Unit 7 Important People & Info

The Dreyfus Affair

- Alfred Dreyfus was a Jew and a captain in the French general staff was found guilty by a secret military court of SELLING ARMY SECRETS and condemned to LIFE IMPRISONMENT on Devil's Island - evidence soon emerged that pointed to his innocence - another officer, a CATHOLIC ARISTOCRAT, was more obviously the traitor, but the army, a stronghold of aristocratic and Catholic officers, REFUSED A NEW TRIAL - republic leaders, however, insisted on a new trial after a wave of INTENSE PUBLIC OUTRAGE - although the new trial failed to set aside the guilty verdict, the GOVERNMENT PARDONED DREYFUS in 1899, and in 1906, he was finally fully exonerated - the impact of the Dreyfus affair extended beyond France - led to a CHANGE IN GOVERNMENT - moderate republicans lost control to RADICAL REPUBLICANS who were determined to make greater progress toward a more DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY by breaking the power of the Republic's enemies, especially the army and the Catholic Church - CHURCH AND STATE WERE OFFICIALLY SEPARATED in 1905, and during the next two years, the government seized church property and stopped paying clerical salaries

Austro-Prussian war

- Bismarck used the joint occupation of Schleswig and Holstein to goad the Austrians into a war on June 14, 1866 - many Europeans, including Napoleon III, expected a quick Austrian victory, but they overlooked the effectiveness of the PRUSSIAN MILITARY REFORMS of the 1860s - on July 3, the Austrian army was defeated - Austria lost no territory except Venetia to Italy but was EXCLUDED FROM GERMAN AFFAIRS - was a turning point in Prussian domestic affairs - after the war, Bismarck asked the Prussian parliament to pass a BILL OF INDEMNITY, retroactively legalizing the taxes he had collected illegally since 1862

Social Darwinism

- Darwin's ideas were also applied to human society in an even more radical way by rabid NATIONALISTS AND RACISTS - in their pursuit of national greatness, extreme nationalists argued that nations, too, were engaged in a ''struggle for existence'' in which only the fittest survived - racism, too, was dramatically revived and strengthened by new BIOLOGICAL ARGUMENTS - perhaps nowhere was the combination of extreme nationalism and racism more evident and more dangerous than in Germany

Economic Imperialism

- EUROPEAN FINANCE dominated the economic activity of a large part of the world - this economic imperialism, however, was not necessarily the same thing as colonial expansion - much of the COLONIAL TERRITORY that was acquired was mere wasteland from the perspective of industrialized Europe and cost more to administer than it produced economically - only the search for NATIONAL PRESTIGE could justify such losses - followers of KARL MARX were especially eager to argue that imperialism was economically motivated because they associated imperialism with the ultimate DEMISE OF THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM

Charles Dickens

- GREATEST OF THE VICTORIAN NOVELISTS - his realistic novels focusing on the lower and middle classes in Britain's early industrial age became extraordinarily successful - his descriptions of the urban poor and the brutalization of human life were vividly realistic

Unification of Germany

- German NATIONALISTS focused on Austria and Prussia as the only two states powerful enough to dominate German affairs - Prussia had formed the ZOLLVEREIN, a German customs union, in 1834 - by eliminating tolls on rivers and roads among member states, the Zollverein had STIMULATED TRADE and added to the prosperity of its member states - in 1848, Prussia framed a CONSTITUTION that at least had the appearance of CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY in that it had established a BICAMERAL LEGISLATURE with the lower house elected by UNIVERSAL MALE SUFFRAGE - this system had allowed control of the lower house to fall largely into the hands of the rising middle classes, whose numbers were growing as a result of continuing industrialization - the Prussian leadership of German unification meant the triumph of AUTHORITARIAN, MILLITARISTIC values over liberal, constitutional sentiments in the development of the new German state - with its INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES and military might, the new state had become the STRONGEST POWER ON THE CONTINENT

liberalization of the regime

- Louis Napoleon reached out to the working class by LEGALIZING TRADE UNIONS and granting them the right to strike - the Legislative Corps was permitted more say in affairs of state, including DEBATE OVER THE BUDGET - did serve initially to STRENGTHEN THE HAND OF THE GOVERNMENT

abolition of serfdom

- SERFDOM was the most burdensome problem in tsarist Russia - peasants could now own property, marry as they chose, and bring suits in the law courts - the GOVERNMENT PROVIDED LAND for the peasants by purchasing it from the landowners, but the landowners often chose to keep the best lands - the state compensated the landowners for the land given to the peasants, but the peasants were EXPECTED TO REPAY THE STATE in long-term installments - to ensure that the payments were made, peasants were subjected to the authority of their MIR, or village commune, which was collectively RESPONSIBLE FOR LAND PAYMENTS to the government - emancipation, then, led not to a free, land-owning peasantry along the Western model but to an unhappy, land-starved peasantry that largely followed the old ways of farming

Georges Sorel

- a French POLITICAL THEORIST, combined Bergson's and Nietzsche's ideas on the limits of rational thinking with his own passionate interest in REVOLUTIONARY SOCIALISM - understood the political potential of the nonrational and ADVOCATED VIOLENT ACTION as the only sure way to achieve the aims of socialism - he recommended the use of the GENERAL STRIKE, envisioning it as a mythic image that had the power to inspire workers to take violent, heroic ACTION AGAINST THE CAPITALIST ORDER - he also came to believe that the new socialist society would have to be GOVERNED BY A SMALL ELITE ruling body because the masses were incapable of ruling themselves

Henri Bergson

- a French philosopher whose lectures at the University of Paris made him one of the most IMPORTANT INFLUENCES IN FRENCH THOUGHT in the early twentieth century - he ACCEPTED RATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT as a practical instrument for providing useful knowledge but maintained that it was incapable of arriving at TRUTH OR ULTIMATE REALITY - To him, reality was the ''life force'' that suffused all things; it could not be divided into analyzable parts - reality was a whole that could only be grasped intuitively and experienced directly - when we analyze it, we have merely a description, no longer the reality we have experienced

Albert Einstein

- a German-born patent officer working in Switzerland, pushed these theories of THERMODYNAMICS into new terrain - in 1905, he published a paper titled "THE ELECTRODYNAMICS OF MOVING BODIES" that contained his special THEORY OF RELATIVITY - according to relativity theory, SPACE AND TIME ARE NOT ABSOLUTE but relative to the observer, and both are interwoven into what he called a FOUR-DIMENSIONAL SPACE-TIME CONTINUUM - neither space nor time had an existence independent of human experience - concluded that MATTER was nothing but another form of energy - His epochal formula E=mc^2 —each particle of matter is equivalent to its mass times the square of the velocity of light—was the key theory explaining the vast energies contained within the atom - his work led to the ATOMIC AGE

Alexander Herzen

- a Russian exile living in London, whose slogan ''Land and Freedom'' epitomized his belief that the Russian PEASANT MUST BE THE CHIEF INSTRUMENT FOR SOCIAL REFORMS - believed that the PEASANT VILLAGE COMMUNE could serve as an independent, self-governing body that would form the basis of a new Russia - students and intellectuals who followed his ideas formed a movement called POPULISM whose aim was to CREATE A NEW SOCIETY THROUGH THE REVOLUTIONARY ACTS OF THE PEASANTS

Wassily Kandinsky

- a Russian who worked in Germany, was one of the FOUNDERS OF ABSTRACT PAINTING - as is evident in his SQUARE WITH WHITE BORDER, he sought to avoid representation altogether - he believed that art should speak directly to the soul - to do so, it must avoid any reference to visual reality and concentrate on color

Giuseppe Garibaldi

- a dedicated Italian patriot who had supported Mazzini and the republican cause of YOUNG ITALY, raised an army of a thousand Red Shirts, as his volunteers were called because of their distinctive dress, and on May 11, 1860, landed in Sicily, where a revolt had broken out against the Bourbon king of the Two Sicilies - by the end of July 1860, most of Sicily had been pacified under his control - in August, he and his forces crossed over to the mainland and began a victorious march up the Italian peninsula - he and his men favored a DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICANISM - chose to yield to Cavour's fait accompli rather than provoke a civil war and retired to his farm

Eduard Bernstein

- a member of the GERMAN SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY who had spent years in exile in Britain, where he had been influenced by moderate English socialism and the British parliamentary system - challenged Marxist orthodoxy with his book EVOLUTIONARY SOCIALISM in which he argued that some of Marx's ideas had turned out to be quite wrong - the CAPITALIST SYSTEM had not broken down - contrary to Marx's assertion, the MIDDLE CLASS WAS ACTUALLY EXPANDING, not declining - at the same time, the PROLETARIAT was not sinking further down; instead, its position was improving as workers experienced a HIGHER STANDARD OF LIVING - he discarded Marx's emphasis on class struggle and revolution - the workers, he asserted, must continue to organize in mass political parties and even work together with the other advanced elements in a nation to bring about change - with the extension of the right to vote, workers were in a better position than ever to achieve their aims through DEMOCRATIC CHANNELS - evolution by democratic means, not revolution, would achieve the desired goal of SOCIALISM

Impressionism

- a movement that ORIGINATED IN FRANCE in the 1870s when a group of artists rejected the studios and museums and went out into the countryside to paint nature directly - their subjects included figures from daily life, street scenes of Paris, and nature - instead of adhering to the conventional modes of painting and subject matter, the Impressionists sought ORIGINALITY AND DISTINCTION from past artworks - sought to put into their paintings their impressions of the CHANGING EFFECTS OF LIGHT on objects in nature - streets and cabarets, rivers, and busy boulevards—wherever people congregated for work and leisure—formed their subject matter

Naturalism

- accepted the material world as real and felt that literature should be realistic - by addressing social problems, writers could contribute to an OBJECTIVE UNDERSTANDING OF THE WORLD - was a CONTINUATION OF REALISM, it lacked the underlying note of liberal optimism about people and society that had been prevalent in the 1850s - were PESSIMISTIC ABOUT EUROPE'S FUTURE and often portrayed characters caught in the grip of forces beyond their control

Emile Zola

- against a backdrop of the urban slums and coal-fields of northern France, he showed how ALCOHOLISM and different environments affected people's lives - he had read Darwin's Origin of Species and had been impressed by its emphasis on the struggle for survival and the IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT AND HEREDITY - he maintained that the artist must ANALYZE AND DISSECT LIFE as a biologist would a living organism

The lower classes

- almost 80 percent of Europeans - many of them were land-holding peasants, agricultural laborers, and sharecroppers, especially in eastern Europe - many prosperous, LANDOWNING PEASANTS shared the values of the middle class - MILITARY CONSCRIPTION brought peasants into contact with the other groups of society, and state-run elementary schools forced the children of peasants to speak the national dialect and ACCEPT NATIONAL LOYALTIES - the urban working class consisted of many different groups, including SKILLED ARTISANS in such trades as cabinetmaking, printing, and jewelry making - SEMISKILLED LABORERS, who included such people as carpenters, brick-layers, and many factory workers, earned wages that were about two-thirds of those of highly skilled workers - the UNSKILLED LABORERS that included day laborers, who worked irregularly for very low wages, and large numbers of DOMESTIC SERVANTS - urban workers did experience a real BETTERMENT IN MATERIAL CONDITIONS of their lives after 1871 - for one thing, URBAN IMPROVEMENTS meant better living conditions - a rise in real wages, accompanied by a decline in many consumer costs, especially in the 1880s and 1890s, made it possible for workers to buy more than just food and housing - workers' budgets now provided money for more clothes and even leisure at the same time that strikes and labor agitation were winning shorter (ten-hour) workdays and Saturday afternoons off

White-Collar Jobs

- although the growth of the heavy industry in the mining, metallurgy, engineering, chemicals, and electrical sectors meant fewer jobs for women in manufacturing, the development of larger industrial plants and the expansion of government services created a large number of SERVICE OR WHITE-COLLAR JOBS - the increased demand for white-collar workers at relatively low wages, coupled with a shortage of male workers, led employers to hire women - big businesses and retail shops needed clerks, typists, secretaries, file clerks, and salesclerks - the EXPANSION OF GOVERNMENT SERVICES created opportunities for women to be secretaries and telephone operators and to take jobs in HEALTH AND SOCIAL SERVICES - the work was routine and, except for teaching and nursing, required few skills beyond BASIC LITERACY - although there was little hope for advancement, these jobs had distinct advantages for the daughters of the middle classes and especially the upward-aspiring working classes - for some middle-class women, the new jobs offered freedom from the domestic patterns expected of them - because middle-class women did not receive an education comparable to that of men, the careers they could pursue were limited - most of the new white-collar jobs, however, were filled by working-class women who saw them as an opportunity to escape from the ''dirty'' work of the lower-class world - studies in France and Britain indicate that the increase in white-collar jobs did not lead to a rise in the size of the female labor force, but resulted only in a shift from industrial jobs to the white-collar sector of the economy

Progressive Era

- an AGE OF REFORM swept across the United States - state governments enacted economic and social legislation, such as laws that governed hours, wages, and working conditions, especially for women and children - the realization that state laws were ineffective in dealing with nationwide problems, however, led to a Progressive movement at the national level - the MEAT INSPECTION ACT (1906) and PURE FOOD AND DRUG ACT (1905) provided for a limited degree of FEDERAL REGULATION of corrupt industrial practices - the presidency of WOODROW WILSON (1913-1921) witnessed the enactment of a NATIONAL FEDERAL INCOME TAX and the establishment of the FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM, which permitted the federal government to play a role in important economic decisions formerly made by bankers - the United States was slowly adopting policies that EXTENDED THE FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE

Houston Stewart Chamberlain

- an Englishman who became a German citizen - his book "THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY" published in 1899, made a special impact on Germany - modern-day Germans, according to him, were the only PURE SUCCESSORS OF THE "ARYANS,'' who were portrayed as the true and ORIGINAL CREATORS OF WESTERN CULTURE - the Aryan race, under German leadership, must be prepared to fight for Western civilization and save it from the destructive assaults of such lower races as Jews, Negroes, and Orientals - increasingly, JEWS were singled out by German VOLKISH NATIONALSTS as the racial enemy in biological terms and as parasites who wanted to destroy the Aryan race

Danish War

- arose over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein - contrary to international treaty, the Danish government moved to incorporate the two duchies into Denmark - German nationalists were outraged since both duchies had large German populations and were regarded as German states - the Danes were quickly defeated and surrendered Schleswig and Holstein to the victors - Austria and Prussia then agreed to divide the administration of the two duchies

German Industrial Leadership

- as later entrants to the industrial age, the Germans could build the LATEST AND MOST EFFICIENT INDUSTRIAL PLANTS - German managers, by contrast, were accustomed to change, and the formation of LARGE CARTELS encouraged German banks to provide enormous sums for investment - newer fields of industrial activity, such as ORGANIC CHEMISTRY and ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, required more scientific knowledge than the commonsense tinkering employed by amateur inventors - companies began to invest CAPITAL in laboratory equipment for their own research or hired scientific consultants for advice - in 1899, German technical schools were allowed to award doctorate degrees, and by 1900, they were turning out three to four thousand graduates a year

The upper classes

- at the top of European society stood a wealthy elite, constituting only 5 percent of the population but controlling between 30 and 40 percent of its wealth - big business had produced this group of wealthy PLUTOCRATS, while aristocrats, whose income from landed estates had declined, invested in railway shares, public utilities, government bonds, and businesses, sometimes on their own estates - increasingly, aristocrats and plutocrats fused as the wealthy upper middle class purchased landed estates to join the aristocrats in the pleasures of country living and the aristocrats bought lavish town houses for part-time urban life - common bonds were also forged when the sons of wealthy middle-class families were admitted to the ELITE SCHOOLS dominated by the children of the aristocracy - this educated elite, whether aristocratic or middle class in background, assumed LEADERSHIP ROLES in government bureaucracies and military hierarchies - MARRIAGE also served to unite the two groups - daughters of tycoons acquired titles, while aristocratic heirs gained new sources of cash

Symbolists

- believed that an OBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD WAS IMPOSSIBLE - the external world was not real but only a collection of symbols that reflected the true reality of the individual human mind - art, they believed, should function for its own sake instead of serving, criticizing, or seeking to understand society - poetry ceased to be part of popular culture because only through a knowledge of the poet's personal language could one hope to understand what the poem was saying

Franz Liszt

- best exemplifies the achievements of the NEW GERMAN SCHOOL - a child prodigy, he established himself as an outstanding concert artist by the age of twelve - his performances and his dazzling personality made him the most highly esteemed virtuoso of his age - he has been called the GREATEST PIANIST OF ALL TIME and has been credited with introducing the concept of the MODERN PIANO RECITAL - his compositions consist mainly of piano pieces, although he composed in other genres as well, including sacred music - he invented the term SYMPHONIC POEM to refer to his orchestral works, which did not strictly obey traditional forms and were generally based on a literary or pictorial idea

Berthe Morisot

- broke with the practice of women being only amateur artists and became a professional painter - her dedication to the new style of painting won her the disfavor of the traditional French academic artists - believed that WOMEN HAD A SPECIAL VISION, which was, as she said, ''more delicate than that of men" - her special touch is evident in the lighter colors and flowing brushstrokes of YOUNG GIRL BY THE WINDOW

Richard Wagner

- building on the advances made by Liszt and the New German School, he ultimately realized the German desire for a truly national opera - was not only a composer but also a PROPAGANDIST and writer in support of his unique conception of dramatic music - music may be described as a MONUMENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN CLASSICAL MUSIC - believing that opera is the best form of artistic expression, he transformed opera into ''music drama'' through his GESAMTKUNSTWERK - this was a musical composition for the theater in which music, acting, dance, poetry, and scenic design are synthesized into a harmonious whole - he ABANDONED THE TRADITIONAL DIVISIONS OF OPERA, which interrupted the dramatic line of the work, and instead used a device called a LEITMOTIV, a recurring musical theme in which the human voice combined with the line of the orchestra instead of rising above it - his operas incorporate literally hundreds of leitmotivs in order to convey the story - for his themes, he looked to MYTH AND EPIC TALES FROM THE PAST - his most ambitious work was THE RING OF THE NIBELUNG, a series of four music dramas dealing with the mythical gods of the ancient German epic

Emergence of a Canadian Nation

- by the TREATY OF PARIS in 1763, Canada—or New France, as it was called—passed into the hands of the British - by 1800, most Canadians favored more AUTONOMY, although the colonists disagreed on the form this autonomy should take - a dramatic INCREASE IN IMMIGRATION to Canada from Great Britain also fueled the desire for self-government - rebels in Lower Canada DEMANDED SEPARATION FROM BRITAIN, creation of a REPUBLIC, UNIVERSAL MALE SUFFRAGE, and FREEDOM OF THE PRESS - although the rebellions were crushed by the following year, the British government now began to seek ways to satisfy some of the Canadian demands - the British government finally capitulated to Canadian demands - In 1867, Parliament established the Canadian nation—the DOMINION OF CANADA— with its own constitution - Canada now possessed a PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM and ruled itself, although foreign affairs still remained under the control of the British government

Responses to Imperialism - Africa

- by the beginning of the twentieth century, a new class of African leaders had emerged - Educated in COLONIAL SCHOOLS and some even in the West, they were the first generation of Africans to know a great deal about the West and to write in the language of their colonial masters - Westerners had exalted DEMOCRACY, EQUALITY, AND POLITICAL FREEDOM but these values were not applied in the colonies - there were few democratic institutions, and colonial peoples could hold only lowly jobs in the colonial bureaucracy - to many Africans, colonialism meant the LOSS OF THEIR FARMLANDS or terrible jobs on plantations or in sweatshops and factories run by foreigners - although middle-class Africans did not suffer to the extent that poor peasants or workers on PLANTATIONS did, they too had complaints - they usually qualified only for MENIAL JOBS in the government or business - SEGREGATED clubs, schools, and churches were set up as more European officials brought their wives and began to raise families - such conditions led many of the new urban educated class to have very complicated feelings about their colonial masters and the civilization they represented - out of this mixture of hopes and resentments emerged the first stirrings of MODERN NATIONALISM IN AFRICA - during the first quarter of the twentieth century, in colonial societies across Africa, educated native peoples began to organize political parties and movements seeking the END OF FOREIGN RULE

Tsar Alexander II

- came to power in the midst of the Crimean War, turned his energies to a serious overhaul of the Russian system - also attempted other reforms - in 1864, he instituted a system of ZEMSTVOS, or local assemblies, that provided a moderate degree of self-government - representatives to the zemstvos were to be elected from the noble landowners, townspeople, and peasants, but the PROPERTY BASED SYSTEM OF VOTING gave a distinct advantage to the nobles - the hope of liberal nobles and other social reformers that the zemstvos would be expanded into a national parliament remained unfulfilled - the legal reforms of 1864, which created a regular system of local and provincial courts and a judicial code that accepted the principle of EQUALITY BEFORE THE LAW, proved successful, however - another group of radicals, known as the People's Will, succeeded in assassinating him in 1881

Fyodor Dostoevsky

- combined narrative skill and acute PSYCHOLOGY AND MORAL OBSERVATION with profound insights into human nature - he maintained that the major problem of his age was a LOSS OF SPIRITUAL BELIEF - western people were attempting to gain salvation through the construction of a MATERIALISTIC PARADISE built only by human reason and human will - feared that the failure to incorporate spirit would result in total tyranny - his own life experiences led him to believe that only through suffering and faith could the human soul be purified, views that are evident in his best-known works, CRIME AND PUNISHMENT and THE BROTHERS KARAMAZOV

Ausgleich

- compromise, of 1867, which created the DUAL MONARCHY of Austria-Hungary - each part of the empire now had a CONSTITUTION, its own BICAMERAL LEGISLATURE, its own governmental machinery for domestic affairs, and its own capital - holding the two states together were a single monarch and a common army, foreign policy, and system of finances - did not, however, satisfy the other nationalities that made up the multinational Austro-Hungarian Empire - the DUAL MONARCHY simply enabled the German-speaking Austrians and Hungarian Magyars to dominate the minorities, especially the Slavic peoples - the nationalities problem persisted until the demise of the empire at the end of WORLD WAR I

The middle classes

- consisted of a variety of groups - a level that included such traditional groups as professionals in law, medicine, and the civil service as well as moderately well-to-do industrialists and merchants - the industrial expansion of the nineteenth century also added new groups to this segment of the middle class - these included BUSINESS MANAGERS and new professionals, such as the ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, ACCOUNTANTS, and CHEMISTS who formed professional associations as the symbols of their newfound importance - they were the traveling sales representatives, bookkeepers, bank tellers, telephone operators, department store salesclerks, and secretaries - although largely PROPERTY-LESS and often paid little more than skilled laborers, these WHITE-COLLAR WORKERS were often committed to middle-class ideals and optimistic about improving their status - were especially active in preaching their worldview to their children and to the upper and lower classes of their society - it was the European middle classes who ac-epted and PROMULGATED THE IMPORTANCE OF PROGRESS AND SCIENCE - they believed in hard work, which they viewed as the primary human good, open to everyone and guaranteed to have positive results - they were also regular churchgoers who believed in the good conduct associated with TRADITIONAL CHRISTIAN MORALITY

Vera Zasulich

- daughter of a poor nobleman, she worked as a clerk before joining Land and Freedom, an underground populist organization advocating radical reform - she advocated the USE OF VIOLENCE to counteract the violent repression of the tsarist regime - she shot and wounded the governor-general of Saint Petersburg - put on trial, SHE WAS AQUITTED by a sympathetic jury - influenced by her, another group of radicals, known as the People's Will, succeeded in assassinating Alexander II in 1881

prostitution

- despite the new job opportunities, many lower-class women were forced to become prostitutes to survive - in Paris, London, and many other large cities with transient populations, thousands of prostitutes plied their trade - one journalist estimated that there were 60,000 prostitutes in London in 1885 - most prostitutes were active for only a short time, usually from their late teens through their early twenties - many eventually REJOINED THE REGULAR WORKFORCE or married when they could - in most European countries, prostitution was LICENSED AND REGULATED BY THE GOVERNMENT and municipal authorities - although the British government provided minimal regulation of prostitution, it did attempt to enforce the CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACTS in the 1870s and 1880s by giving authorities the right to examine prostitutes for VENEREAL DISEASE - but opposition to the Contagious Diseases Acts soon arose from middle-class female reformers - their leader was Josephine Butler (1828-1906), who objected to laws that punished women but not men who suffered from venereal disease - Known as the ''SHRIEKING SISTERS'' because they discussed sexual matters in public, Butler and her fellow reformers were successful in gaining the repeal of the acts in 1886

Joseph Lister

- developed the anti-septic principle, was one of the first people to deal with this problem - he perceived that bacteria might enter a wound and cause infection - his use of carbolic acid, a newly discovered disinfectant, proved remarkably effective in ELIMINATING INFECTIONS DURING SURGERY - discoveries dramatically transformed surgery wards as patients no longer succumbed regularly to what was called ''hospital gangrene"

Marie Curie

- discovered that the element RADIUM gave off rays of RADIATION that apparently came from within the atom itself - atoms were not simply hard, material bodies but small worlds containing such SUBATOMIC PARTICLES as electrons and protons that behaved in seemingly random and inexplicable fashion

Post-Impressionism

- emerged in France and soon spread to other European countries - retained the Impressionist EMPHASIS ON LIGHT AND COLOR but revolutionized it even further by paying more attention to STRUCTURE AND FORM - sought to use both color and light to express inner feelings and produce a personal statement of reality rather than an imitation of objects - shifted from objective reality to SUBJECTIVE REALITY and in so doing began to withdraw from the artist's traditional task of depicting the external world

German Social Democratic Party

- espoused revolutionary Marxist rhetoric while organizing itself as a mass political party competing in elections for the REICHSTAG - once in the Reichstag, SPD delegates worked to enact legislation to IMPROVE THE CONDITIONS OF THE WORKING CLASS - despite government efforts to destroy it, the SPD continued to grow - in 1890, it received 1.5 million votes and thirty-five seats in the Reichstag - when it received 4 million votes in the 1912 elections, it became the LARGEST SINGLE PARTY IN GERMANY

Vincent van Gogh

- for him, art was a SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCE - he was especially INTERESTED IN COLOR and believed that it could act as its own form of language - he maintained that ARTISTS SHOULD PAINT WHAT THEY FEEL, which is evident in his STARRY NIGHT

The Scramble for Africa

- for the most part, the Western presence in Africa had been limited to controlling the regional trade network and establishing a few footholds where the foreigners could carry on TRADE and MISSIONARY ACTIVITY - during the last two decades of the nineteenth century, however, the quest for colonies became a scramble as all of the major European states engaged in a land grab - during the NAPOLEONIC WARS, the British had established themselves in South Africa by taking control of Cape Town, originally founded by the Dutch - British policies disgusted the BOERS or AFRIKANERS, as the descendants of the Dutch colonists were called, and led them in 1835 to migrate north on the Great Trek to the region between the Orange and Vaal rivers - these struggles between the British and the Boers did not prevent either white group from massacring and subjugating the ZULU AND XHOSA and Xhosa peoples of the region - before 1880, the only other European settlements in Africa had been made by the French and the Portuguese - the Portuguese had held on to their settlements in ANGOLA on the west coast and MOZAMBIQUE on the east coast - the French had started the conquest of ALGERIA in Muslim North Africa in 1830, although it was not until 1879 that FRENCH CIVILIAN RULE was established there - by 1900, the French had added the huge area of French West Africa and TUNISIA to their African empire - believing that the SUEZ CANAL was their lifeline to India, the British sought to control the canal area - EGYPT was a well-established state with an AUTONOMOUS MUSLIM GOVERNMENT, but that did not stop the British from landing an expeditionary force there in 1882 - from Egypt, the British moved south into SUDAN and seized it after narrowly averting a war with France - their humiliating defeat by the Ethiopians in 1896 only led the Italians to try again in 1911, when they INVADED AND SEIZED MUSLIM TRIPOLI, which they renamed LIBYA - initially, Bismarck had downplayed the significance of colonies, but as DOMESTIC POLITICAL PRESSURES for a German empire intensified, Bismarck became a political convert to COLONIALISM - the Germans established colonies in South-West Africa, the Cameroons, Togoland, and Tanganyika - only LIBERIA, founded by emancipated American slaves, and ETHIOPIA remained free states - despite the HUMANITARIAN RATIONALIZATIONS about the ''white man's burden,'' Africa had been conquered by European states determined to create colonial empires

Louis Pasteur

- formulated the GERM THEORY OF DISEASE, which had enormous practical applications in the development of modern scientific medical practices - was not a doctor but a CHEMIST who approached medical problems in a scientific fashion - in 1857, he went to Paris as director of scientific studies at the Ecole Normale, where experiments he conducted proved that microorganisms of various kinds were responsible for the PROCESS OF FERMENTATION, thereby launching the science of BACTERIOLOGY - his examination of a disease threatening the wine industry led to the development in 1863 of a process—subsequently known as PASTEURIZATION—for heating a product to destroy the organisms causing spoilage - his desire to do more than simply identify disease-producing organisms led him in 1885 to a preventive VACCINATION AGAINST RABIES - by providing a rational means of TREATING AND PREVENTING INFECTIOUS DISEASES, he transformed the medical world

Gustave Flaubert

- he perfected the Realist novel - his MADAME BOVARY (1857) was a straightforward description of barren and sordid small-town life in France - Emma Bovary, a woman of some vitality, is trapped in a marriage to a drab provincial doctor - impelled by the images of romantic love she has read about in novels, she seeks the same thing for herself in adulterous affairs - contempt for bourgeois society was evident in his portrayal of middle-class hypocrisy and smugness

Claude Monet

- he was especially enchanted with water and painted many pictures in which he attempted to capture the interplay of light, water, and atmosphere, especially evident in IMPRESSION, SUNRISE

Leo Tolstoy

- his greatest work was WAR AND PEACE, a lengthy novel played out against the historical background of Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 - it is realistic in its vivid descriptions of military life and character portrayal - each person is delineated clearly and analyzed psychologically - imposed a FATALISTIC VIEW OF HISTORY that ultimately proved irrelevant in the face of life's enduring values of human love and trust

Auguste Comte

- his major work, SYSTEM OF POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY, was published between 1837 and 1842 but had its real impact after 1850 - created a system of ''positive knowledge'' based on a HIERARCHY OF ALL THE SCIENCES - mathematics was the foundation on which the physical sciences, earth sciences, and biological sciences were built - at the top was SOCIOLOGY, the science of human society, which for him in-corporated economics, anthropology, history, and social psychology - although his schemes were often complex and dense, he played an important role in the GROWING POPULARITY OF SCIENCE AND MATERIALISM in the mid-nineteenth century

Claude Debussy

- his musical compositions were often INSPIRED BY THE VISUAL ARTS - one of his most famous works, PRELUDE TO THE AFTERNOON OF A FAUN (1894), was actually inspired by a poem, ''Afternoon of a Faun,'' written by his friend, the Symbolist poet Stephane Mallarme - he did not tell a story in music; rather, Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun re-created in sound the overall feeling of the poem

trade unions

- improve their working conditions - attempts to organize the workers did not come until after unions had won the RIGHT TO STRIKE in the 1870s - strikes proved necessary to achieve the workers' goals - a WALKOUT by female workers in the match industry in 1888 and by dockworkers in London the following year led to the establishment of trade union organizations for both groups - by 1900, 2 million workers were enrolled in British unions, and by the outbreak of World War I, this number had risen to between 3 million and 4 million, although this was still less than one-fifth of the total workforce - trade unions failed to develop as quickly on the Continent as they had in Britain - as there were a number of FRENCH SOCIALIST PARTIES, the socialist trade unions remained badly splintered - not until 1895 did French unions create a national organization called the GENERAL CONFEDERATION OF LABOR - its decentralization and failure to include some of the more important individual unions, however, kept it weak and ineffective - although there were LIBERAL TRADE UNIONS comprising skilled artisans and Catholic or Christian trade unions, the largest German trade unions were those of the socialists - as strikes and COLLECTIVE BARGAINING achieved successes, German workers were increasingly inclined to forgo revolution for gradual improvements - by 1914, its 3 million members made the German trade union movement the second largest in Europe, after Great Britain's - almost 85 percent of these 3 million belonged to socialist unions - trade unions in the rest of Europe had varying degrees of success, but by the beginning of World War I, they had made considerable progress in bettering both the living and the working conditions of the laboring classes

Japan

- in Japan, the imperial government took the lead in promoting industry - the government financed industries, built railroads, brought foreign experts to train Japanese employees in new industrial techniques, and instituted a UNIVERSAL EDUCATION SYSTEM based on applied science - Japan had developed key industries in tea, silk, armaments, and shipbuilding - workers for these industries came from the large number of people who had abandoned their farms due to severe hardships in the countryside and fled to the cities, where they provided an abundant source of CHEAP LABOR - workers toiled for long hours in the coal mines and textile mills, often under horrendous conditions - reportedly, coal miners employed on a small island in Nagasaki harbor worked naked in temperatures up to 130 degrees Fahrenheit. If they tried to escape, they were shot

new medical schools

- in the course of the nineteenth century, virtually every Western country founded new medical schools but attempts to impose uniform standards on them through certifying bodies met considerable resistance - professional organizations founded around midcentury, such as the BRITISH MEDICAL ASSOCIATION in 1832, the AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION in 1847, and the GERMAN DOCTORS' SOCIETY in 1872, attempted to elevate professional standards but achieved little until the end of the century - the establishment of the JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY School of Medicine in 1893, with its four-year graded curriculum, clinical training for advanced students, and use of laboratories for teaching purposes, provided a NEW MODEL FOR MEDICAL TRAINING that finally became standard practice in the twentieth century - the FEMALE MEDICAL COLLEGE OF PENNSYLVANIA, established in 1850, was the first in the United States, and the LONDON SCHOOL OF MEDICINE FOR WOMEN was founded in 1874 - but even after graduation from such institutions, women faced obstacles when they tried to practice as doctors

Modernism

- included an attempt by the churches to REINTERPRET CHRISTIANITY in the light of new developments - viewed the Bible as a book of useful moral ideas, encouraged Christians to become involved in SOCIAL REFORMS, and insisted that the churches must provide a greater sense of community - the Catholic Church condemned Modernism in 1907 and had driven it under-ground by the beginning of World War I

New Imperialism

- led Europeans to carve up Asia and Africa - the existence of COMPETITIVE NATION STATES and growing nationalism after 1870 was undoubtedly a major determinant in the growth of the new imperialism - as European affairs grew tense, heightened competition spurred European states to acquire COLONIES abroad that provided ports and coaling stations for their navies - colonies were also a source of INTERNATIONAL PRESTIGE - once the scramble for colonies began, failure to enter the race was perceived as a sign of weakness, totally unacceptable to an aspiring great power - late-nineteenth-century imperialism was closely tied to NATIONALISM - PATRIOTIC FERVOR was often used to arouse interest in imperialism - imperialism was also tied to SOCIAL DARWINISM and RACISM - Superior races must dominate inferior races by MILITARY FORCE to show how strong they are - some Europeans took a more religious or humanitarian approach to imperialism, arguing that Europeans had a MORAL RESPONSIBILITY to civilize ignorant peoples - this notion of the ''WHITE MAN'S BURDEN'' helped at least the more idealistic individuals rationalize imperialism in their own minds - thousands of Catholic and Protestant MISSIONARIES went abroad to seek converts to their faith - nevertheless, the belief that the superiority of their civilization obligated them to impose MODERN INDUSTRIES and NEW MEDICINES on supposedly primitive nonwhites was yet another form of racism - there was a great demand for NATURAL RESOURCES and products not found in Western countries, such as rubber, oil, and tin - instead of just trading for these products, European investors advocated DIRECT CONTROL of the areas where the raw materials were found

Charles Darwin

- like many of the great scientists of the nineteenth century, he was a scientific amateur - in 1831, at the age of twenty-two, his hobby became his vocation when he accepted an appointment as a naturalist to study animals and plants on an official Royal Navy scientific expedition aboard the H.M.S. Beagle - specific job was to STUDY THE STRUCTURE OF VARIOUS FORMS OF PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE - he came to discard the notion of special creation and to believe that ANIMALS EVOLVED OVER TIME and in response to their environment - when he returned to Britain, he eventually formulated an explanation for evolution in the PRINCIPLE OF NATURAL SELECTION, a theory that he presented in 1859 in his celebrated book, ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES by Means of Natural Selection - in THE DESCENT OF MAN, published in 1871, he argued for the animal origins of human beings - his ideas were highly controversial at first - some people fretted that his theory made human beings ordinary products of nature rather than unique beings

Anarchism

- movement that was especially prominent in less industrialized and LESS DEMOCRATIC COUNTRIES - initially, it was not a violent movement - early anarchists believed that people were inherently good but had been corrupted by the state and society - true freedom could be achieved only by ABOLISHING THE STATE and all existing social institutions - began to advocate using radical means to accomplish this goal - believed that small groups of well-trained, fanatical revolutionaries could perpetrate so much violence that the state and all its institutions would disintegrate - to revolutionary anarchists, that would usher in the ANARCHIST GOLDEN AGE - used ASSASSINATION as their primary instrument of terror

Franco-Prussian War

- not content with their diplomatic victory, they pushed William I to make a formal apology to France and promise never to allow Leopold to be a candidate again - when Bismarck received a telegram from the king in-forming him of the French request, Bismarck edited it to make it appear even more insulting to the French, knowing that the French would be angry and declare war - the French reacted as Bismarck expected they would and DECLARED WAR ON PRUSSIA on July 15, 1870 - they proved no match for the better-led and better-organized Prussian forces - the southern German states honored their military alliances with Prussia and joined the war effort against the French - the SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE COLLAPSED, but the war was not yet over - after four months of bitter resistance, Paris finally capitulated on January 28, 1871, and an OFFICIAL PEACE TREATY WAS SIGNED in May - France had to pay an indemnity of 5 BILLION FRANCS (about $1 billion) and give up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the new German state, a loss that angered the French and left them burning for revenge - even before the war had ended, the southern German states had agreed to ENTER THE NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION - German unity had been achieved by the Prussian monarchy and the Prussian army

Igor Stravinsky

- one of the twentieth century's MOST IMPORTANT COMPOSERS, both for his compositions and for his impact on other composers - he gained international fame as a ballet composer and together with the Ballet Russe, under the direction of Sergei Diaghilev (1872-1929), REVOLUTIONIZED THE WORLD OF MUSIC with a series of ballets - the three most significant ballets Stravinsky composed for Diaghilev's company were THE FIREBIRD (1910), PETRUSHKA (1911), and THE RITE OF SPRING (1913) - all three were based on Russian folk tales - the Rite of Spring proved to be a REVOLUTIONARY PIECE in the development of music - the pulsating rhythms, sharp dissonances, and unusual dancing overwhelmed the Paris audience and caused a riot at the theater - sought a new understanding of irrational forces in his music, which became an important force in inaugurating a modern musical movement

Leo XIII

- permitted the TEACHING OF EVOLUTION as a hypothesis in Catholic schools and also responded to the challenges of modernization in the economic and social spheres - in his encyclical DE RARUM NOVARUM, issued in 1891, he upheld the individual's right to PRIVATE PROPERTY but at the same time criticized ''naked'' CAPITALISM for the poverty and degradation in which it had left the working classes - much in socialism, he declared, was Christian in principle, but he CONDEMNED MARXIST SOCIALISM for its materialistic and anti-religious foundations - recommended that Catholics form SOCIALIST PARTIES and LABOR UNIONS of their own to help the workers

Victorian Age

- politically, this was an era of UNEASY STABILITY as the aristocratic and upper-middle-class representatives who dominated Parliament blurred party lines by their internal strife and shifting positions

Sigmund Freud

- put forth a series of theories that undermined optimism about the rational nature of the human mind - his major ideas were published in 1900 in "THE INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS", which contained the basic foundation of what came to be known as PSYCHOANALYSIS - according to him, human behavior was strongly determined by the UNCONSCIOUS , by EARLIER EXPERIENCES and inner forces of which people were largely oblivious - he relied not only on HYPNOSIS but also on dreams, but the latter were dressed in an elaborate code that had to be deciphered if the content was to be properly understood - according to him, the answer was REPRESSION, a process by which unsettling experiences were blotted from conscious awareness but still continued to influence behavior because they had become part of the unconscious - said that a human being's inner life was a battleground of three contending forces: the ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGO - the id was the center of unconscious drives and was ruled by what he termed THE PLEASURE PRINCIPLE - the id contained all kinds of LUSTFUL DRIVES AND DESIRES and CRUDE APPETITES AND IMPULSES - the ego was the SEAT OF REASON and hence the coordinator of the inner life - it was governed by the REALITY PRINCIPLE - the reality principle meant that people rejected pleasure so that they might live together in society - the superego was the locus of conscience and represented the INHIBITIONS AND MORAL VALUES that society in general and parents in particular imposed on people - the most important repressions, according to him, were sexual, and he went on to develop a theory of infantile sexual drives embodied in the OEDIPUS COMPLEX (ELECTRA COMPLEX for females), or the infant's craving for exclusive possession of the parent of the opposite sex - although many of his ideas have been shown to be wrong in many details, he is still regarded as an important figure because of the impact his theories have had

Otto von Bismarck

- regarded even by the king as too CONSERVATIVE, came to determine the course of modern German history - until 1890, he DOMINATED BOTH GERMAN AND EUROPEAN POLITICS - was born into the JUNKER CLASS, the traditional, landowning aristocracy of Prussia, and remained loyal to it throughout his life - he began to build a base of diplomatic experience as the PRUSSIAN DELEGATE to the parliament of the GERMANIC CONFEDERATION - was a CONSUMMATE POLITICIAN and opportunist - he was not a political gambler but a moderate who waged war only when all other diplomatic alternatives had been exhausted and when he was reasonably sure that all the military and diplomatic advantages were on his side - has often been portrayed as the ultimate REALIST, the foremost nineteenth-century practitioner of REALPOLITIK - he collected the taxes needed and reorganized the army despite the rejection of one of his bills, blaming the liberals for causing the breakdown of constitutional government - from 1862 to 1866, he governed Prussia by largely IGNORING PARLIAMENT - he had come to the realization that for Prussia to expand its power by dominating the northern, largely Protestant part of the Germanic Confederation, Austria would have to be excluded from German affairs or, less likely, be willing to accept PRUSSIAN DOMINATION OF GERMANY

Max Planck

- rejected the belief that a heated body radiates energy in a steady stream but maintained that instead ENERGY IS REGULATED DISCONTINUOUSLY, in irregular packets called QUANTA - the QUANTUM THEORY raised questions about the subatomic realm of the atom

Edvard Grieg

- remained a dedicated supporter of NORWEGIAN NATIONALISM throughout his life - nationalism expressed itself in the lyric melodies found in the FOLK MUSIC of his homeland - among his best-known works is the PEER GYNT SUITE (1876), incidental music to a play by Henrik Ibsen - his music paved the way for the creation of a NATIONAL MUSIC STYLE in Norway

King Leopold II

- rushed enthusiastically into the pursuit of empire in Africa - PROFIT, however, was far more important to him than progress; his TREATMENT OF AFRICANS WAS SO BRUTAL that even other Europeans condemned his actions - in 1876, he created the INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE EXPLORATION AND CIVILIZATION OF CENTRAL AFRICA and engaged Henry Stanley to establish Belgian settlements in the Congo - alarmed by his actions, the French also moved into the territory north of the Congo River

Giovanni Giolitti

- served intermittently as Italian PRIME MINISTER - he was a master of using TRANSFORMISMO, or transformism, a system in which old political groups were transformed into new government coalitions by POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC BRIBERY - in the long run, however, his devious methods made Italian politics even more CORRUPT AND UNMANAGEABLE - when urban workers turned to violence to protest their living and working conditions, he tried to appease them with SOCIAL WELFARE LEGISLATION AND UNIVERSAL MALE SUFFRAGE in 1912 - to strengthen his popularity, he also aroused nationalistic passions by CONQUERING LIBYA - despite his efforts, however, WORKER UNREST continued, and in 1914 government troops had to be used to quell RIOTING WORKERS

Elizabeth Blackwell

- she achieved the first MAJOR BREAKTHROUGH FOR WOMEN IN MEDICINE - although she had been admitted to the Geneva College of Medicine in New York by mistake, her perseverance and intelligence won her the respect of her fellow male students - she received her M.D. degree in 1849 and eventually established a clinic in New York City

The Communist Manifesto

- short treatises written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels - the result of the working-class movement, it was published in German in January 1848, appeared on the eve of the revolutions of 1848 - it became one of the MOST INFLUENTIAL POLITICAL TREATISES in modern European history - the government of the state reflected and defended the interests of the INDUSTRIAL MIDDLE-CLASS AND ITS ALLIES - although bourgeois society had emerged victorious out of the ruins of feudalism, Marx and Engels insisted that it had not triumphed completely - now once again the members of the bourgeoisie were antagonists in an emerging class struggle, but this time they faced the PROLETARIAT or the industrial working class - they predicted that the workers would overthrow their bourgeois masters - then a CLASSLESS SOCIETY would emerge, and the state—itself an instrument of the bourgeoisie—would wither away since it no longer represented the interests of a particular class

Napoleon III

- taught his contemporaries how AUTHORITARIAN GOVERNMENTS could use LIBERAL AND NATIONALISTIC FORCES to bolster their own power - a clever politician who was especially astute at understanding the popular forces of his day - for three years, he persevered in winning the support of the French people, and when the National Assembly rejected his wish to REVISE THE CONSTITUTION and be allowed to stand for reelection, Louis used troops to SEIZE CONTROL OF THE GOVERNMENT on December 1, 1851 - after restoring UNIVERSAL MALE SUFFRAGE, he asked the French people to re-structure the government by ELECTING HIM PRESIDENT FOR 10 YEARS - he controlled the armed forces, police, and civil service - only he could INTRODUCE LEGISLATION and DECLARE WAR - believed in using the resources of government to stimulate the national economy and took many steps to ENCOURAGE INDUSTRIAL GROWTH - in his concern to reduce tensions and improve the social welfare of the nation, he PROVIDED HOSPITALS and FREE MEDICINE for the workers and advocated BETTER HOUSING for the working class - he undertook a vast reconstruction of the city of Paris - was considerably less accomplished at dealing with foreign policy, especially his imperialistic adventure in Mexico - was motivated by the desire to free France from the restrictions of the peace settlements of 1814-1815 and to make France the CHIEF ARBITER IN EUROPE

Bloody Sunday

- the BREAKDOWN OF THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM caused by the Russo-Japanese War led to FOOD SHORTAGES in the major cities of Russia - as a result, on January 9, 1905, a massive procession of workers went to the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg to present a petition of grievances to the tsar - Troops foolishly opened fire on the peaceful demonstration, killing hundreds and LAUNCHING A REVOLUTION - incited workers to call STRIKES and form UNIONS; meanwhile, zemstvos demanded parliamentary government, ethnic groups revolted, and peasants burned the houses of landowners - Nicholas II issued the OCTOBER MANIFESTO, in which he granted CIVIL LIBERTIES and agreed to create a legislative assembly known as the DUMA, elected directly by a broad franchise

Population Growth

- the European population increased dramatically between 1850 and 1910, rising from 270 million to more than 460 million by 1910 - the main cause of the population increase was a RISING BIRTHRATE, at least in western Europe, but after 1880, a noticeable DECLINE IN DEATH RATES largely explains the increase in population - although the causes of this decline have been debated, two major factors—MEDICAL DISCOVERIES and ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS—stand out - more important were improvements in the urban environment in the second half of the nineteenth century that greatly reduced fatalities from such diseases as diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever, and cholera, which had been spread through contaminated water supplies and improper elimination of sewage - IMPROVED NUTRITION also made a significant difference in the health of the population - better nutrition and FOOD HYGIENE were especially instrumental in the decline in infant mortality by 1900 - the PASTEURIZATION of milk reduced intestinal disorders that had been a major cause of infant deaths

Attack on Christianity

- the GROWTH OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING as well as the forces of MODERNIZATION presented new challenges to the Christian churches - INDUSTRIALIZATION and urbanization had an especially adverse effect on religious institutions - beginning during the eighteenth-century, the Enlightenment, and continuing well into the nineteenth century, European governments, especially in predominantly Catholic countries, had IMPOSED CONTROLS OVER CHURCH COURTS, reli-gious orders, and appointments of the clergy - after the failure of the REVOLUTIONS OF 1848, governments were eager to use the churches' aid in reestablishing order and therefore relaxed these controls - the close union of state authorities with established churches produced a backlash in the form of ANTICLERICALISM, especially in the liberal nation-states of the late nineteenth century - in 1901, Catholic teaching orders were outlawed, and four years later, in 1905, CHURCH AND STATE WERE COMPLETELY SEPARATED - SCIENCE became one of the chief threats to all the Christian churches and even to religion itself in the nineteenth century - Darwin's THEORY OF EVOLUTION, accepted by ever-larger numbers of educated Europeans, seemed to contradict the doctrine of DIVINE CREATION - the scientific spirit also encouraged a number of biblical scholars to apply CRITICAL PRINCIPLES TO THE BIBLE, leading to the so-called HIGHER CRITICISM - one of its leading exponents was Ernst Renan, a French Catholic scholar - in his "LIFE OF JESUS", Renan QUESTIONED THE HISTORICAL ACCURACY OF THE BIBLE and presented a radically different picture of Jesus - he saw Jesus not as the son of God but as a human being whose value lay in the example he provided by his life and teaching

Sergei Witte

- the Russian MINISTER FOR FINANCE (1892 to 1903) - saw industrial growth as crucial to Russia's national strength - believing that RAILROADS were a powerful weapon in economic development, he pushed the government toward a program of MASSIVE RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION - also encouraged a system of PROTECTIVE TARIFFS to help Russian industry and persuaded Tsar Nicholas II (1894-1917) that FOREIGN CAPITAL was essential for rapid industrial development - his program made possible the rapid growth of a modern STEEL AND COAL INDUSTRY in Ukraine, making Russia by 1900 the fourth-largest producer of steel behind the United States, Germany, and Great Britain - with industrialization came factories, an industrial working class, industrial suburbs around Saint Petersburg and Moscow, and the pitiful working and living conditions that accompanied the beginnings of industrialization everywhere

Women and Work

- the Second Industrial Revolution had an enormous impact on the position of women in the labor market - during the course of the nineteenth century, considerable controversy erupted over a woman's ''right to work" - working-class organizations tended to reinforce the underlying ideology of DOMESTICITY: women should remain at home to bear and nurture children and should not be allowed in the industrial workforce - keeping women out of the industrial workforce simply made it easier to exploit them when they needed income to supplement their husbands' wages or to sup-port their families when their husbands were unemployed - SWEATING referred to the sub-contracting of piecework usually, but not exclusively, in the tailoring trades; it was done at home since it required few skills or equipment - often excluded from factories and in need of income, many women had no choice but to work for the PITIFUL WAGES of the sweated industries

materialism

- the belief that everything mental, spiritual, or ideal was simply a result of physical forces - truth was to be found in the CONCRETE MATERIAL EXISTENCE OF HUMAN BEINGS and not, as the Romantics imagined, in revelations gained by feeling or intuitive flashes - the importance of materialism was strikingly evident in the most important scientific event of the nineteenth century, the development of the THEORY OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION according to NATURAL SELECTION

middle class family

- the family was the CENTRAL INSTITUTION OF MIDDLE-CLASS LIFE - men provided the family income, while women focused on HOUSEHOLD AND CHILD CARE - by REDUCING THE NUMBER OF CHILDREN in the family, mothers could devote more time to child care and domestic leisure - the idea that LEISURE should be used for constructive purposes supported and encouraged the cult of middle-class domesticity - the new domestic ideal had an impact on child-raising and children's play - children were ENTITLED TO A LONG CHILDHOOD involved in activities with other children their own age - since the sons of the middle-class family were expected to follow careers like their father's, they were sent to schools where they were kept SEPARATE FROM THE REST OF SOCIETY UNTIL AGE SIXTEEN OR SEVENTEEN - the emphasis on manliness stemmed not only from military concerns but also from CONCEPTIONS OF MASCULINITY formed during the late nineteenth century as the middle and upper classes looked for ways to control sexual licentiousness in the form of venereal disease or prostitution - there was little organized recreational activity of this type for girls, although ROBERT BADEN-POWELL (1857-1941), the founder of the Boy Scouts, did encourage his sister to establish a girls' division as an afterthought - the new ideal of the middle-class woman as nurturing mother and wife who ''determined the atmosphere of the household'' through her character, not her work, frequently did not correspond to reality

Second Industrial Revolution

- the first major change in industrial development after 1870 was the SUBSTITUTION OF STEEL FOR IRON - a change in the method of making soda enabled France and Germany to take the lead in producing the alkalies used in the textile, soap, and paper industries - German laboratories soon overtook the British in the development of new ORGANIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS, such as artificial dyes - ELECTRICITY was a major new form of energy that proved to be of great value since it could be easily converted into other forms of energy, such as heat, light, and motion, and moved relatively effortlessly through space over wires - although most electricity was initially used for lighting, it was eventually put to use in TRANSPORT - electricity also TRANSFORMED THE FACTORY - conveyor belts, cranes, machines, and machine tools could all be powered by electricity and located anywhere - the development of the INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE had a similar effect - it proved unsuitable for widespread use as a source of power in transportation until the development of liquid fuels—petroleum and its distilled derivatives - the development of the internal combustion engine gave rise to the AUTOMOBILE and the AIRPLANE - HENRY FORD (1863-1947), who REVOLUTIONIZED THE CAR INDUSTRY with the mass production of the Model T. By 1916, Ford's factories were producing 735,000 cars a year - air transportation began with the ZEPPELIN airship in 1900 - the formation of CARTELS was paralleled by a move toward ever larger manufacturing plants, especially in the iron and steel, machinery, heavy electrical equipment, and chemical industries - the development of PRECISION TOOLS enabled manufacturers to produce INTERCHANGEABLE PARTS, which in turn led to the creation of the assembly line for production - played a role in the emergence of BASIC ECONOMIC PATTERNS that have characterized much of modern European economic life - although the period after 1871 has been described as an age of MATERIAL PROSPERITY, recessions and crises were still very much a part of economic life - although some historians question the appropriateness of characterizing the period from 1873 to 1895 as a GREAT DEPRESSION, Europeans did experience a series of ECONOMIC CRISES during those years - prices, especially those of AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS, fell dramatically - from 1895 until World War I, however, Europe overall experienced an economic boom and achieved a level of prosperity that encouraged people later to look back to that era as LA BELLE EPOQUE—a golden age in European civilization

Theodor Herzl

- the founder of ZIONISM - in 1896, he published a book called THE JEWISH STATE in which he maintained that ''the Jews who wish it will have their state" - financial support for the development of SETTLEMENTS IN PALESTINE came from WEALTHY JEWISH BANKING FAMILIES who wanted refuge in Palestine for persecuted Jews - establishing settlements was difficult, though, because Palestine was then part of the Ottoman Empire, and Ottoman authorities were OPPOSED TO JEWISH EMIGRATION - on the eve of World War I, the Zionist dream remained just that

New Markets

- the growth of industrial production depended on the development of markets for the sale of manufactured goods - as Europeans were the RICHEST CONSUMERS IN THE WORLD, those markets offered abundant possibilities - the leading industrialized nations, Britain and Germany, DOUBLED OR TRIPLED THEIR NATIONAL INCOMES - as the prices of both food and manufactured goods declined due to lower transportation costs, Europeans could spend more on consumer products - By bringing together a vast array of new products in one place, they created the DEPARTMENT STORE - the desire to own sewing machines, clocks, bicycles, electric lights, and typewriters rapidly created a new CONSUMER ETHIC that became a crucial part of the modern economy - increased competition for foreign markets and the growing importance of domestic demand led to a REACTION AGAINST FREE TRADE - to many industrial and political leaders, PROTECTIVE TARIFFS guaranteed domestic markets for the products of their own industries - during this same period, CARTELS were being formed to decrease competition internally - in a cartel, independent enterprises worked together to control prices and fix production quotas, thereby restraining the kind of competition that led to reduced prices -

women's right to vote

- the key to all other reforms to improve the position of women - the British women's movement was the most vocal and active in Europe, but it divided over tactics - The liberal MILLICENT FAWCETT (1847-1929) organized a moderate group who believed that women must demonstrate that they would use political power responsibly if they wanted Parliament to grant them the right to vote - EMMILINE PANKHURST (1858-1928) and her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, founded the WOMEN'S SOCIAL AND POLITICAL UNION in 1903, which enrolled mostly middle- and upper-class women - the members of Pankhurst's organization realized the value of the media and used unusual PUBLICITY STUNTS to call attention to their demands - they pelted government officials with eggs, chained themselves to lampposts, smashed the windows of department stores on fashionable shopping streets, burned railroad cars, and went on HUNGER STRIKES in jail - In 1913, EMILY DAVISON accepted martyrdom for the cause when she threw herself in front of the king's horse at the Epsom Derby horse race - SUFFRAGISTS had one fundamental aim: the right of women to full citizenship in the nation-state - demands for women's rights were heard throughout Europe and the United States before World War I - nevertheless, only in Finland, Norway, and some American states did women actually receive the right to vote before 1914

Freidrich Engels

- the son of a wealthy German cotton manufacturer, had worked in Britain at one of his father's factories in Manchester - there he had acquired firsthand knowledge of what he came to call the ''wage slavery'' of the British working classes, which he detailed in THE CONDITIONS OF THE WORKING CLASS IN ENGLAND, a damning indictment of industrial life written in 1844 - would contribute his knowledge of actual working conditions as well as monetary assistance to the financially strapped Marx - was an enthusiastic advocate of the RADICAL WORKING-CLASS MOVEMENT and agreed to draft a statement of his ideas for the league

Industrialization on the Continent

- this period of industrial expansion on the Continent was fueled not so much by textiles as by the GROWTH OF RAILROADS - the railroads, in turn, stimulated growth in both the IRON AND COAL INDUSTRIES - between 1850 and 1870, Continental iron industries made the transition from charcoal iron smelting to coke blast smelting - in the middle decades of the 19th century, the textile, mining, and metallurgical industries on the Continent also rapidly converted to the use of the steam engine - an important factor in the expansion of markets was the ELIMINATION OF BARRIERS TO INTERNATIONAL TRADE - essential international waterways were opened up by the ELIMINATION OF RESTRICTIVE TOLLS - the negotiation of TRADE TREATIES in the 1860s reduced or eliminated protective tariffs throughout much of western Europe - governments also played a role in first allowing and then encouraging the formation of JOINT-STOCK INVESTMENT BANKS - these banks were crucial to Continental industrial development because they mobilized enormous CAPITAL RESOURCES for investment

Pope Pius IX

- took a rigid stand against modern ideas - issued a PAPAL ENCYCLICAL called the SYLLABUS OF ERRORS in which he stated that it is ''an error to believe that the Roman Pontiff can and ought to reconcile himself to, and agree with, progress, liberalism, and modern civilization" - he condemned nationalism, socialism, religious toleration, and freedom of speech and press

The Reign of Emperor William II

- unstable and aggressive, the emperor was inclined to tactless remarks, as when he told the soldiers of a Berlin regiment that they must be prepared to shoot their fathers and mothers if he ordered them to do so - by 1914, Germany had become the STRONGEST MILITARY AND INDUSTRIAL POWER ON THE CONTINENT - NEW SOCIAL CONFIGURATIONS had emerged as more than 50 percent of German workers had jobs in industry while only 30 percent of the workforce was still in agriculture - produced a society torn between MODERNIZATION and TRADITIONALISM - the growth of industrialization led to even greater expansion for the SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY - William was no more successful than Bismarck at slowing the growth of the Social Democrats - by 1912, it had become the largest single party in the REICHSTAG - with the expansion of industry and cities came demands for MORE POLITICAL PARTICIPATION and growing sentiment for reforms that would produce greater democratization - a number of pressure groups arose to support nationalistic goals - groups such as the PAN-GERMAN LEAGUE stressed strong German NATIONALISM and advocated IMPERIALISM as a tool to overcome social divisions and unite all classes - they were also ANTI-SEMITIC and denounced Jews as the destroyers of the national community

Herbert Spencer

- using Darwin's terminology, he argued that SOCIETIES WERE ORGANISMS that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment - progress came from ''THE STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL,'' as the ''fit''—the strong— advanced while the weak declined - the state should not intervene in this natural process

Henry John Temple, Lord Palmerston

- was PRIME MINISTER for most of the period from 1855 to 1865 - although a Whig, Palmerston was without strong party loyalty and found it easy to make political compromises - he was not a reformer, however, and OPPOSED EXPANDING THE FRANCHISE - After his death in 1865, the movement for the extension of the franchise only intensified

Count Camillo di Cavour

- was a LIBERAL-MINDED NOBLEMAN who had made a fortune in agriculture and went on to make even more money in banking, railroads, and shipping - he was a moderate who favored CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT - he was a CONSUMMATE POLITICIAN with the ability to persuade others of the rightness of his own convictions - he pursued a policy of ECONOMIC EXPANSION, encouraging the building of roads, canals, and railroads and fostering business enterprise by expanding credit and stimulating investment in new industries

Maria Montessori

- was a good example of the ''NEW WOMAN" - breaking with tradition, SHE ATTENDED MEDICAL SCHOOL at the University of Rome - although often isolated by the male students, she persisted and in 1896 became the FIRST ITALIAN WOMAN TO RECEIVE A MEDICAL DEGREE - three years later, she undertook a lecture tour in Italy on the subject of the ''new woman,'' whom she characterized as a woman who followed a RATIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE - she devised NEW TEACHING MATERIALS that enabled these children to read and write - she established a system of CHILDHOOD EDUCATION based on NATURAL AND SPONTANEOUS ACTIVITIES in which students learned at their own pace - as a professional woman and an unwed mother, she also embodied some of the freedoms of the ''new woman"

American Civil War

- was an extraordinarily bloody struggle, a foretaste of the total war to come in the twentieth century - more than 600,000 soldiers died, either in battle or from deadly INFECTIOUS DISEASES spawned by filthy camp conditions - over a period of four years, the UNION STATES of the North mobilized their superior assets and gradually wore down the CONFEDERATE forces of the South - What began as a war to save the Union became a WAR AGAINST SLAVERY - the increasingly effective Union blockade of the South, combined with a shortage of fighting men, made the Confederate cause desperate by the end of 1864 - the final push of Union troops under General Ulysses S. Grant forced General ROBERT E. LEE'S CONFEDERATE ARMY TO SURRENDER on April 9, 1865

Benjamin Disraeli

- was apparently motivated by the desire to win over the newly enfranchised groups to the CONSERVATIVE PARTY - the number of voters increased from about 1 million to slightly over 2 million - was an important step toward the democratization of Britain - he believed that this would benefit the Conservatives, industrial workers helped produce a huge Liberal victory in 1868 - the extension of the RIGHT TO VOTE had an important byproduct as it forced the Liberal and Conservative Parties to organize carefully in order to manipulate the electorate

Karl Marx

- was born into a relatively prosperous middle-class family in Trier in western Germany - after receiving a Ph.D. in philosophy, he planned to teach at a university - unable to obtain a position because of his professed ATHEISM, Marx decided on a career in journalism and eventually became the editor of a liberal bourgeois newspaper in Cologne in 1842 - was an enthusiastic advocate of the RADICAL WORKING-CLASS MOVEMENT and agreed to draft a statement of his ideas for the league - his ideas were partly a synthesis of French and German thought - he was particularly impressed by Hegel, but he disagreed with Hegel's belief that history is determined by ideas manifesting themselves in historical forces - believed that the emergence of a classless society would lead to progress in science, technology, and industry and to greater wealth for all

Realism

- was first employed in 1850 to describe a new style of painting and soon spread to literature - the literary Realists of the mid-nineteenth century were distinguished by their DELIBERATE REJECTION OF ROMANTICISM - literary Realists wanted to deal with ordinary characters from real life rather than Romantic heroes in unusual settings - they also sought to avoid flowery and sentimental language by using CAREFUL OBSERVATION AND ACCURATE DESCRIPTION, an approach that led them to eschew poetry in favor of prose and the novel

Pablo Picasso

- was from Spain but settled in Paris in 1904 - was extremely flexible and painted in a remarkable VARIETY OF STYLES - he was instrumental in the development of a new style called CUBISM that used GEOMETRIC DESIGNS as visual stimuli to recreate reality in the viewer's mind - his 1907 work LES DEMOISELLES D'AVIGNON has been called the first cubist painting

Paul Cezanne

- was one of the MOST IMPORTANT POST-IMPRESSIONISTS - initially, he was influenced by the Impressionists but soon rejected their work - in paintings, such as MONT SAINTE-VICTOIRE, Cezanne sought to express visually the underlying GEOMETRIC STRUCTURE and form of everything he painted - he accomplished this by pressing his wet brush directly onto the canvas, forming CUBES OF COLOR on which he built the form of the mountain - his technique enabled him to break down forms into their basic components

Friedrich Nietzsche

- was one of the intellectuals who GLORIFIED THE IRRATIONAL - according to him, Western bourgeois society was decadent and INCAPABLE OF ANY REAL CULTURAL CREATIVITY, primarily because of its excessive emphasis on the RATIONAL FACULTY at the expense of emotions, passions, and instincts - he believed that Christianity should shoulder much of the blame for Western civilization's enfeeblement - Europeans had "KILLED GOD", he said, and it was no longer possible to believe in some kind of COSMIC ORDER - eliminating God and hence Christian morality had liberated human beings and made it possible to create a higher kind of being he called THE SUPERMAN - SUPERIOR INTELLECTUALS must free themselves from the ordinary thinking of the masses, create their own values, and lead the masses - he REJECTED AND CONDEMNED POLITICAL DEMOCRACY, SOCIAL REFORM, and UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Jean-Francois Millet

- was preoccupied with SCENES FROM RURAL LIFE, especially peasants laboring in the fields, although his Realism still contained an element of Romantic sentimentality - in THE GLEANERS, his most famous work, three peasant women gather grain in a field, a centuries-old practice that showed the symbiotic relationship between humans and nature - made landscape and country life an important subject matter for French artists, but he, too, was CRITICIZED BY HIS CONTEMPORARIES for the crude subject matter and unorthodox technique

William Gladstone

- was responsible for a series of impressive reforms - legislation and government orders opened CIVIL SERVICE POSITIONS to competitive exams rather than patronage, introduced the SECRET BALLOT FOR VOTING, and abolished the practice of purchasing military commissions - these reforms were typically liberal - by eliminating abuses and enabling people with talent to compete fairly, they sought to strengthen the nation and its institutions

Gustave Courbet

- was the MOST FAMOUS ARTIST OF THE REALIST SCHOOL - in fact, the word REALISM was first coined in 1850 to describe one of his paintings - reveled in a REALISTIC PORTRAYAL OF EVERYDAY LIFE - his subjects were factory workers, peasants, and the wives of saloon keepers - one of his famous works, THE STONE BREAKERS, painted in 1849, shows two road workers engaged in the deadening work of breaking stones to build a road - to him, no subject was too ordinary, too harsh, or too ugly to interest him

Crimean War

- was yet another attempt to answer the Eastern Question: Who would be the chief beneficiaries of the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire? - by the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire had entered a fresh period of decline - war erupted BETWEEN RUSSIA AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE in 1853 when the Russians demanded the right to protect Christian shrines in Palestine, a privilege that had already been extended to the French - failure to resolve the dispute by negotiations led the Ottoman Empire to declare war on Russia on October 4, 1853 - the following year, on March 28, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia - poorly planned and poorly fought, then it is perhaps best remembered for the suicidal charge of the British Light Brigade at the Battle of Balaklava - After a long siege and at a terrible cost in manpower for both sides, the main Russian fortress of Sevastopol fell in September 1855, six months after the death of TSAR NICHOLAS I - by the TREATY OF PARIS, signed in March 1856, Russia was forced to give up Bessarabia at the mouth of the Danube and accept the neutrality of the Black Sea - in addition, the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under the protection of all five GREAT POWERS - proved costly to both sides - more than 250,000 soldiers died in the war, with 60 percent of the deaths coming from DISEASE (especially cholera) - broke up long-standing European power relationships and effectively destroyed the CONCERT OF EUROPE

The Boxer Rebellion

- ''BOXERS'' was the popular name given to Chinese who belonged to a secret organization called the SOCIETY OF HARMONIOUS FISTS, whose aim was to push the foreigners out of China - the Boxers MURDERED FOREIGN MISSIONARIES, Chinese who had converted to Christianity, railroad workers, foreign businessmen, and even the German envoy to Beijing - an allied army consisting of British, French, German, Russian, American, and Japanese troops attacked Beijing, restored order, and DEMANDED MORE CONCESSIONS from the Chinese government - the imperial government was so weakened that the forces of the revolutionary leader SUN YAT-SEN (1866-1925), who adopted a program of ''nationalism, democracy, and socialism,'' overthrew the MANCHU DYNASTY in 1912

The Bismarkian System

- Bismarck knew that the emergence of a unified Ger-many in 1871 had UPSET THE BALANCE OF POWER established at Vienna in 1815 - the problem in the Balkans was a by-product of the DISINTEGRATION OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE - as subject peoples in the Balkans clamored for independence, corruption and inefficiency weakened the Ottoman government - in 1876, the Balkan states of SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO DECLARED WAR on the Ottoman Empire - both were defeated, but Russia, with Austrian approval, attacked and defeated the Ottomans - by the TREATY OF SAN STEFANO in 1878, a large Bulgarian state, extending from the Danube in the north to the Aegean Sea in the south, was created - the CONGRESS OF BERLIN, which met in the summer of 1878, was dominated by Bismarck - the new BULGARIAN STATE WAS CONSIDERABLY REDUCED, and the rest of the territory was returned to Ottoman control - after the Congress of Berlin, the European powers sought NEW ALLIANCES to safeguard their security - Bismarck sought to remain on friendly terms with the Russians and signed the REINSURANCE TREATY with Russia in 1887, hoping to prevent a French-Russian alliance that would threaten Germany with the possibility of a two-front war - the Bismarckian system of alliances, geared to preserving peace and the status quo, had worked, but in 1890, EMPEROR WILLIAM II dismissed Bismarck and began to chart a new direction for Germany's foreign policy

Responses to Imperialism - India

- after crushing a major revolt in 1858, the British ruled India directly - under Parliament's supervision, a small group of BRITISH CIVIL SERVANTS directed the affairs of India's almost 300 million people - the British brought order to a society that had been divided by civil wars for some time and created a relatively honest and EFFICIENT GOVERNMENT - the British introduced WESTERN-STYLE SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES where the Indian upper and middle classes and professional classes were educated so that they could serve as trained subordinates in the government and army - in 1829, the British banned the practice of SATI, which called for a widow to immolate herself on her husband's funeral pyre - female INFANTICIDE was also discouraged - although women's position in Indian society was not significantly altered, the recognition of women by the law did afford some protection against these practices - due to POPULATION GROWTH in the nineteenth century, EXTREME POVERTY was a way of life for most Indians; almost two-thirds of the population was malnourished in 1901 - British MANUFACTURED GOODS DESTROYED LOCAL INDUSTRIES, and Indian wealth was used to pay British officials and a large army - smug racial attitudes made it difficult for British rule, no matter how beneficent, ever to be ultimately accepted and led to the rise of an INDIAN NATIONALIST MOVEMENT - by 1919, in response to British violence and British insensitivity, Indians were DEMANDING COMPLETE INDEPENDENCE

Meiji Restoration

- after the SHOGUN'S concessions to the Western nations, ANTI-FOREIGN SENTIMENT led to a SAMURAI REVOLT in 1867 and the restoration of the emperor as the rightful head of the government - the new emperor was the astute, dynamic, young MUTSUHITO - recognizing the obvious military and industrial superiority of the West, the new leaders decided to MODERNIZE JAPAN by absorbing and adopting Western methods - a GERMAN-STYLE ARMY and a BRITISH-STYLE NAVY were established - the Japanese copied the industrial and financial methods of the United States and developed a MODERN COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM - a HIGHLY CENTRALIZED ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM copied from the French replaced the old system - by 1890, they had created a political system that was DEMOCRATIC in form but AUTHORITARIAN in practice - UNIVERSAL MILITARY CONSCRIPTION was introduced in 1872, and a MODERN PEACETIME ARMY of 240,000 was eventually established - they DEFEATED CHINA in 1894-1895, annexed some Chinese territory, and established their own sphere of influence in China - the Japanese had proved that an Asian power could play the ''white man's'' imperialistic game and provided a potent example to peoples in other regions of Asia and Africa

Imperialism in Asia

- although Asia had been open to Western influence since the sixteenth century, not much of its immense territory had fallen under direct European control - it was not until the explorations of Australia by CAPTAIN JAMES COOK between 1768 and 1771 that Britain took an active interest in the East - in 1850, the British government granted the various Australian colonies virtually complete SELF-GOVERNMENT, and fifty years later, on January 1, 1901, all the colonies were unified into the COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA - a private trading company known as the BRITISH EAST INDIA COMPANY had been responsible for subjugating much of India - in 1858, however, after a revolt of the SEPOY, or Indian troops of the East India Company's army, had been crushed, the British Parliament transferred the company's powers directly to the government in London - In 1876, the title EMPRESS OF INDIA was bestowed on Queen Victoria; Indians were now her colonial subjects - Russian explorers had penetrated the wilderness of SIBERIA in the seventeenth century and reached the Pacific coast in 1637 - in the eighteenth century, Russians established a claim on Alaska, which they sold to the United States in 1867 - by 1830, the Russians had established control over the entire NORTHERN COAST OF THE BLACK SEA and then pressed on into Central Asia, securing the TRANS-CASPIAN AREA by 1881 and TURKESTAN in 1885 - in 1907, the Russians and British agreed to make AFGHANISTAN a buffer state between Russian Turkestan and British India and to divide Persia into two spheres of influence - Russian occupation of Manchuria and an attempt to move into Korea brought the war with the new imperialist power, Japan - in 1842, the British had obtained the island of HONG KONG and TRADING RIGHTS in several Chinese cities - only the rivalry among the GREAT POWERS themselves prevented the complete dismemberment of the Chinese Empire - japan avoided Western intrusion until 1853-1854 when American naval forces under COMMODORE MATTHEW PERRY forced the Japanese to grant the United States TRADING AND DIPLOMATIC PRIVILEGES - Japan's victories gave it clear superiority, and in 1910, JAPAN FORMALLY ANNEXED KOREA - in Southeast Asia, Britain established control over Burma (modern Myanmar) and the Malay States, and France played an active role in subjugating Indochina - In the 1880s, the French extended ''protection'' over Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin, and Laos and organized them into the UNION OF FRENCH INDOCHINA - the SAMOAN ISLANDS became the first important American colony; the HAWAIIAN ISLANDS were the next to fall - soon after Americans had made PEARL HARBOR into a naval station in 1887, American settlers gained control of the SUGAR INDUSTRY on the islands - Hawaii was annexed by the United States in 1898 during the era of AMERICAN NATIONALISTIC FERVOR generated by the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR

Cecil Rhodes

- he founded both DIAMOND and GOLD companies that monopolized production of these precious commodities and enabled him to gain control of a territory north of Transvaal that he named RHODESIA after himself - he was a great champion of BRITISH EXPANSION - one of his goals was to CREATE A SERIES OF BRITISH COLONIES ''from the Cape to Cairo,'' all linked by a railroad - his IMPERIALIST ambitions led to his downfall in 1896, however, when the British government forced him to RESIGN AS PRIME MINISTER of the Cape Colony after he conspired to overthrow the Boer government of the SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC without British approval - although the British government had hoped to avoid war with the Boers, it could not stop extremists on both sides from precipitating a conflict

The Bosnian Crisis

- initiated a chain of events that eventually spun out of control - since 1878, BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA had been under the protection of Austria, but in 1908, Austria took the drastic step of annexing these two Slavic-speaking territories - to the Austrians, a large Serbia would be a threat to the unity of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with its large Slavic population - backed by the Russians, the SERBS PREPARED FOR WAR AGAINST AUSTRIA - at this point, William II intervened and demanded that the Russians accept Austria's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina or face WAR WITH GERMANY - weakened from their defeat in the RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR in 1904-1905, the Russians backed down - European attention returned to the Balkans in 1912 when Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece organized the Balkan League and defeated the Ottomans in the FIRST BALKAN WAR - Greece, Serbia, Romania, and the Ottoman Empire attacked and DEFEATED BULGARIA - one of Serbia's major ambitions had been to acquire Albanian territory that would give it a port on the Adriatic - Austria-Hungary had achieved another of its aims, but it was still convinced that Serbia was a mortal threat to its empire and must at some point be crushed

William Thackeray

- wrote Britain's prototypical Realist novel, VANITY FAIR: A Novel Without a Hero, in 1848 - he deliberately FLOUTED ROMANTIC CONVENTIONS - he said that a novel should ''convey as strongly as possible the sentiment of reality as opposed to a tragedy or poem, which may be heroical"