directly to the consumer).

Water scarcity

the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet the demands of water usage within a region, or not having access to safe water supplies.

Nutrition

the process of providing or obtaining the food necessary for health and growth.

What is an ecological footprint?

the total amount biologically productive land and water (ha = hectares) required by a person or a population of people, in order to: - Provide all the resources consumed by the person or the population of people. - Assimilate the waste produced by a person or a group of people.