Unit 3 - Native Americans (Civil Rights. Little change.)

Massacre at Wounded Knee, 1890

After an excited Native American fired a rifle shot in a non-combat situation, US Army troops massacred 200 Indians who had left reservation, starving and unarmed. The massacre was the symbolic final step in the war for the West, and after the event the Indians succumbed to the wishes of the federal government, resigning themselves to reservation life.

Charles Rhoads

After the Meriam Report, President Hoover supported the recommendations and apptd a new Indian Commissioner, Charles Rhoads, to create a reform package according to suggestions. The reforms included the closure of unpopular off-reservation boarding schools for NI children, which were replaced with improved reservation schools. Improved medical facilities were provided with federal funding. Rhoads refused to return allotted land, though.

Reservations

Lands designated by the US gov for occupation of AI tribes. Usually, the land retained after treaties signed for white settlement. Boundaries usually mentioned in the treaties. After 1871, est of reserv or alterations to prev agreed boundaries, were decided by Congress.

Affirmative Action

Nixon - In institutions of higher education, affirmative action refers to admission policies that provide equal access to education for those groups that have been historically excluded or underrepresented, such as women and minorities.

Sand Creek Massacre, 1864

The Sand Creek massacre was an atrocity in the American Indian Wars that occurred when a 700-man force of Colorado Territory militia attacked and destroyed a peaceful camp of Cheyenne and Arapahoy, killing and mutilating an estimated 70-163 Native Americans, about two-thirds of whom were women and children.

Melting Pot

The federal government, and those who supported the Native Indians, simply wanted to integrate them into the () of society, where different cultures would co-exist whilst retaining American values and beliefs. Excluded the Native Americans because they were seen as too radical and they did not desire assimilation in the first place. () was technically structured for those who were European.

Westward Expansion

The goals of American expansionists conflicted with the needs of the Indians in the area of expansion.

Commissioner for Indian Affairs

John Collier, apptd by Roosevelt, and thus the ND is largely attributed to him. Later during Nixon's presidency, there was the first NI Commissioner - 1969 Louis R Bruce Jr.

Paternalism

This is behavior, by a person, organization or state, which limits some person or group's liberty or autonomy for what is presumed to be that person's or group's own good.

Five Civilised Tribes

(look 2 Curtis Act for further info) // These 5 tribes had been forced to leave their traditional homelands in Tennessee, Mississipi, Alabama and the Carolinas and move to what was idenitifed as Indian territory on the Great Plains in 1838. Many died on journey, called the Trail of Tears. Tribes were the Cherokee, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Seminoles, Creeks. Resisted allotment policy initially, and initially exempted through the Dawes Act but later .... Curtis Act. Granted citizenship in 1901.

Black Hills

1875 gold was found here, in South Dakota, and the US army ignored previous treaty agreements (Fort Laramie) and invaded region. This betrayal caused many Sioux and Cheyenne tribes-people to leave reservations and join Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse at Montana. By late spring 1976, many Native Americans had gathered in a camp alongside the Little Bighorn River in defiance. Led to the Battle of Wounded Knee.

Society of American Indians (SAI)

1911, group of 50 educated AI's joined together to form it. This was the first attempt to establishing an inter-tribal pressure group with the purpose of campaigning for improvement in education and better health care. Impact was limited partly because there was a shortage of funds, but mostly because of the lack of mass support from NI. Perhaps this could be because NI were spread around and thus lack of communication, but the SAI themselves weren't united in their vision for the future of NI ppl. Some sympathised with the position of the majority of NI who were resisting assimilation, however MAJORITY believed that assim. was the sole route to real improvement. Therefore, as a consequence, SAI collapsed in 1920, achieving little.

Leavitt Bill / Dance Order

1926 // threatened to remove the right of the Peublo Indians to perform some of their traditional dances; perceived by some to be an attack on their civ and relig rights. Consequently....AIDA formed due to the poor conditions seen in American Indian communities, and blocked this bill.

New Deal

1933-45. FDR. Brought some relief for NI. Can't be seen as a turning point since improvement wasn't sustained bc change in admin. @ 1945 >> change of attitude 2 NI population + policy. BUT it laid foundation for further reform in 70s. Centrepiece of ND was the Wheeler-Howard Act 1934.

Indian Claims Commission (ICC)

1946-1978 // est by Congress. In part, due to the recognition of the contribution made by war effort, and pressure of NCAI. Aim: means for NA to regain lands given to them in treaties in the 19th C. 370 petitions were filed. BUT ICC worked slowly, and paid lil attenti. to evidence of NA. Settlements were made thru financial compensation and NOT the wanted land. It was only intended to work for 5 yrs, but volume of claims meant that its work continued until 1978. FED GOV viewed it as an opportunity to complete assimilation and end its responsibility for the reservations and its 'wards' as they were a drain of fed fin resources.

Termination

1953 this policy introduced until mid 1960s when it was realised that it wasn't working - NA no longer 'wards' of the government and federal control of the Bureau of Indian Affairs would cease. This would grant NA same rights as any other US citizen and make them subject to same laws. BUT this meant that they were no longer allowed to self-govern - their tribes and treaty rights gone and couldn't be recognised as independent and self-supporting entity.

Muskogee Convention, 1905

5 Civilised Tribes proposed that their lands become the separate state of Sequoyah. Constitution was presented at Muskogee Convention in 1905. Majority voted in support, but Congress rejected it. Two territories of Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory, were combined into State of Oklahoma in 1907. The leaders called the conference. Muskegee is a city in Oklahoma.

Curtis Act, 1898

Amendment to Dawes Act. Officially entitled 'Act for the Protection of the People of Indian Territory'; authorised application of the allotment system to the five civilised tribes of Oklahoma. Ended the independence of these tribes by terminating their right to be subject to their own laws + gov (ess. self-governing)

Reservation Policy

Americanise the 'savages' - Christianise them, educate them and train them to become farmers; eradicate tribal beliefs, customs, skills. No roaming. US laws would replace tribal laws. Eradicate community. At the beginning, there was some recognition of the right of Indians to decide what happens to their lands but after 1871 (indian appropriations act) there was a change in policy, influenced by Manifest Destiny beliefs.

General Custer

At the Battle of Little Bighorn, he led the federal troops - the 7th Cavalry - against a band of Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne warriors. The US Army and his Cavalry were sent to confront them, and he did not realise the number of Indians there. His forces were quickly outnumbered and overwhelmed.

Sioux Nation / Tribe

Biggest example of Indian resistance. In 1868 treaty signed to provide Reserve. After 1871 they lost the right to no change without the agreement of 3/4 of the men of the tribes, as well as decisions on the setting up of reserv, reloc of tribes, re-desig of reserv boundaries. This was decided by Cong. Army used to keep them in place.

Manifest Destiny

CHange in pol after 1871 influenced by belief in this, if land was needed for the white farmers, then why should they have a duty to gain permission from the Indian chiefs? // belief held by white Ams abt how they had been chosen by God to populate lands from Atlantic seaboard to Pacific Ocean.

The Great Plains

Contained the largest population of Natives. Tribes here were almost completely nomadic.

American Indian Defense Association (AIDA

Created in response to poor living conditions of the Native Americans in 1923. Aim: campaign for laws protecting rights of Indians to their lands, beliefs, cultures, traditions, arts, crafts. Made up of writers and anthropologists. Successful in blocking Bursum Act of 1906, and the Leavitt Bill.

Chief Sitting Bull

During the Battle of Little Bighorn, the Indians were under his leadership. Leader of the Sioux on the Great Plains with Crazy Horse. Resisted mid-19th-century efforts of the US government to confine their people to reservations.

Gladys Tantaquidgeon

During the New Deal and John Collier's position as Commissioner, one of the improvements he helped bring about was the encouragement of NI women 2 aspire 2 higher educ. ie. HER. Studied anthropology at University of Pennsylvania, worked for Indian Bureau during the 1930s as a social worker in South Dakota, promoting native arts and supporting women's co-operatives.

Harrison v. Laveen

From the time Indians were granted citizenship in 1924 and until after World War II, Arizona took the position that Indians were "wards of the government" and therefore "under guardianship." Under the state's constitution, and persons "under guardianship" were prohibited from voting. In 1944, Arizona Attorney General's office ruled that Indians who were living outside the reservation and who were subject to state laws and state taxation were not eligible to vote. In 1948, however, Frank Harrison and Harry Austin, both Mohave-Apache at the Fort McDowell Indian Reservation, attempted to register to vote and were not allowed to register. In Harrison v. Laveen the Arizona Supreme Court agreed with the plaintiffs that their Arizona and United States constitutional rights had been violated. With this decision, Indians were granted the right to vote in the state.

Battle of Little Bighorn, 1875

George Custer + 7th Cavalry - expedition to round up Cheyenne and Sioux who had left Great Sioux Reservation lands and not returning. He was defeated as he attempted to encircle the encampment; he didn't even wait for the rest of the forces. Unit of 200 killed due to outnumbering. After this Sioux lands reduced, Lakota Sioux reduced to starvation. Fort Lamarie Treaty ignored.

Henry Dawes

Henry Laurens Dawes was a Republican United States Senator and United States Representative, notable for the Dawes Act, intended to stimulate assimilation of Indians by ending tribal government and control of communal lands.

National Congress of American Indians (NCAI)

ICC came about pressure from NCAI. The most lasting and significant outcome of the Second World War. 1944. Represented 50 tribes.

The Dawes Act, 1887

INSTIGATED AN ALLOTMENT POLICY. also known as The General Allotment Act; 1887. A Congressional Act that marked a departure from the reservation policy that preceded it. Aim was to divide up and allot reservation lands on the plains into homesteads for NI families. Ownership of land would apparently provide 'civilising' influence. Each head of family would receive 160 acres of farmland or 320 acres of grazing land for 25 yrs in trust. After 25 NI fams would have full ownership of land. Any NI farming those all. lands wld gain full rights of citizenship. Any unallot. wld b given to white settlers. Abolished 1934. Successful in destroying reservation system.

Indian Rights Association

IRA // One of the most influential white philanthrophic organisations spreading during end of 19thC. Founded in Philadelphia, devoted to assimilation << concern for well-being based off this need, rather than understanding and empathy. Branches established in other places - B, Msscch, W DC (base 4 lobbying Cong.). IRA influential in formation of Indian policy in 1930s.

Johnson

In 1958, he referred to the Natives as 'The Forgotten Americans' and est. a programme to promote Indian self-help and respect - the National Council on Indian Opportunity

'The Forgotten Americans'

In 1968, Johnson referred to the Natives as 'The Forgotten Americans'

Ira Hayes

Ira Hamilton Hayes was a Pima Native American and a United States Marine who was one of the six flag raisers immortalized in the iconic photograph of the flag raising on Iwo Jima during World War II

Alice Fletcher

Member of The Friends of the Indians and a supporter of the Dawes Act. Well-meaning white person with desire for NA to assimilate. Thought she was liberating them with her values, and believed in the integration policy. Helped split up NI land.

Missionaries / Quakers / Catholics / Protestants

Membership of these white philanthropic missionary societies >> made up of them. Common purpose: to reform. Thought Indians were primitive and focused on assimilating them.

Carlisle Indian School

On of the two off-reserv boarding schools. This one was in Pennsylvania. Distinguished as a vocational school. NI children transferred after 6 years of normal reserv school life. Here for 8. Intention was to assimilate and purge children of tribal ways; cut tr ties. Boys taught crafts, girls taught domestic tasks. Opportunites for graduates were limited.

Americanisation

One of the federal government's reservation policies. Assimilation of Natives wanted.

American Civil War

Outbreak of this in 1861 resulted in developments that affected the tribal life of Plains Indians by 1865. Land for settlement for white farmers had already been handed over via treaties, which limited their hunting range; aid had been promised, but during the war funding was stretched and therefore it never reached them. Tribes starved, resulting in hostility. More treaties handed over as the volunteer militia for the Plains were viscious and hostile. During the war the policy of homesteading meant the move of Indians.

Polygamy

Practice of having more than one wife was common in NI cultures. It was a means for all the women in the tribe to be cared for by the braves, who hunted and provided food for their families. A custom closely linked to others, that ensured the survival of all. As part of the Res Pols, this had to be given up.

FDR

Prepared to fix the areas Hoover didn't deal with through appt of John Collier as Commissioner. He also urged action on the Reorganisation Bill when its progress was slowed down by disagreements about its terms at the committee stage. In charge of the Indian New Deal.

Meriam Report

Presented bleak picture of impact of the forced assimilation of Native Americans. Partially in response to more encroachment on lands where there was likely to be oil. Condemned allotment policy and Dawes Act.

Nixon

Replaced Johnson in 1968 and ordered the formal end of termination.

Indian Reorganisation Act / Wheeler-Howard Act / Indian New Deal

Represented radical reversal in gov pol. Indian Reorganization Act, also called Wheeler-Howard Act, (June 18, 1934), measure enacted by the U.S. Congress, aimed at decreasing federal control of American Indian affairs and increasing Indian self-government and responsibility.

President Grover Cleveland

Signed the Dawes Severalty Act into law in 1887, his goal was to encourage NA to integrate into American agrarian, white culture. Led a socially reformist yet financially conservative government that didn't believe in excessive welfare assistance.

Buffalo

They were everything the tribes needed to survive. This determined their lifestyle, living conditions, laws, government and religious beliefs.

Lone wolf v. Hitchcock

Supreme Court case. Showed the REGRESSION of native american rights in 1903. The case supported the plenary power of the US gov to revoke all treaties made with NI tribes (needed three-fourths of men of the tribe in order to agree to giving up reserv. land). The court ruled that NI were 'an ignorant and dependent race' and 'wards of the nation' who were not citizens of the USA and therefore had no rights.

Ghost Dance

The Ghost Dance was seen as the final attempt of the Plains Indians to maintain their culture and land. The prophet Wovoka convinced the Sioux that they could only save their land and return to dominance if they performed the Ghost Dance. The dance soon became a reaffirmation of culture and a source of inspiration to renew the struggle against US forces of expansion. This renewed inspiration, however, was crushed before it could get off of the ground.

Plains Wars 1862-67

There was no fighting during the ACW West of Mississipi. Regular soldiers withdrawn, replaced by ill-trained volunteers. Many despised NI, which lead to brutal atrocities that lead to the deterioration of white/Native relationship. ie, SCM '64. This and other incidents led to random warfare during 1862-68.

Tribe / Tribal

Tribes lived independently, with different customs and inter-tribal rivalry and hostility was common. A tribe is a distinct people, dependent on their land for their livelihood, who are largely self-sufficient, and not integrated into the national society. It is perhaps the term most readily understood and used by the general public.

Native American

Tribes that inhabited the North American continent thousands of years before the white men arrived. At the start of the 19th C, 86 tribes had been identified, some of them large enough to be called nations. By the mid-19thC, they contd to live according to their own tribal laws, customs and religion under their tribal chieftain. By 1865, process was already underway to break down their trad culture + lifestyle. From end of 19th-20thC, AI's made the least progress out of any ehtnic group in the USA in improving their status and thus quality of life.

Lewis Meriam

Under his direction, a group of social scientists carried out research for 2 years about the reservation lands.

Code-Talkers

term is now usually associated with the United States soldiers during the world wars who used their knowledge of Native American languages as a basis to transmit coded messages. In particular, there were approximately 400-500 Native Americans in the United States Marine Corps whose primary job was the transmission of secret tactical messages. Code talkers transmitted these messages over military telephone or radio communications nets using formal or informally developed codes built upon their native languages. The name code talkers is strongly associated with bilingual Navajo speakers specially recruited during World War II by the Marines to serve in their standard communications units in the Pacific Theater. Code talking, however, was pioneered by Cherokee and Choctaw Indians during World War I.

Ethnocentrism

Viewing other peoples and cultures according to the standards of one's own culture. Seeing one's own culture as superior and others as inferior. // Here, links to Eurocentrism. Viewpoint of white settlers; clash of civilisations.

John Collier

Vigorously pursued the cause restoring rights of Native Americans to self-determination. <DREAM. Founder and executive secretary of AIDA.

Relocation of Japanese Americans

at the end of the second world war, these ppl were given land. Much of it was Indian Reservation land, as compensation for their suspicion-incited treatment during the war. This exacerbated the hard and resourceless situation AI's found themselves in after the war, who remained on the reservations after AI's went to war.

Indian Citizenship Act

ch11p183: 1924. Franchise extension may have been influenced by participation in the First World War, but granting must be seen in government's drive for total assimilation. This leg. did not come about because of the NI campaigning for it - given to them whether they desired it or not. For Indians pursuing self-determination, must have been unwelcome. Doubtful whether it made a difference - by 1924 already 2/3 had rights to vote, thru inter-marriage and result of allotment system of Dawes Act. Extension of vote to all NI - incl the ones on reservations + dependent on fed support - not intended to empower but to ASSIMILATE.

Indian Vocational Training Act

est 1956, so that NA could obtain marketable skills.

National Council on Indian Opportunity

goals: administer an ambitious and federally funded programme of education for children from pre-school to beyond high school. Provide better quality homes and sanitation. Provide legal aid to enable Native Americans a better understanding of their rights.

Urbanisation

is the increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities. () occurs because people move from rural areas (countryside) to urban areas (towns and cities). This usually occurs when a country is still developing. It was a turning point for 1000s of NA introduced by the experience of the Second World War; was to be the most powerful force to accelerate assimilation during the closing decades of the twentieth century.

President Hoover

supported recommendations of MReport; Believed in lasseiv-faire and his support of the Native Indians can be seen as uncharacteristic. In spite of Depression 1929, he continued support for Indians and Federal Aid was increased to improve the Reservation Indian's quality of life. His attempts to address the MR were limited bc they failed to confront the necessity 4 fundamental review of fed gov's Indian policy; there was also a need to change negative attitude of whites, esp Congress ones.

Assimilation

the process of Americanisation involved assimilating the NI into 'American' culture. NI were extremely resistant to this as it fitted very little into their way of life. A was seen as a necessary part of integration.

National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)

the second oldest American Indian organization in the United States. It was the first independent native student organization, and one of the first native organizations to use direct action protests as a means to pursue its goals. During the 1960s, it acted primarily as a civil rights organization. It was very active in the movement to preserve tribal fishing rights in the Northwest. In the 1970s it focused on environmental concerns and aided tribes suffering from the adverse effects of contamination from coal strip mining and uranium mining.

Nomadic / Nomad

this specific term described the PI's lifestyle. The Plains Indians did not inhabit permanent settlements. They followed the buffalo herds, living in tepee villages that could be quickly de-assembled at sight of herds. They were totally dependent on the buffalo to survive.

Bureau of Indian Affairs

was formed on March 11, 1824. In 1832 Congress established the position of Commissioner of Indian Affairs. In 1849 it was transferred to the U.S. Department of the Interior. In 1869, Ely Samuel Parker was the first Native American to be appointed as commissioner of () One of the most controversial policies of the () was the late 19th to early 20th century decision to educate native children in separate boarding schools, with an emphasis on assimilation that prohibited them from using their indigenous languages, practices, and cultures. It emphasised being educated to European-American culture. Some were beaten for praying to their own god.