Unit 5 Vocab

SURVEY PATTERNS- long lots, metes and bounds, Township and range

A French style of planning in which houses are arranged around a central water feature so that they have easy access to transportation. A legal description of a piece of land. A system of divvying up land into townships which are marked by range lines that run from east to west and township lines that run from north to south. Ex:The Rectangular Survey System provides for a unit of land approximately 24 miles square, bounded by base lines running east and west, and meridians running north and south. This 24 mile square is divided into areas six miles square called townships. Townships are further divided into 36 sections, each one mile square. Base Line and Principal Meridian. The first step in implementing this survey system in a given area is the establishment of an initial point. This point will be the basis for all government surveys in the area it controls, and its latitude and longitude are fixed by astronomical observations. From this initial point, a Principal Meridian is run north and south on a line that would intersect the poles, and a Base Line is run east and west on a parallel of latitude. The Principal Meridian controls survey lines east and west, and the Base Line is the north and south control.

Intensive subsistence agriculture

A form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasible yield from a parcel of land. Ex: In densely populated East, South and Southeast Asia, most farmers practice intensive subsistence agriculture. The typical farm is much smaller than elsewhere in the world.Because the agricultural density the ratio of farmers to arable land—is so high in parts of East and South Asia, families must produce enough food for their survival from a very small area of land. They do this through careful agricultural practices, refined over thousands of years in response to local environmental and cultural patterns. Intensive subsistence farmers waste virtually no land.

Biotechnology

A form of technology that uses living organisms, usually genes, to modify products, to make or modify plants and animals, or to develop other microorganisms for specific purposes. Ex: Environmental biotechnology is the used in waste treatment and pollution prevention. Environmental biotechnology can more efficiently clean up many wastes than conventional methods and greatly reduce our dependence on methods for land-based disposal. Every organism ingests nutrients to live and produces by-products as a result. Different organisms need different types of nutrients. Some bacteria thrive on the chemical components of waste products. Environmental engineers use bioremediation, the broadest application of environmental biotechnology, in two basic ways. They introduce nutrients to stimulate the activity of bacteria already present in the soil at a waste site, or add new bacteria to the soil. The bacteria digest the waste at the site and turn it into harmless byproducts. After the bacteria consume the waste materials, they die off or return to their normal population levels in the environment.

Von Thunen Model

A model of land use develop by Johann von Thunen that illustrates the trade off between land values and the distance from a central point of attraction. While originally applied to agricultural land use, the von Thunen model is commonly used to explain urban land use patterns. Two primary conclusions from the model are (1) that land values decrease as distance from the central point of attraction increases and (2) that different land use activities are contained in concentric rings equal distance from the central point of attraction based on the weight (or transportation cost) of the activity. Ex: One example is the transportation, it is more cost effective to have one big producer of a good that delivers all over, compared to many smaller growers that are local.

SHIFTING CULTIVATION- Slash-and-burn, milpa, swidden

A style of farming in which a certain plot of land is used for a given amount of time, then the land is abandoned for awhile to let the field naturally regrow it's nutrients. Ex: Shifting cultivation was still being practiced as a viable and stable form of agriculture in many parts of Europe and east into Siberia at the end of the 19th century and in some places well into the 20th century. In the Ruhr in the late 1860s a forest-field rotation system known as Reutbergwirtschaft was using a 16-year cycle of clearing, cropping and fallowing with trees to produce bark for tanneries, wood for charcoal and rye for flour. Swidden farming was practiced in Siberia at least until the 1930s, using specially selected varieties of "swidden-rye". In Eastern Europe and Northern Russia the main swidden crops were turnips, barley, flax, rye, wheat, oats, radishes and millet. Cropping periods were usually one year, but were extended to two or three years on very favourable soils. Fallow periods were between 20 and 40 years. In Finland in 1949, Steensberg observed the clearing and burning of a 60,000 square meters swidden 440 km north of Helsinki. Birch and pine trees had been cleared over a period of a year and the logs sold for cash. A fallow of alder was encouraged to improve soil conditions. After the burn, turnip was sown for sale and for cattle feed. Shifting cultivation was disappearing in this part of Finland because of a loss of agricultural labour to the industries of the towns. Steensberg provides eye-witness descriptions of shifting cultivation being practiced in Sweden in the 20th century, and in Estonia, Poland, the Caucasus, Serbia, Bosnia, Hungary, Switzerland, Austria and Germany in the 1930s to the 1950s.

Fertilizer

A substance that promotes plant growth by supplying essential nutrients such as nitrogen or phosphorus Ex: Chicken litter, which consists of chicken manure mixed with sawdust, is an organic fertilizer that has been shown to better condition soil for harvest than synthesized fertilizer. Researchers at the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) studied the effects of using chicken litter, an organic fertilizer, versus synthetic fertilizers on cotton fields, and found that fields fertilized with chicken litter had a 12% increase in cotton yields over fields fertilized with synthetic fertilizer. In addition to higher yields, researchers valued commercially sold chicken litter at a $17/ton premium (to a total valuation of $78/ton) over the traditional valuations of $61/ton due to value added as a soil conditioner.

Pastoralism

A type of agricultural activity based on nomadic animal husbandry or the raising of livestock to provide food, clothing, and shelter. Ex: Pastoralism is a successful strategy to support a population on less productive land, and adapts well to the environment. For example, in savannas, pastoralists and their animals gather when rain water is abundant and the pasture is rich, then scatter during the drying of the savanna. Pastoralists often use their herds to affect their environment. Grazing herds on savannas can ensure the biodiversity of the savannas and prevent them from evolving into scrubland. Pastoralists may also use fire to make ecosystems more suitable for their food animals. For instance, the Turkana people of northwest Kenya use fire to prevent the invasion of the savanna by woody plant species. Biomass of the domesticated and wild animals was increased by a higher quality of grass.

Rural settlement- Dispered Settlements /Nucleated settlements

A ural settlement is any settlement in the areas defined as rural by a governmental office, e.g., by the national census bureau. This may include even rural towns. In some others, rural settlements traditionally do not include towns. Common types of rural settlements are villages, hamlets and farms.A dispersed settlement is one of the main types of settlement patterns used by landscape historians to classify rural settlements found in England and other parts of the world. Typically, there are a number of separate farmsteads scattered throughout the area. A nucleated settlement is one of the main types of settlement pattern. It is one of the terms used by geographers and landscape historians to classify settlements. Ex: Much of India's rural population lives in nucleated villages, which most commonly have a settlement form described as a shapeless agglomerate. Such settlements, though unplanned, are divided by caste into distinct wards and grow outward from a recognizable core area. The dominant and higher castes tend to live in the core area, while the lower artisan and service castes, as well as Muslim groups, generally occupy more peripheral localities. When the centrally located castes increase in population, they either subdivide their existing, often initially large, residential compounds, add second and even third stories on their existing houses (a common expedient in Punjab), leapfrog over lower-caste wards to a new area on the village periphery, or, in rare cases where land is available, found a completely new village.

Subsistence agriculture

Agriculture designed primarily to provide food for direct consumption by the farmer and the farmer's family Ex: Subsistence grain-growing agriculture (predominantly wheat and barley) first emerged during the Neolithic Revolution when humans began to settle in the Nile, Euphrates, and Indus River Valleys. Subsistence agriculture also emerged independently in Mexico where it was based on maize cultivation, and the Andes where it was based on the domestication of the potato. Subsistence agriculture was the dominant mode of production in the world until recently, when market-based capitalism became widespread. Subsistence horticulture may have developed independently in South East Asia and Papua New Guinea.

Plantation agriculture

Agriculture performed on a large farm in tropical and subtropical climates that specializes in the production of one or two crops for sale, usually to a more developed country Ex: Industrial plantations are established to produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time for each society. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities (for example, the Forestry Commission in Britain) and/or the paper and wood industries and other private landowners (such as Weyerhaeuser, Rayonier and Plum Creek Timber in the United States, Asia Pulp & Paper in Indonesia). Christmas trees are often grown on plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have recently replaced the natural forest.

Commercial Agriculture

Agriculture undertaken primarily to generate products for sale off the farm. Ex: Companies like coke, pepsi, and tyson are examples of commerical agriculture

Dairying

An agricultural activity involving the raising of livestock, most commonly cows and goats, for dairy products such as milk, cheese, and butter. Ex: In Vietnam for example, approximately 84 to 89 per cent of all goats milk produced is sold commercially, and the remainder used for family consumption and even feeding pigs. In Asia, dairying is further extended to include milch buffalo, which make a most important contribution to both rural families and the national economy. In India, about 79 million buffalo produce approximately 55 per cent of the total volume of milk, compared to about 40 per cent from 199 million cattle. Smallholders in South Asia often use both buffalo and cattle together for milk production in order to combine the different butterfat contents.

Mediterranean agriculture

An agricultural system practiced in the Mediterranean-style climates of Western Europe, California, and portions of Chile and Australia. Ex: A variety of crops are raised; Citrus fruits, olives and figs, with long, widespread roots, scant foliage and thick skinned fruits are best adapted to the Mediterranean type of climate. Dates are prominent in semi-arid region in North Africa and in scattered areas in south-west Europe, where cultivation of other crops is not viable.

Livestock ranching

An extensive commercial agricultural activity that involves the raising of livestock over vast geographic spaces typically located in semi-arid climates like the American West. Ex: A group of four ranches in Brazil recently became the first in the world to earn Rainforest Alliance certification for sustainable cattle production. The ranches, all belonging to the group Fazendas São Marcelo, met a rigorous set of standards that promote the humane treatment of livestock, the conservation of natural resources and the rights and well-being of workers. The standards were developed by the Sustainable Agriculture Network (SAN) in response to the vast destruction of rainforest that results from cattle farming, IMAFLORA -- the SAN representative in Brazil -- carried out the certification.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)

An organism whose genetic material has been altered through some genetic engineering technology or technique. Ex: Soybean: Glyphosate herbicide (Roundup) tolerance conferred by expression of a glyphosate-tolerant form of the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) isolated from the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens, strain CP4 Insect resistance Corn: Resistance to insect pests, specifically the European corn borer, through expression of the insecticidal protein Cry1Ab from Bacillus thuringiensis Canola: High laurate levels achieved by inserting the gene for ACP thioesterase from the California bay tree Umbellularia californica Plum: Resistance to plum pox virus conferred by insertion of a coat protein (CP) gene from the virus

Tertiary economic activity

Any economic activity pertaining to the provision of services EX: transportation, banking, retailing, education, etc.

Pesticides

Any one of various substances used to kill harmful insects (insecticide), fungi (fungicide), vermin, or other living organisms that destroy or inhibit plant growth, carry disease, or are otherwise harmful. Ex: Some examples of chemically-related pesticides follow: Organophosphate Pesticides - These pesticides affect the nervous system by disrupting the enzyme that regulates acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Carbamate Pesticides affect the nervous system by disupting an enzyme that regulates acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. The enzyme effects are usually reversible. There are several subgroups within the carbamates. Organochlorine Insecticides were commonly used in the past, but many have been removed from the market due to their health and environmental effects and their persistence. Pyrethroid Pesticides were developed as a synthetic version of the naturally occurring pesticide pyrethrin, which is found in chrysanthemums. They have been modified to increase their stability in the environment. Some synthetic pyrethroids are toxic to the nervous system.

Truck farm

Commercial gardening and fruit farming, so named because truck was a Middle English word meaning batering or the exchange of commodities. Ex: The major truck-farming areas are in California, Texas, Florida, along the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and in the Great Lakes area. Centers for specific crops vary with the season. Among the most important truck crops are tomatoes, lettuce, melons, beets, broccoli, celery, radishes, onions, cabbage, and strawberries.

Environmental modifications

Changes in the ecosystem resulting from human activities such as the use of pesticides, soil erosion, desertification. Ex: Deforestation emerges overwhelmingly as the crucial environmental modifier for wildlife in Latin America, as is true most everywhere. Agriculture-related activities in the broad sense come second, with burning and pesticide contamination in third and fourth place. The fifth environmental modifier is roads, human settlement and urbanization, but here the differences between countries are considerable. Overgrazing and erosion are sixth and seventh in importance. Hydraulic structures including dams, irrigation systems and the draining of wetlands are eighth. The final factor is introduced plant or animal exotics, which are fairly important in the Southern Cone countries. Under the heading "others" come oil and mining activities, fisheries and the scarcity of wild foods.

Agribusiness

Commercial agriculture characterized by integration of different steps in the food-processing industry, usually through ownership by large corporations. Ex: Examples of agribusinesses include seed and agrichemical producers like Dow AgroSciences, DuPont, Monsanto, and Syngenta; AB Agri (part of Associated British Foods) animal feeds, biofuels, and micro-ingredients, ADM, grain transport and processing; John Deere, farm machinery producer; Ocean Spray, farmer's cooperative; and Purina Farms, agritourism farm.

Aquaculture

Cultivation of aquatic organisms under controlled circumstances. Ex: The indigenous Gunditjmara people in Victoria, Australia may have raised eels as early as 6000 BC. There is evidence that they developed about 100 square kilometers of volcanic floodplains in the vicinity of Lake Condah into a complex of channels and dams, that they used woven traps to capture eels, and preserve eels to eat all year round. Aquaculture was operating in China circa 2500 BC.[12] When the waters subsided after river floods, some fishes, mainly carp, were trapped in lakes. Early aquaculturists fed their brood using nymphs and silkworm feces, and ate them. A fortunate genetic mutation of carp led to the emergence of goldfish during the Tang Dynasty. Japanese cultivated seaweed by providing bamboo poles and, later, nets and oyster shells to serve as anchoring surfaces for spores. Romans bred fish in ponds.

Koppen Climatic Classifications for Agriculture

Developed by Wladamir Koppen, a system for classifying the world's climates on the basis of temperature and precipitation. Ex: The southern and central parts of the Lower Peninsula (south of Saginaw Bay and from the Grand Rapids area southward) have a warmer climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa) with hot summers and cold winters. The northern part of Lower Peninsula and the entire Upper Peninsula has a more severe climate (Köppen Dfb), with warm, but shorter summers and longer, cold to very cold winters.

Secondary economic activity

Economic activity involving the processing of raw materials and their transformation into finished industrial products; the manufacturing sector Ex: Strawberries are grown on farmers all over and then packaged and sent to stores such as walmart or harris teeter

Intensive agriculture/Extensive agriculture

Intensive agriculture is an agricultural production system characterized by a low fallow ratio and the high use of inputs such as capital, labor, or heavy use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers relative to land area. Extensive agriculture is an agricultural production system that uses small inputs of labor, fertilizers, and capital, relative to the land area being farmed. Ex: Rice is an example of intensive agriculture, a lot of labor goes into producing small amounts that are then sold at low prices. Apples are an example of extensive agriculture because they take little work to grow and are easy to grow almost anywhere.

Collective farm

Government owned farms, workers were paid by government and they shared profits from products. Ex: Typical examples of collective farms are the kolkhozy that dominated Soviet agriculture between 1930 and 1991 and the Israeli kibbutzim.Both are collective farms based on common ownership of resources and on pooling of labor and income in accordance with the theoretical principles of cooperative organizations. They are radically different, however, in the application of the cooperative principles relative to freedom of choice and democratic rule.

Double Cropping

Harvesting twice a year from the same field. Ex: An example of double cropping might be to harvest a wheat crop by early summer and then plant corn or soybeans on that acreage for harvest in the fall. This practice is only possible in regions with long growing seasons.

Sustainable yield

Highest rate at which a renewable resource can be used indefinitely without reducing its available supply Ex: For example in fisheries, the basic natural capital or virgin population, must decrease with extraction. At the same time productivity increases. Hence, sustainable yield would be within the range in which the natural capital together with its production are able to provide satisfactory yield. It may be very difficult to quantify sustainable yield, because every dynamic ecological conditions and other factors not related to harvesting induce changes and fluctuations in both, the natural capital and its productivity.

Chemical farming

Increased use of fertilizers with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The development of higher-yield crops has produced: a 'miracle wheat seed" which is shorter and stiffer, less sensitive to variation in day length, responds better to fertilizers, and matures faster; a similar miracle rice seed, that was heartier and has increased yields; a high-yield corn seed is currently being developed.

Extractive industry

Industries involved in the activities of prospecting, exploring, developing, and producing for non-regenerative natural resources from the Earth Ex: finding good soil for farming or an area with a lot of oil

Paddy

Malay word for wet rice, commonly but incorrectly used to describe a sawah. Ex: Paddy field farming goes back thousands of years in Korea. A pit-house at the Daecheon-ni site yielded carbonized rice grains and radiocarbon dates, indicating that rice cultivation in dry-fields may have begun as early as the Middle Jeulmun Pottery Period in the Korean Peninsula.Ancient paddy fields have been carefully unearthed in Korea by institutes such as Kyungnam University Museum (KUM) of Masan. They excavated paddy field features at the Geumcheon-ni Site near Miryang, South Gyeongsang Province. The paddy field feature was found next to a pit-house that is dated to the latter part of the Early Mumun Pottery Period. KUM has conducted excavations, that have revealed similarly dated paddy field features, at Yaeum-dong and Okhyeon, in modern-day Ulsan.

Soil Erosion

Movement of soil components, especially topsoil, from one place to another, usually by wind, flowing water, or both. This natural process can be greatly accelerated by human activities that remove vegetation from soil. Ex: There are four primary types of erosion that occur as a direct result of rainfall: splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, and gully erosion. Splash erosion is generally seen as the first and least severe stage in the soil erosion process, which is followed by sheet erosion, then rill erosion and finally gully erosion (the most severe of the four).In splash erosion, the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil, ejecting soil particles. The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as two feet vertically and five feet (1.5 m) horizontally on level ground. Once the rate of rainfall is faster than the rate of infiltration into the soil, surface runoff occurs and carries the loosened soil particles down the slope.Sheet erosion is the transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow.

Luxury crops

Non-subsistence crops Ex: the most well know luxury crops are tea, coffee, tobacco, cocoa

Boserup Model

Population growth drives intensification and higher production at the cost of lower efficiency. Highly simplified model of how agriculture works. Social demands for agricultural output, produce more food than what they need for social reasons. economics are also a cause. Effects: intensification, degradation (because people are poor), conflict, lower efficiency. Very much a cause and effect model. Ex: In the 1960s, a package of agricultural improvements known as the Green Revolution was seen as the answer to the food problem in much of the developing world. LEDCs commonly have high birth rates and rapidly growing populations, therefore food scarcity was a large concern. In order to address this problem, modified crops were invented. HVP (high-yielding variety seed programme) commenced in 1966-7.India was one of the first countries to greatly benefit from HVP and to spark the Green Revolution. In 1967 India was still suffering from the aftermath of the Bengal famine, which occured in 1943 and in which an estimated 4 million people died of hunger. India implemented agricultural methods to increase food output, such as : continued expansion of farming areas, double cropping existing farmland, and using seeds with improved genetics. These methods were very successful as yield per unit of farmland improved by more than 30% and India became one of the world's biggest agricultural producers. This example of the Green Revolution demonstrates Boserup's theory that technological advances will be made to increase food supply in order to avoid food scarcity in face of a growing population.

Green Revolution

Rapid diffusion of new agricultural technology, especially new high-yield seeds and fertilizers. Ex: In 1961 India was on the brink of mass famine. Borlaug was invited to India by the adviser to the Indian minister of agriculture C. Subramaniam. Despite bureaucratic hurdles imposed by India's grain monopolies, the Ford Foundation and Indian government collaborated import wheat seed from CIMMYT. Punjab was selected by the Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops because of its reliable water supply and a history of agricultural success. India began its own Green Revolution program of plant breeding, irrigation development, and financing of agrochemicals.

Renewable/Non-renewable resources

Renewable resources are a part of Earth's natural environment and the largest components of its ecosphere. A positive life cycle assessment is a key indicator of a resource's sustainability. Non-renewable resources are any natural resource from the Earth that exists in limited supply and cannot be replaced if it is used up; also, any natural resource that cannot be replenished by natural means at the same rates that it is consumed Ex: examples of renewable resources are Wood ,Wind,Solar power, Hydroelectric power. examples of nonrenewable resouces Coal,Petroleum,Natural gas, Nuclear fuel.

Sauer Model

Suggested that southeast and south asia may have been the scene of the first domestication of tropical plants. Ex: There were several main heaths, or centers of origin, for vegetative crops like roots & tubers, from which the crops diffused to other areas. Carl Sauer suggested that Southeast Asia was a primary hearth.

Agriculture

The deliberate effort to modify a portion of Earth's surface through the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for sustenance or economic gain. Ex: Early Neolithic villages show evidence of the ability to process grain, and the Near East is the ancient home of the ancestors of wheat, barley and peas. There is evidence of the cultivation of figs in the Jordan Valley as long as 11,300 years ago, and cereal production in Syria approximately 9,000 years ago. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using man-made floods and fires as part of their cultivation regimen.Fiber crops were domesticated as early as food crops, with China domesticating hemp, cotton being developed independently in Africa and South America, and the Near East domesticating flax. The use of soil amendments, including manure, fish, compost and ashes, appears to have begun early, and developed independently in several areas of the world, including Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and Eastern Asia.

Horticulture

The growing of fruits, vegetables, and flowers Ex: Farms grow fruits and vegatables that they then sell to stores and customers

Crop rotation

The practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year, to avoid exhausting the soil. ex: Middle Eastern farmers practiced crop rotation in 6000 BC without understanding the chemistry, alternately planting legumes and cereals. The Roman writer Cato the Elder recommended that farmers "save carefully goat, sheep, cattle, and all other dung".In Europe, since the times of Charlemagne, there was a transition from a two-field crop rotation to a three-field crop rotation. Under a two-field rotation, half the land was planted in a year, while the other half lay fallow. Then, in the next year, the two fields were reversed.

Transhumance

The seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland pastures. Ex: In the Balkans, the Sarakatsani, Aromanians and Yörüks traditionally spent summer months in the mountains and returned to lower plains in the winter. Until the mid-20th century, borders between Greece, Albania, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia were relatively unobstructed. In summer, some groups went as far north as the Balkan mountains while winter they would spend in warmer plains in vicinity of the Aegean sea. The Morlachs were a population of Vlach shepherds who lived in the Dinaric Alps (western Balkans in modern use), constantly migrating in search for better pastures for their sheep flocks. But as national states appeared in a former domain of the Ottoman Empire, new state borders came to separate summer and winter habitats of many of the pastoral groups.

Market gardening

The small scale production of fruits, vegetables, and flowers as cash crops sold directly to local consumers. Distinguishable by the large diversity of crops grown on a small area of land, during a single growing season. Labor is done manually. Ex: Traditionally, "market garden" was used to contrast farms devoted to raising vegetables and berries, a specialized type of farming, with the larger branches of grain, dairy, and orchard fruit farming; agricultural historians continue to thus use the term. Such operations were not necessarily small-scale. Indeed, many were very large, commercial farms that were called "gardens" not because of size, but because English-speaking farmers traditionally referred to their vegetable plots as "gardens": in English whether in common parlance or in anthropological or historical scholarship, husbandry done by the hoe is customarily called "gardening" and husbandry done by the plough as "farming" regardless of the scale of either. A "market garden" was simply a vegetable plot, the produce of which the farmer to sell as opposed to use to feed his or her family. Market gardens are necessarily close to the markets, i.e. cities, that they serve.

MILKSHED

the area surrounding a city from which milk is supplied Ex: A milkshed could be 100 miles around a city, but Since modern technology is so complex, milksheds have now expanded quite a bit.

"TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS"

The tragedy of the commons is an economics theory by Garrett Hardin, according to which individuals, acting independently and rationally according to each one's self-interest, behave contrary to the whole group's long-term best interests by depleting some common resource. Ex: The tragedy of the commons can be considered in relation to environmental issues such as sustainability. The commons dilemma stands as a model for a great variety of resource problems in society today, such as water, forests,fish, and non-renewable energy sources such as oil and coal. Situations exemplifying the "tragedy of the commons" include the overfishing and destruction of the Grand Banks, the destruction of salmon runs on rivers that have been dammed - most prominently in modern times on the Columbia River in the Northwest United States, and historically in North Atlantic rivers - the devastation of the sturgeon fishery - in modern Russia, but historically in the United States as well - and, in terms of water supply, the limited water available in arid regions (e.g., the area of the Aral Sea) and the Los Angeles water system supply, especially at Mono Lake and Owens Lake.

Malthus Model

Thomas Malthus said that the world's population was increasing faster than the food supplies. stated that food supplies grow arithmetically and population grows exponentially. malthus was proved wrong. he foresaw the development of new agricultural techniques, but did not fully account for the ability of people to increase food production. assumed humans have no control over reproduction. did not recognize that famine is not the lack of food, but the unequal distribution of food. Ex: An August 2007 science review in The New York Times raised the claim that the Industrial Revolution had enabled the modern world to break out of the Malthusian growth model,while a front page Wall Street Journal article in March 2008 pointed out various limited resources which may soon limit human population growth because of a widespread belief in the importance of prosperity for every individual and the rising consumption trends of large developing nations such as China and India.

Wattle

Traditional dwelling built using poles and sticks that are woven tightly together and then plastered with mud. Ex: arge plantations of Acacia mearnsii (Black Wattle) are grown in Brazil, China, Vietnam, South Africa, Kenya, and India for bark. The bark is usually harvested at 8-10 years by ripping from the tree in long strips. The trees are then clearfelled for the timber. Bark is cut into short strips and spread on racks to dry. The dry bark is then bundled and sent to tanneries to be chipped and bagged. Tannins are then extracted by steaming or adding boiling water to chips in large vats connected in a series. The resulting 'liquor' is passed progressively through several large containers and finally to storage where the bulk of the water is evaporated off. The extracted tannin is largely used for tanning leather, but can also be used in making adhesives, preserving ropes and nets, making dyestuffs, corrosion inhibitors and as pharmaceutical products.

Herbicides

Type of pesticide that is used to kill weeds. Ex: Homemade organic herbicides include: Corn gluten meal (CGM) is a natural pre-emergence weed control used in turfgrass, which reduces germination of many broadleaf and grass weeds. Spices are now effectively used in herbicides. Vinegar is effective for 5-20% solutions of acetic acid, with higher concentrations most effective, but it mainly destroys surface growth, so respraying to treat regrowth is needed. Resistant plants generally succumb when weakened by respraying. Steam has been applied commercially, but is now considered uneconomical and inadequate.It kills surface growth but not underground growth and so respraying to treat regrowth of perennials is needed. Flame is considered more effective than steam, but suffers from the same difficulties. D-limonene (citrus oil) is a natural degreasing agent that strips the waxy skin or cuticle from weeds, causing dehydration and ultimately death. Saltwater or salt applied in appropriate strengths to the rootzone will kill most plants. Monocerin produced by certain fungi will kill certain weeds such as Johnson grass.

Wet rice/ dry rice

Wet rice is the cultivation of rice by planting on dry land, transferring the seedlings to a flooded field, and draining the field before harvesting. Dry rice is planted in and stays in a dry field with little irrigation during its growing. Ex: Wet rice and dry rice, can not really give example

PRIMOGENITURE

When a man in the household dies, all of his land goes to his eldest son, or daughter, for his own use. Ex: Most monarchies in Europe have eliminated male preference in succession: Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway and Sweden. The United Kingdom passed legislation to establish gender-blind succession in 2013 but delayed implementation until the 15 other countries which share the same monarch effect similar changes in their succession laws. But the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 will not change the present position in the line of succession to the British throne of Prince George of Cambridge, as the firstborn child and heir of his father William, Duke of Cambridge, who is the firstborn child and heir of his father Charles, Prince of Wales.

Feedlot

a building where livestock are fattened for market Ex: The beef industry today is highly dependent upon technology, but this has not always been true. In the early 20th century, feeder operations were separate from all other related operations and feedlots were non-existent. They appeared in the 1950s and 1960s as a result of hybrid grains and irrigation techniques; the ensuing larger grain crops led to abundant grain harvests. However, the first known feedlot was designed and built by Gustavus Swift in 1876 on the south side of Chicago. It was suddenly possible to feed large numbers of cattle in one location and so, to cut transportation costs, grain farm and feedlot locations merged. Cattle were no longer sent from all across the southern states to places like California, where large slaughter houses were located. In the 1980s, meat packers followed the path of feedlots and are now located close by them as well.

Food chain

a community of organisms where each member is eaten in turn by another member Ex: corn --> chick ---> snake ----> man rice --> rat ---> owl grass --> earthworms --> bird --> snake grass ---> cow ---> man grass ---> deer --> eagle carrots ---> rabbit --> snake --> eagle weeds ---> zebra --> lion -->coyote

Intertillage

the clearing of rows in the field through the use of hoes, rakes, & other manual equipment Ex: Certain planets, such as soybeans, require you to plow the soil inbetween the crops twice a year.

COMMODITY CHAINS

a sequential process used by firms to gather resources, transform them into goods or commodities and, finally, distribute them to consumers. Ex: The primary focus of global commodity chain (GCC) analysis is the international trading system and the increasing economic integration of international production and marketing chains. Introduced by Gereffi during the mid-1990s, the GCC concept was developed within an analytic framework of the political economy of development and underdevelopment, originally derived from world-system theory and dependency theory. It was developed primarily to analyse the impact of globalisation on industrial commodity chains. GCC highlights power relations that are embedded in value chain analyses.

DEBT FOR NATURE SWAP

a transaction in which a foreign exchange debt owed by a developing country is transferred to another organization on the condition that the country use local currency for a designated purpose, usually environmental protection. Ex: In the wake of the Latin American debt crisis that resulted in steep reductions to the environmental conservation ability of highly indebted nations, Lovejoy suggested that ameliorating debt and promoting conservation could be done at the same time. Since the first swap occurred between Conservation International and Bolivia in 1987, many national governments and conservation organizations have engaged in debt-for-nature swaps. Most swaps occur in tropical countries, which contain many diverse species of flora and fauna.

Suitcase farm

an American commercial farm in which no one lives, and work/harvesting is done by migratory workers.

Extensive subsistence agriculture

consists of any agricultural economy in which the crops and/or animals are used nearly exclusively for local or family consumption on large areas of land and minimal labor input per acre. Ex: In densely populated East, South and Southeast Asia, most farmers practice intensive subsistence agriculture. The typical farm is much smaller than elsewhere in the world.Because the agricultural density the ratio of farmers to arable land—is so high in parts of East and South Asia, families must produce enough food for their survival from a very small area of land. They do this through careful agricultural practices, refined over thousands of years in response to local environmental and cultural patterns. Intensive subsistence farmers waste virtually no land.

Cereal grains/staple grains

corn, wheat, rice, and other grasses, Grains that can be stored and used throughout the year Ex: the most known ones are rice, wheat barely, and corn

Organic agriculture

crops produced without the use of synthetic or industrially produced pesticides and fertilizers Ex: In the late 1930s and early 1940s Sir Albert Howard and his wife Gabrielle Howard, both accomplished botanists, developed organic agriculture. The Howards were influenced by their experiences with traditional farming methods in India, biodynamic, and their formal scientific education. Sir Albert Howard is widely considered to be the "father of organic farming", because he was the first to apply scientific knowledge and principles to these various traditional and more natural methods. In the United States another founder of organic agriculture was J.I. Rodale. In the 1940s he founded both a working organic farm for trials and experimentation, The Rodale Institute, and founded the Rodale Press to teach and advocate organic to the wider public. Further work was done by Lady Eve Balfour in the United Kingdom, and many others across the world.

Primary economic activity

economic activity concerned with the direct extraction of natural resources from the environment. ex: Fishing, mining and farming

Monoculture

farming strategy in which large fields are planted with a single crop, year after year Ex: In forestry, monoculture refers to the planting of one species of tree. Monoculture plantings provide great yieldsand more efficient harvesting than natural stands of trees. Single species stands of trees are often the natural way trees grow, but the stands show a diversity in tree sizes, with dead trees mixed with mature and young trees. In forestry, monoculture stands that are planted and harvested as a unit provide limited resources for wildlife that depend on dead trees and openings, since all the trees are the same size; they are most often harvested by clear cutting, which drastically alters the habitat. The mechanical harvesting of trees can compact soils, which can adversely affect understory growth. Single species planting of trees also are more vulnerable when infected with a pathogen, or are attacked by insects,and by adverse environmental conditions.

Agrarian

of or relating to cultivated land or the cultivation of land Ex: Farming and farmers

Quaternary economic activity

service sector industries concerned with the collection, processing, and manipulation of information and capital. Ex: finance, administration, insurance, legal services.

Quinary economic activity

service sector industries that require a high level of specialized knowledge skill Ex: scientific research, high-level management

Spring wheat/winter wheat

spring wheat is a general term for wheat that is planted in the spring and harvested in summer. Winter wheat are strains of wheat that are planted in the autumn to germinate and develop into young plants that remain in the vegetative phase during the winter and resume growth in early spring. Ex: Winter Wheat in grown in the northern hemispheres and needs cold temperatures to grow. Spring Wheat is grown all over and does not need the cold temperatures.

Cadastral system

survey system that determines the value, extent, and ownership of land for purposes of taxation. Ex: At the beginning of the 19th century in some of the kingdoms cadastral systems have been established for taxation purposes. Until 1876 the cadastre in Prussia was completed. Although the main purpose for establishing a cadastre was taxation of land, but the idea of using maps and records for further purposes of governmental activities was implemented in the cadastral systems from the beginning. After Germany was founded in 1871, the need of standardisation of the private law was evident. Since January, 1, 1900 the common private law exists for the whole country. In connection with this law the land registration system for the whole country has been established. This land registration system (in German terms called „Grundbuch") contents all rights of ownership and other rights on land and buildings. By establishing this Grundbuch system the importance of good working cadastral system grew very fast.

Ridge tillage

system of planting crops on ridge tops in order to reduce farm production costs and promote greater soil conservation Ex: Conservation tillage leaves at least 30% of crop residue on the soil surface, or at least 1,000 lb/ac (1,100 kg/ha) of small grain residue on the surface during the critical soil erosion period. This slows water movement, which reduces the amount of soil erosion. Conservation tillage also benefits farmers by reducing fuel consumption and soil compaction. By reducing the number of times the farmer travels over the field, farmers realize significant savings in fuel and labor. In most years since 1997, conservation tillage was used in US cropland more than intensive or reduced tillage.However, conservation tillage delays warming of the soil due to the reduction of dark earth exposure to the warmth of the spring sun, thus delaying the planting of the next year's spring crop of corn