Unit 4

1. What is a principle as described by the text? How does Markle describe a principle? (151)

A basic truth that explains or controls how something happens or works. Markle-Important tools people use when they apply what they have learned to new situations, and a principle states a conceptual relationship

14. What is the modality effect? What are the conditions under which it is obtained? (227-228)

A cognitive load learning effect that occurs when a mixed-mode presentation of information is more effective than a single-mode presentation of the same information When multiple sources of information that must be mentally integrated before they can be understood result in superior learning using spoken information rather than written information. Only under conditions in which the split-attention effect occurs The multiple sources of info must be unintelligible in isolation and rely on each other for intelligibility

9. Summarize the major points made in the static illustrations, diagrams, and images section. (181-183)

Adding static diagrams or illustrations to a verbal presentation frequently facilitates deeper understanding of the to-be learned material. Labeled diagrams are better For transfer-simple diagrams are better with instructor-controlled pacing For transfer realistic images better with learner-controlled pacing High-prior learners do equally well with either simple or complex images Low-knowledge learners do better with simple images.

7. Provide an overview of the issues involved with the eighth questionable principle (incidental learning). (162-163)

Early research studies: When instruction provides learning objectives, suggestions, and/or advance study questions, incidental learning is minimal or absent. Later studies: When visual pointers or links to intended learning goals were offered, incidental learning decreased. In the absence of goal-directed pointers and links, incidental learning increased.

3. What is an animated pedagogical agent? (155)

Human-like characters that reside in the learning environment that can focus a learner's attention by moving around the screen, using gaze and gesture, providing... feedback and conveying emotions.

17. What are the variations of negative effects related to the redundancy principle? (248)

Identical information may be presented to learners in two or more different forms or media simultaneously, such as pictures and words that redescribe the pictures or words in both auditory and written form. Also, in an attempt to enhance or elaborate information, additional information may be presented.

19. Summarize the example of the redundancy effect in terms of learning to read. Why might teachers continue to violate the principle? (250)

In teaching student to read, textbook with text on one page and the corresponding picture on another page are used. It has been found in this case that presenting text alone is often more beneficial than presenting both text and diagrams. However, teachers still continue to violate the redundancy principle because it seems counterintuitive to present text alone. The example with the textbook also fails the spatial contiguity principle. Produces buy-in

23. Why is context important when assessing the redundancy principle? (259)

Information that is redundant under one set of circumstances is essential under another, and information that is redundant for one person may be essential for another.

22. Explain the importance of assessing the repertoire of learners when designing instruction in terms of the redundancy principle. (258)

It is important to assess the learner's repertoire, repertoire as a novice learner might need explanatory text in addition to a diagram. However, that additional text would be redundant to an expert. The repertoire of learner's serve as a context that determines whether information is redundant or not.

11. What is the split-attention effect? When might nonintegrated materials be beneficial? (187-188)

Learning from instructional materials is reduced when the materials require learners to split their attention across multiple sources of information. When students interact with the materials to generate an integrated representation.

5. Provide an overview of the issues involved with the sixth questionable principle (autonomy and control). Include the points about how to best sequence and the exceptions to the rule. Describe some situations in which a highly knowledgeable learner might be assigned to educational practice. (159- 160)

Linear, instructor-controlled instruction Pacing control is beneficial to the learner. It allows them stop, pause, or slow down multimedia or other instructional presentations. Student control over sequencing generally results in significantly less learning and transfer. The best way to sequence instruction is to use pre-test scores to sequence lessons. Presenting simpler examples and then move on to more complex Sequencing in a way that matches what a expert does. One exception is a learner with high prior learning of the tasks or content being taught does not benefit from external sequencing. This could be a situation where there are minor updates in the subject such as the 7th edition APA manual or the DSM. Another example could be a learner that must go through a certification on a regular basis and therefore could already know most if not all the material. Ethics training, CPR/First Aid, Concussion Awareness.

4. What is the fourth questionable principle (involving learning styles)? What are learning styles? What does the research suggest about learning styles? (156-157)

Multimedia instruction accommodates different learning styles. An individuals' natural or habitual pattern of acquiring and processing information in learning situations. There is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice.

2. What is the first questionable principle? In regards to costs, what are some considerations when deciding whether multimedia training is an appropriate solution? (152-153)

Multimedia produces more learning than do live teachers or older media such as textbooks or television. Does it make sense to invest in the development of an expensive multimedia instructional program when less expensive media would have equal learning benefits? Will it improve student access to instructional programs? Does it reduce the cost of learning? Static or evolving content? What is the scale of training, how many people go through training?

6. "Cognitive load theory is the best current explanation for why pacing control works and sequencing control does not for most students." Provide a behavioral alternative. (160)

Pacing control works because it allows a student to go through the instruction at a pace that matches the speed at which they best learn all the m Only progress faster as they become more fluent Sequencing control does not work for most learners because if they skip around or miss steps. Gaps in repertoire. Cannot build composite skills if you don't have component skills.

21. Explain the relationship between the redundancy and split-attention principles. (257)

Redundancy occurs when there are multiple sources of information, like a diagram and text, and one source is self-sustained and hence, the other source is unnecessary and thus redundant. In this case, no mental integration is needed. Split attention occurs when there are multiple sources of information but each sources is unintelligible by itself and hence, the learner's attention is split between both sources. Mental integration is needed in this case.

16. What is the redundancy principle? Summarize the concerns with redundancy in terms of demands with working memory. (247)

Redundant material interferes with rather than facilities learning. When several sources of unnecessary information are simultaneously presented to learners, they need to coordinate these sources, which generates heavy demands on working memory and wastes their limited cognitive resources on activities that are not related to learning goals.

10. What does the research suggest about the effectiveness of animations versus static images? (185)

Research suggested that animations are no more effective than static images if the learner can predict and infer the system's behavior from static images. In fact, greater learning occurs from generating animations rather than when those animations are give to you.

12. What is the spatial contiguity principle? (212)

Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented near rather than far from each other on the page or screen.

13. What is the temporal contiguity principle? (215)

Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively

18. According to the authors, what accounts for the unusual history with the redundancy effect? Be sure to include the point about the consequence of the historical factors. (249)

The effect has been discovered, forgotten, and rediscovered many times over many decades. There probably have been two related causes for this history: First, the effect is seen as counterintuitive by many researchers and practitioners; and second, until recently, there has not been clear theoretical explanation to place it into context.

8. In regards to visual learners, provide the points that the author makes regarding self-report and learning. (174-175)

There is no compelling evidence that self-reported learning styles influence students' learning outcomes across varied instructional materials. Research shows that students rate themselves as learning better from texts that include visuals regardless of whether the visuals actually facilitate knowledge gain.

15. Explain, in the same manner as the authors, why the modality effect is not always found. (239)

When visual-only information is superior to audio-visual info-self-paced rather than fixed-pace conditions When the instruction uses complex and/or lengthy audio/written materials

20. Use the geometry and blood flow examples to fully explain the key point involving the relations between diagrams and text. Include the point about what happens when redundant text is integrated. (251-252)

With the geometry example, the diagram and text are unintelligible if presented alone. They both need to be integrated in order for understanding to occur. Thus, the learner's attention is split between the diagram and the text (Example of split-attention principle). With blood flow example, the diagram is self-sustained and intelligible by itself and, so, the introduction of additional text leads to redundancy (example of redundancy principle).