Unit 4: Political Participation - Voting, Elections, Media, Parties and Interest Groups

selective benefits

Benefits that an interest group can restrict to those who actually join -- helps to overcome the free-rider problem

amicus curiae brief

A "friend of the Court" brief filed by an interest group or interested party to influence a Supreme Court decision.

Bi-Partisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA)

A United States federal law that amended the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971, which regulates the financing of political campaigns by banning Soft (Party) money. Prohibited advertisements 30 days of a primary or caucus or 60 days of a general election (overturned by Citizens United)

Eligible voter

A citizen that is legally eligible to vote in a government election -- even if not yet actually registered

party identification

A citizen's self-proclaimed preference for one party or the other -- THE most significant factor in how a person votes

database

A collection of organized data that allows access, retrieval, and use of data -- used by political parties and candidates to find out what voters want, what their desires are, to help win the election

lobbying

A communication by a member of a special interest group, directed to a governmental decision maker, with the hope of influencing his or her decisions.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

A law designed to help end formal and informal barriers to African American suffrage. Under the law, hundreds of thousands of African Americans were registered, and the number of African American elected officials increased dramatically.

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974

A law passed in 1974 for performing campaign finances. The Act created the Federal Election Commission, provided public financing for presidential primaries and general elections, limited presidential campaign spending, required disclosure, and attempted to limit contributions.

party platform

A party's statement of its goals and policies for the next four years. The platform is drafted prior to the party convention by a committee whose members are chosen in rough proportion to each candidate's strength. It is the best formal statement of a party's beliefs.

Delegates

A person designated to act for or represent another or others at the national presidential nominating convention. Selected by the people at caucuses or primary elections in the first six months of a presidential election year.

rational-choice model of voting

A popular theory in political science to explain the actions of voters as well as politicians -- argues that individuals act in their own best interest, carefully weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives

poll tax

A requirement that citizens pay a tax in order to register to vote -- used to disenfranchise African-Americans in the South after the Civil War

Federal Elections Commission

A six member bipartisan agency that administers campaign finance laws and enforces compliance with their requirements

swing/battleground state

A state that could go either way in a presidential elections (unlike "safe states"). Target of a lot of attention in elections. Also known as "battleground states" or "purple states" (Ohio, Florida in 2008)

Caucus

A system for selecting convention delegates used in about a dozen mostly rural states in which voters must show up at a set time and attendance open meeting to express their presidential preference.

literacy test

A test given to persons to prove they can read and write before being allowed to register to vote -- often used by southern states to seek to disenfranchise black voters

elite model of democracy

A theory of democracy contending that an upper-class elite will hold most of the power and thus in effect run the government -- they control the parties and the interest groups

pluralist model of democracy

A theory of democracy emphasizing that many groups, each pressing for its preferred policies, compete and counterbalance one another, benefiting society -- in other words, political parties and interest groups are GOOD for the country

Electoral College

A unique American institution, created by the Constitution, providing for the selection of the president by electors. Although the Electoral College vote usually reflects a popular majority, less populated states are over-represented in the winner-take-all rule concentrates campaigns on close States.

retrospective model of voting

A voter looks backwards, looks back to consider the candidates' political track records -- their previous "performance" as elected officials (or if new, in whatever their jobs were) is the critical factor

prospective model of voting

A voter looks forward, considers how candidates or proposed policies would impact their lives or the operation of government "down the road"

party-line model of voting

A voter who has actually decided, "I favor the _________ Party!" is more likely to vote (like, at all) -- and of course, more likely to vote for that party

electorate

All of the people entitled to vote in a given election

iron triangle

Also known as subgovernments, a mutually dependent, mutually advantageous relationship between interest groups interested in a particular policy, government agencies that administer that policy, and the congressional committees and subcommittees that handle it. Iron triangles dominate some areas of domestic policy making

critical elections

An electoral "earthquake" where new issues emerge, new coalitions replace old ones, and the majority party is often displayed by the minority party. Sometimes caused by a national crisis (e.g., Civil War, Great Depression).

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

An independent federal agency that regulates interstate and international communication by broadcast radio and television stations -- but has no power to regulate what is reported/spoken about on CABLE news

interest group

An organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve those goals by INFLUENCING government officials

labor unions

An organized association of workers, often in a trade or profession, formed to protect and further their rights and interests -- will also lobby the government for laws/policies that benefit their trade

Press conference

An unrestricted session between an elected official and the press -- starting with FDR, presidents have used these to communicate their message to the American people

Soft Money

Contributions made outside the federal contribution limits to a political party, used for state and local elections and generic "party-building" activities, including voter registration campaigns and get-out-the-vote drives. The BCRA of 2002 banned the national political parties from raising soft money, which was often used for so-called "issue" ads that criticized/emphasized a candidate's record just before an election.

matching funds

Contributions of up to $250 are matched from the Presidential Election Campaign Fund to presidential candidates who agree to federal limits on overall campaign spending -- today, most candidates reject these funds, as they want to raise UNLIMITED amounts of money from other sources

23rd Amendment (1961)

D.C. residents can vote for presidential elections

electioneering

Direct interest group involvement in the electoral process, for example, by helping to fund campaigns, getting members to work for candidates, or forming political action committees.

invisible primary

Early attempts to raise money, line up campaign consultants, generate media attention, and get commitments for support even before candidates even announce they are running for office

candidate-centered campaigns

Election campaigns and other political processes in which candidates, not political parties, have most of the initiative and influence.

party-centered campaigns

Election campaigns and other political processes in which political parties, not individual candidates, hold most of the initiative and influence -- are less common in the 21st century, as candidates can rely on media/social media for more publicity and fund-raising

Presidential primaries

Elections in which states of voters go to the polls to express their preference for a party's nominee for president. Most delegates to the National party convention are chosen this way.

closed primaries

Elections to select party nominees in which only people who have registered in advance with the party can vote for that party's candidates, that's encouraging greater party loyalty.

open primaries

Elections to select party nominees in which voters can decide on Election Day whether they want to participate in the Democratic or republican contests.

free rider problem

For an interest group, the problem of people not actually becoming members because they can benefit from the group's activities without joining -- so, if you're a gun owner, you benefit from the NRA's activities even if you never join, contribute money, etc.

innovator role

Function of third parties where the third party candidate presents policy options that are less moderate or are riskier than what the major party candidate is willing to present.

spoiler role

Function of third parties where the third party candidate siphons votes from an ideological similar major party candidate, effectively decreasing electoral results for said candidate.

political party

Group of citizens with similar policy views who seek to control government by running candidates and winning elections

equality groups

Groups centered around ensuring equal protection under the law for various minority groups (e.g., NAACP)

environmental groups

Groups primarily concerned with issues of conservation or preservation of natural resources (e.g., Greenpeace)

professional groups

Groups that advocate for people in a particular profession, such as doctors, lawyers, and teachers (e.g., American Medical Association)

501(c) Groups

Groups that are exempted from reporting their contributions and can receive unlimited contributions. Section 501c of the tax code specifies that such groups cannot spend more than half their funds on political activities.

single issue groups

Groups that have a narrow interests, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics (e.g., National Right to Life Committee)

527 Groups

Independent political groups that are not subject to contribution restrictions because they do not directly seek the election of particular candidates. Section 527 of the tax code specifies that contributions to such groups must be reported to the IRS. (not PACs, party or candidate committees, who also report udner Section 527 of the tax code.)

business groups

Interest groups representing business OWNERS (small or large businesses, or specific trades) (e.g., National Chamber of Commerce)

Motor Voter Act of 1993

Law intended to ease the process of registering to vote -- allows people to register at motor vehicle departments -- hasn't raised voter levels

26th Amendment (1971)

Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18

Narrowcasting

Media programming on cable TV or the internet that is focused on a particular interest and aimed at a particular audience -- has helped to increase political polarization over the last 30 years

national convention

Meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party's platform

national convention

Meeting of party delegates every four years to officially nominate a presidential/vice-presidential candidate, and to write the party's platform

Hard Money

Money contributed directly to a campaign, to be used to support this or that candidate. Subject to strict FEC regulations.

"dark" money

Money raised by 501c groups, who do not have to disclose donors

independent expenditures

Money spent by outside individuals and organizations in support of a candidate -- in other words, NOT money spent by the candidate, or by his/her political party

SuperPACs

Official term is "independent expenditure only committee." They are similar to PACs but with fewer restrictions; they can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money for directly supporting or attacking political candidate. They *cannot* directly coordinate with candidate or party. Usually the people running the SuperPAC have close ties to the candidate, but do not "coordinate".

"Stand By Your Ad" clause

Part of 2002 BCRA that required candidates to say, IN THE AD, "I'm ________, and I approve this message" -- intended to encourage more responsible use of political ads.

Electors

People elected by the voters in a presedential election, as members of the Electoral College

Political Action Committee (PAC)

Political funding arms of special interest groups. The corporation, union, or some other interest group can create a PAC and register it with the Federal Election Commission which will monitor the PAC expenditures.

lobbyist

Professional, paid member of an interest group whose job it is to personally influence members of Congress to vote in ways that benefit the interest group's members.

24th Amendment (1964)

Prohibits federal and state governments from charging poll tax

divided government

Refers to the situation in which one party controls the presidency while the other party controls Congress. In other words, one party controls the executive while the other party controls the legislature.

Gatekeeper

Role played by the media -- the have a powerful influence on WHAT subjects they will present, and therefore what subjects become national political issues -- and also for HOW LONG they remain "big" issues

Political Action Committees (PAC's)

Section of an interest group devoted to making political campaign contributions. A corporation, union, or some other interest group can create a one and register it with the Federal Election Commission, which will monitor its expenditures.

Sound bite

Short video clips of approximately 10 seconds. Typically they are all that is shown from a politician's speech on the nightly television news -- symbolize American's lack of interest in lengthy policy speeches, but at the same time they reinforce Americans' lack of full information

Voter Registration

System designed to reduce voter fraud by limiting voting to those who have established eligibility to vote by submitting the proper documents.

Mass media

Television, radio, newspapers, magazines, the internet, and other means of popular communication.

political efficacy

The belief that one's political participation really matters that one's vote can really make a difference -- low levels = not likely to vote

midterm election

The congressional election that occurs midway through the president's term of office

party realignment

The displacement of the majority party by the minority party, usually happening as a result of a critical election

party dealignment

The gradual disengagement of people from both major parties, as seen in part by shrinking party identification and increases in independent voters.

policy agenda

The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people involved in politics at a point in time.

Suffrage

The legal right to vote, extended to African Americans by the Fifteenth Amendment, two women by the 19th Amendment, and two people over the age of 18 by the 26th amendment.

nomination

The official endorsement of a candidate for office by a political party -- generally, success in the nomination game requires momentum, money, and media attention.

party in power

The party of the President, which controls the White House

linkage institutions

The political channels through which people's concerns become political issues on the policy agenda. In the United States, linkage institutions include political parties, interest groups, the media, and elections

Frontloading

The recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention.

Watchdog

The role played by media as the "protector" of the public from incompetent or corrupt officials by standing ready to expose any official who violates accepted legal, ethical, or performance standards.

Scorekeeper

The role played by the national media in keeping track of "who's winning today" in national election campaigns

Horse race journalism

The tendency of the media to focus on which candidate is ahead in the polls rather than focusing on the issues

Investigative journalism

The use of in-depth reporting to unearth scandals, scams, and schemes, at times putting reporters an adversarial relationship with political leaders.

ideological party

Third party type based on a particular set of beliefs or ideology (e.g., the Libertarian Party)

single issue party

Third party type that concentrates on only one public policy matter (e.g., the National Right to Life Party)

splinter party

Third party type that has split off from a major party because of major disagreement (e.g., the Bull Moose Party of T. Roosevelt in 1912)

incumbent

Those already holding elected office. In congressional elections, incumbents usually win, due to name recognition, pre-existing fundraising organization, and ability to claim credit for successful bills/policies they've already supported

Registered Voter

Those legally eligible to vote who have registered in accordance with the requirements prevailing in their state and locality.

15th Amendment (1870)

U.S. cannot prevent a person from voting because of race, color, or creed

litigation

When an interest group seeks to influence the government by bringing lawsuits against any part of the government that's acting in ways that are against the group's interests -- or, the group submits amicus curiae briefs in someone else's lawsuit, if their winning would benefit their group

19th Amendment (1920)

Women gain the right to vote

Citizens United v FEC (2010)

a U.S. constitutional law and corporate law case dealing with the regulation of campaign spending by organizations. The United States Supreme Court held (5-4) that freedom of speech prohibited the government from restricting independent political expenditures by a nonprofit corporation. The principles articulated by the Supreme Court in the case have also been extended to for-profit corporations, labor unions and other associations

third parties

parties that organize to compete against the two major American political parties

general elections

regularly scheduled elections at which voters make the final selection of officeholders

Agenda setting

the power of the media to bring public attention to particular issues and problems

Polarization

the presence of increasingly conflicting and divided viewpoints between the Democratic and Republican Parties since the 1990's