US History Finals
Jim Crow Laws
"Black Acts" State and local laws mandating de jure racial segregation in Southern states. Limited rights of blacks. Literacy tests, grandfather clauses and poll taxes limited black voting rights, separate but equal.
John F. Kennedy
(1961-1963) 35th President of the United States; only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize; events during his administration include the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the building of the Berlin Wall, the Space Race, the African American Civil Rights Movement and early events of the Vietnam War; assassinated in Dallas, TX in 1963 by Lee Harvey Oswald.
JFK's New Frontier
(1961-1963) Kennedy administration battled recession with deficit spending; increased budget for defense by 20% and increased spending on social programs. A new era of social and scientific progress Expansion of science programs Focused on civil rights Focused on urban renewal Peace Corps- sent young American volunteers to perform humanitarian services in less developed countries Alliance for Progress- focused on Latin America Kennedy was elected by a slim margin, so he didn't act more forcefully.
Gerald Ford
(1974-1977), Solely elected by a vote from Congress. He pardoned Nixon of all crimes that he may have committed. Evacuated nearly 500,000 Americans and South Vietnamese from Vietnam, closing the war. We are heading toward rapid inflation. He runs again and debates Jimmy Carter. At the debate he is asked how he would handle the communists in eastern Europe and he said there were none and this apparently sealed his fate. Nixon's Vice president, only person not voted into the White House, appointed vice president by Nixon: became president after Nixon resigned
Ronald Reagan
(1981-1989) Won the presidency in 1980 because he was very patriotic and promised to make America great again. President of the U.S. 1981-1989,"Great Communicator" Republican, played a major role in helping end the Cold War; known for his economic plan of "Trickle-Down Economics".
Persian Gulf War
(1990 - 1991) Conflict between Iraq and a coalition of countries led by the United States to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait which they had invaded in hopes of controlling their oil supply. A very one sided war with the United States' coalition with UN emerging victorious. War fought to liberate Kuwait from Saddam Hussein's Iraqi forces. We didn't act alone. The U.S. led the UN to remove Saddam Hussein from Kuwait to secure oil reserves in the Middle East during this conflict. after Iraq invaded Kuwait, the US invaded Iraq to liberate Kuwait; Iraq set Kuwait's oil fields on fire so the Americans couldn't gain the oil; this conflict caused the US to set military bases in Saudi Arabia; also called Operation: Desert Storm
Socialism
(Soviet Union; economic style) -government ownership of industry -created as a reaction to capitalism -goal is to bring economic equality to people -classless society, everyone's equal
Communism (Totalitarian)
(Soviet Union; political/government style; manipulation by Josef Stalin) -property owned by the state -no free enterprise -wealth distributed equally -no freedom of speech/press/business -classless society: everyone's equal -focus on the progress of the community as a whole
Capitalism (Democratic)
(United States; economic style; people) -property privately owned -driven by free enterprise (private business) -wealth distributed unevenly -freedom: speech, press, business -class distinctions -focus on the individual, there's competition
Medicare
(elderly) provided hospital insurance and low-cost medical insurance for almost every American age 65 or older
Medicaid
(poor) extended health insurance for people in poverty.
1950s
*Business expansion- contributed to baby boom and suburbanization *Suburban expansion (white flight from cities to suburbs)- most Americans worked in cities, but fewer and fewer lived there as more people moved to the suburbs. New highways and affordability of automobiles and gasoline made commuting possible. embodied the American dream. It was cheaper to live in the suburbs rather than city. *Population Growth: Baby Boom- causes were: reunion of husbands and wives, post war: decreasing marriage age, declarability of large families, advances of medicine, economic prosperity. occurred due to a dramatic postwar increase in annual birthrate (1946-1964). *Increase in use of automobile- gas was more plentiful and cheaper living in suburbs *Rise of Consumerism- new goods made and many purchased on credit spent. TV shows consisted of Middle Class American shows (suburban white people) only showed the rose color of America. Did not include: people of color, people who were struggling, and lower class Americans. Avoided poverty, racial conflicts, diversity, etc. Rock 'n Roll was in and Elvis Presley *white flight caused decaying cities, so they tried urban renewal, but it did not work because it lead to housing shortage.
President Eisenhower's Foreign Policies
-Arms race -Covert Operations and CIA: Eisenhower relied on CIA to help fight communism. CIA was formed in 1948 under the Truman Administration and spied on foreign countries. It also carried out *covert operations*, secret actions taken to weaken or overthrow governments unfriendly to the US. *Iran- 1953, Iran's popular leader nationalized oil industry, thus hurting Britain (America's ally), whose companies dominated the oil fields in Iran. Meaning Iran's government would control the entire oil industry in Iran. Eisenhower believed that Iran's leader was communist, so the CIA organized a revolt that put the pro-American Shah back in control of Iran. However, the Shah ended up being a dictator and was overthrown, but gave the US 40% of Iranian oil fields. *Guatemala- 1953, Guatemala's president wanted to ease poverty, so he took land away from the United Fruit Company that controlled 42% arable land, and redistributed it to poor Guatemalan farmers. CIA feared he was communist and hired an army that overthrew him. This hurt America's popularity in Latin America.
LBJ peace and out
-He offered to "stop the bombardment of North Vietnam" as long as the US and North Vietnam negotiated peace. -He didn't seek the Democratic nomination for president because he didn't want to take part in Partisan Politics, but wanted to pay full attention to his presidency during the Vietnam War. -anti-war activists wouldn't be happy with LBJ because he didn't declare an end to the war, just an end to hostilities.
Background to the Vietnam War
1. France controlled Indochina since late 19th century. Japan took control during WW2. With US aid, France attempted re-colonization in the postwar period. US supported France and gave economic aid for military purposes. 2. The French lost control to the Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh forces in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu. President Eisenhower declined to intervene on behalf of France. France surrenders 3. International Conference at Geneva: Vietnam was divided along the 17th parallel as a result of the Geneva Accords. HO CHI MINH (North) nationalist forces controlled the North; Ngo Dinh Diem, a French-educated, Roman Catholic claimed control of the South. 4. A date was set for democratic elections to REUNIFY VIETNAM. However, Diem backed out of the elections because he feared that the communists would win, leading to military conflict between North and South.
Foreign Policy After the Cold War
1. Soviet Union ~Gorbachev, Yeltsin, and Reagan. Signing of the INF Treaty and Salt II Treaties, the attempted coup with Gorbachev. Trends: glasnost and perestroika, nationalism in the Republics, democracy. 2. Poland ~Lech Walesa: pres of poland 1990-95 Non-communist Russian government, a new constitution, a free market economy. democracy and capitalism 3. Germany the opening of the Berlin Wall and reunification of Germany. democracy; economic restruction. 4. Yugoslavia break up of Yugoslavia; ethnic rivalry and civil war. Kosovo 5. China moved a little from communism but still communist economic reform; student marches; Tiananmen Square demonstrations (protests for democracy, including university students who demanded freedom of speech and a greater voice in government). Trends: economic liberalization 6. Nicaragua The Somozas (violent regime that US supported in Nicaragua), Ortega; Chamorro, Carter and Reagan -Reagan aid to Contras (he was not completely in on what was happening); secret IA; the Iran-Contra Scandal trends: democracy 7. Panama: Noriega and George H. W. Bush in the late 1980's President Bush sent more than 20,000 soldiers into Panama to overthrow and arrest corrupt leader General/ President of Panama Noriega on drug trafficking charges. Trying to stop drugs from coming into the US (war on drugs). 8. Iran Reagan, North, Bush (41); Lawrence, Walsh taking of hostages; Reagan's secret arms sales, the Iran-Contra Scandal. 9. Iraq Hussein, Schwarz Kopf (US Army General); H. W. Bush
The 1990s and the New Millenium
1.Bill Clinton becomes president 2.North American Free Trade Agreement takes effect (reduces or eliminates tariffs between budget standoff with Congress, Canada, US , and Mexico). 3. Terrorists destroy a federal office building in Oklahoma City. 4. Clinton is reelected 5. US impeaches Clinton (lying under oath, not removed from office) 6. The Senate acquits Clinton on his impeachment charges (public felt it did not affect his performance as US president) 7. NATO repels the Serb attack on Kosovo. 8. George W. Bush is elected as 43rd president of the US close race; disputed votes in Florida; Supreme Court rules.
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
1929-1968. Pivotal leader of the American Civil Rights movement. Non-violent leader, became youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his efforts to end segregation and racial discrimination. Led Montgomery Bus Boycott, helped found Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC leader), and led March on Washington in 1963 where he delivered "I Have a Dream" speech. King was an integrationist and wanted blacks and whites to work together. He protested with nonviolence and civil disobedience. Montgomery Improvement Association main type of pressure exerted to segregation on buses was ECONOMIC. example of his actions- a war protestor accepting a jail term rather than registering for the draft
G.I. Bill
1944- gave benefits to WW2 veterans including financial assistance for veterans wanting to go to college, buy a home, prefered treatment to veterans who wanted to apply for government jobs
Cold War
1945-1991, A conflict that was between the US and the Soviet Union, the two superpowers. The nations never directly confronted each other on the battlefield but deadly threats went on for years. The war dominated global affairs and the U.S. foreign policy from 1945 until the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. started immediately after WW2 because of some of the agreements in the Yalta/Potsdam Conference, the US gives in to some Soviet commands, and the US asks the USSR to stop the war in Asia (they don't do it). The conference created tension when the US and USSR could not agree over the future of Poland and Eastern Europe. escalated when USSR created a nuclear bomb in 1949.
National Security Act
1947; enacted to back up the Truman Doctrine; established the National Security Council to advise the president, established the Central Intelligence Agency to gather information abroad and engage in covert activities in support of the nation's security, began the processes of transforming the old War and Navy Depts into the Department of Defense, and combined the leadership of the army,navy, and air force under the Joint Chiefs of Staff; showed Truman's and Americans' fears of communist invasion after WWII
Korean War
1950-1953 countries: South vs. North UN Command North Korea South Korea China U.S. USSR Britain US supported South Korea because they were democratic, whereas North was communist. causes: -Korea had been a Japanese colony before WW2 -1945, Soviets occupied North Korea (Communist) up to the 38th parallel. -US success in WW2 leads to a confidence in foreign wars Cold War tensions: -1949 Communist take over China led by Mao Zedong -Popular opinion believes that the U.S. Department failed to prevent this -Korean War becomes a "test case for the containment policy" Korean War: June 1950 - North Korean forces cross into South Korea - U.N. gets involved (mostly U.S. troops) - Becomes a "police action", not a formal declaration of war - MacArthur becomes a commander of U.N. forces and gets permission to go into North Korea, hopefully to reunite North and South Korea & make peace. - China sees the U.N. in North Korea as a threat and Chinese troops attack on November 25, 1950. The U.N. forces are chased back south across the 38th parallel. - MacArthur wants to bomb China, Truman refuses. China comes as a direct aid to North Korea. At Home: - MacArthur publicly goes against Truman, undermining the President's power and the Commander in Chief's civilian control of the army - Truman dismisses MacArthur - Korean War dragged out and becomes unpopular - Truman decides not to run again and Republican WWII General Dwight D. Eisenhower wins the 1952 Presidential election Outcomes: - ceasefire ends fighting, July 1953 ~stalemate: situation where further action is blockaded; deadlock. ~armistice: temporary cessation of fighting by mutual consent; a truce. - communism is "contained" - predecessor to the war in Vietnam - Korea still divided along the 38th parallel
Ho Chi Minh
1950s and 60s; communist leader of North Vietnam; used guerilla warfare to fight anti-communist, American-funded attacks under the Truman Doctrine; brilliant strategy drew out war and made it unwinnable.
Malcolm X
1952; renamed himself X to signify the loss of his African heritage; converted to Nation of Islam in jail in the 50s, became Black Muslims' most dynamic street orator and recruiter; his beliefs were the basis of a lot of the Black Power movement built on separationist and nationalist impulses to achieve true independence and equality. Black nationalist and did not agree with integration. He believed that violence should be used when necessary, unlike MLK.
U-2 Incident
1953, Stalin died. Soviet's new leader Nikita Khrushchev believed that communism could triumph in peaceful means. Khrushchev and Eisenhower worked on peace agreements. Eisenhower wanted each country to fly freely over the other for spying purposes, however Khrushchev did not allow "open skies" over the USSR. Despite this, the US flew spy missions over USSR. CIA used U-2 spy planes that went up so high they could not be shot down, however May 1, 1960, a U-2 spy plane was shot down over the USSR. At the next meeting, Khrushchev believed peace was no longer possible. This incident hurt relations between USSR and US.
Domino Theory
1957 - It stated that if one country fell to Communism, it would undermine another and that one would fall, producing a domino effect.
Berlin Wall
1961-1989 (28 years) A fortified high barrier wall surrounding West Berlin, Germany, built in 1961 by the Soviet Union to prevent East German citizens from traveling to the West. to seal off their sector of Berlin in order to stop the flow of refugees out of the Soviet zone of Germany. Its demolition in 1989 symbolized the end of the Cold War. This wall was both a deterrent to individuals trying to escape and a symbol of repression to the free world. West Germany was occupied by US, Britain, France Fall of the Berlin Wall united Germany end to communism.
The Air War (1965-1968)
1965: Sustained bombing of North Vietnam Operation Rolling Thunder: Ongoing bombing of Hanoi nonstop for 3 years, esp. targeted the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Carpet bombing- Napalm
March from Selma to Montgomery
1965; civil rights march to bring attention to the need for a voting rights act. many peaceful demonstrators were injured and killed. televised violence helped more people to join the march. Goal- passage of the Voting Rights Act
Richard Nixon on Vietnam
1968 events affected presidential election... LBJ not running, violence, MLK assassination led to a weakened Democratic Party. Nixon won the election by a landslide. His 1968 campaign promised an end to the war: Peace with Honor. Appealed to the great "silent majority"
Kosovo
1990s; fall of USSR caused tensions between diverse ethnic groups in this region of Yugoslavia; war broke out and Clinton's diplomacy failed and he sent in troops; illustrated struggles America faced as the world superpower trying to keep peace. Serbs viewed this territory as their national identity, it came from their defeat in the Battle of Kosovo against the Ottoman Turks in 1389. Serbs refused to sign a treaty to give Kosovars more autonomy the NATO took action and made Serbian troops withdraw from Kosovo.
Bill Clinton
42nd President Democrat (1993-2001) War in Bosnia; NAFTA, campaign that emphasized broad economic issues instead of the racial and cultural questions that had divided Democrats in the past; was impeached/later aquitted due to the Monica Lewinski scandal and was later acquitted, cut spending; lowered taxes; decreased national debt
US Military Involvement Begins
5. Repressive dictatorial rule by Diem US aided Diem's government, financial and military aid; 675 US Army advisors sent by 1960. 6. Early protests of Diem's government: Self-Emolation (willing to die to protest) by a Buddhist monk. Kennedy elected in 1960 he increased military advisors to 16,000 1963: JKF supports a Vietnamese military coup d'etat (military take over) Diem and his brother are murdered (Nov. 2) JFK assassinated (Nov. 22) LBJ gets elected (1963-69). LBJ & escalation 7. Johnson sends ground forces (increase troops- actual soldiers who escalate the war). Remembers Truman's loss of China; Domino theory revived. Did not want Southeast Asia to fall into communism like how China did.
Lech Walesa
A Polish politician, a former trade union and human rights activist, and also a former electrician. He co-founded Solidarity, the Soviet bloc's first independent trade union, won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1983, and served as President of Poland from 1990 to 1995.
Black Panthers
A black political organization that was against peaceful protest and for violence if needed. The organization marked a shift in policy of the black movement, favoring militant ideals rather than peaceful protest.
Space Race
A competition of space exploration between the United States and Soviet Union. On October 4, 1957, Soviets launched Sputnik, first manmade satellite to orbit Earth. Causing Eisenhower to push Congress to create NASA and pass legislation that made schools focus more on math and science. On January 31, 1958, US launched its first satellite.
Vietcong
A group of Communist guerrillas who, with the help of North Vietnam, fought against the South Vietnamese government & US in the Vietnam War.
détente
A lessening of tensions between U.S. and Soviet Union (1971). Besides disarming missiles to insure a lasting peace between superpowers, Nixon pressed for trade relations and a limited military budget. The public did not approve. A new approach to foreign relations with communist nations that was introduced by Nixon for the purpose of using diplomacy rather that military intimidation to try to work out differences. when the two powers signed treaties limiting nuclear arms productions and opened up economic relations.
Ho Chi Minh Trail
A network of jungle paths winding from North Vietnam through Laos and Cambodia into South Vietnam, used as a military route by North Vietnam to supply the Vietcong during the Vietnam War.
civil disobedience
A nonviolent, public refusal to obey allegedly unjust laws and accept the consequences (such as going to jail).
Red Scare
A period during the Cold War where the American public was terrified of Communists and the spread of Communism.
conservative
A person who believes government power, particularly in the economy, should be limited in order to maximize individual freedom.
Vietnam War
A prolonged war (1954-1975) between the communist armies of North Vietnam who were supported by the Chinese & USSR and the non-communist armies of South Vietnam who were supported by the United States. The Vietnam war started as a result of U.S strategy of containment during the Cold War, which aimed to prevent the spread of communism throughout the world.
SALT I
A series of negotiations between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. on the issue of nuclear arms reduction. The talks helped lower the total number of missiles each side would have and eased the tension between the two. Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty led to the SALT II discussions and a slowdown of the arms race between the two countries (SALT II was not passed).
Crisis of Confidence/Malaise Speech
A speech by Jimmy Carter to Americans after he returned from a retreat with presidential advisors in which he listed all domestic and foreign problems in the US, admitted he didn't have solutions, and admitted that our greatest problem was the Americans' lack of confidence in themselves and American pride. Problem was stagflation and confidence was lost because of the Watergate scandal and people didn't trust the government anymore. Importance: This speech made Americans hate Carter because they expected him to come out of the retreat with a solution to the domestic and foreign problems. This hate led to him not being elected as president again. The speech helped fuel charges that the president was trying to blame his own problems on the American people.
tariff
A tax on imported goods
Vietnamization
A war policy in Vietnam initiated by Nixon in June of 1969. President Richard Nixon's strategy for ending U.S involvement in the Vietnam war, involving a gradual withdrawal of American troops and replacement of them with South Vietnamese forces. Trained South Vietnamese soldiers to defend themselves.
Gulf of Tonkin Incident & Resolution
Advised rout to the communists by Secretary of Defense, Robert S. McNamara. Incident- Alleged attack of US ships by North Vietnamese torpedoes in the Tonkin Gulf on August 4, 1964. Prompted the escalation of the War in Vietnam. The attacks were unprovoked. Resolution- "The Blank Check" allows Johnson to do whatever he needed without Congressional approval in reaction to this incident. allowed the U.S. to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack or prevent further aggression. More powers over military. Given the power to wage war without declaring war and without any checks or balances.
Medgar Evers
African American civil rights activist from Mississippi involved in efforts to overturn segregation at University of Mississippi. Killed by a white supremacist.
Little Rock Crisis
After the brown v board of education ruling, 9 black students were chosen to desegregate Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas. They were blocked by national guardsmen sent by Arkansas' governor. In response President Eisenhower sent in 1000 paratroopers to protect the students and force their entrance in 1957. The 9 students faced a lot of discrimination and violence.
Effects of the Vietnam War at Home
American Morale begins to dip -disproportionate representation of poor people and minorities in the war. those who were wealthy could pay themselves out of war to go to college, but poor had to go. Severe racial problems; major drug problems; officers in combat 6 months in rear, 6 months enlisted men in combat for 12 months. Anti-War demonstrations held -Kent State -Americans fled the country in order to escape military service. -most common opposition of war was that US had no business fighting in Vietnam's conflicts. -Women joined the war by volunteering in American Red Cross and United Service Organizations. -MLK did not support the war because African Americans were dying for a country that still treated them as second class citizens.
Difficulties US faced
Americans had an advantage over superior weapons, however... unfamiliar territory, hard to know friends vs enemies because they looked so similar, hard to move supplies to Vietnam, the rainy season.
Military strategies
Americans: -bombings, war of attrition, use of napalm and agent orange- chemical defoliant, prevented rural support of Vietcong Vietcong: -hit and run ambushes, booby traps and land mines, surprise attacks and guerrilla warfare.
Fannie Lou Hamer
An American voting rights activist and civil rights leader who became a field secretary of the SNCC which fought racial segregation and injustice in the South. She suffered brutal beatings by the police trying to register to vote. Founded MFDP.
Pentagon Papers
Anti-war former defense analyst Daniel Ellsberg leaked secret government documents and wanted to publish them in the New York Times, which revealed that the U.S. government had misled Americans about the Vietnam War. Revealed that the US expanded its war with the bombings in Laos and Cambodia, coastal raids on N. Vietnam, and Marine Corps attacked, none of which had been reported to the media. 4 administrations (Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson) had misled the public regarding their intentions. Supreme Court Case: NY Times v. US (1971) -government believed that publishing might impose grave danger to the security of the US. Threat to national security. Might lead to battlefield causalities and diplomatic difficulties, but they had no evidence that it would happen. -First Amendment discusses freedom of speech and the press, so the judges voted that he could publish. -each judge wrote their own opinion and they had to make a quick decision b/c they were going to publish soon. published in 1971.
Boycott of the 1980 summer olympics
As a result of the Afghanistan invasion in 1979, an American boycott was declared against the 1980 summer Olympics held in Moscow.
Reagan Ends Cold War
Bluffing and increased military spending, cutting taxes and social programs. Arms Race, so USSR wanted to increase its military spending but they didn't have the money or a good economy. Resulted in end of USSR. However, George H. W. Bush is given credit for the end of cold war.
How did the leaders in government respond to the threat of communism at home in the US?
By setting up HUAC and the Loyalty Program. McCarthy accused people of communism and sent FBI to investigate.
Commonwealth of Independent States
Confederacy of independent states of the former Soviet Union that have united because of their common economic and administrative needs.
Immigration Changes
Congress passed the Immigration Act of 1990 to revamp the legal immigration system and admit a greater share of highly-skilled and educated immigrants. It raised legal immigration caps, modified the temporary nonimmigrant visa system, and revised the grounds of inadmissibility and deportation. The law also established Temporary Protected Status (TPS), creating a statutory footing for permission to live and work in the United States to nationals of countries deemed unsafe for return because of armed conflict or natural disaster. Illegal immigration became an issue. Subsequently, Congress returned to shoring up legal immigration measures in 2000 by enacting the American Competitiveness in the Twenty-First Century Act to meet demand for skilled immigrants—especially in science, math, and engineering specialties—and enable employers to fill technology jobs that are a critical dimension of the post-industrial, information age economy.
Castro, Cuba, and the US (1959-2008)
Cuba earlier on was an economic asset, Cuba's land and industry was almost all owned by American corporations. Castro ordered nationalization of all US business and commercial properties in Cuba. In retaliation, Eisenhower imposed an embargo on sugar. Due to the Bay of Pigs and attack of CIA, Castro turned to USSR for help, US and Cuban relations destroyed. JFK promised to not have an intervention in Cuba
Presidents During Cold War
Early Cold War (1945-1962): - Truman (1945-53) - Eisenhower (1953-61) - Kennedy (1961-63) assassinated Mid-End Cold War (1964-1991): - Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-69) - Nixon (1969-1974) - Ford (1974-1977 ) - Carter (1977-1981) - Reagan (1981-1989) After Cold War to 2010s: - George H. W. Bush - Bill Clinton - George W. Bush - Obama
Truman 1948 Executive Order
Executive Order No. 9981 issued by President Truman provided for "equality of treatment and opportunity in the armed forces without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin." This was the first time that a president used an executive order to implement civil rights principles and was a major victory for civil rights advocates in the quest for full citizenship. Despite these orders, full integration of African Americans in the armed services was carried out slowly. It was not until the end of the Korean conflict that full integration of the armed forces had been achieved.
Clinton's impeachment
Failed health care plan, questioning of leadership, improperly using money to fund election, affair with intern (Lewinski). lying under oath
Bay of Pigs Invasion
Failed invasion of Cuba -April 1961, CIA launched a full scale invasion of Cuba by 1,400 Cubans who had fled their homes when Castro took power. The invasion did not go well. Invaders were badly out-numbered by Castro's troops, and surrendered after less than 24 hours. Results: Invaders killed/jailed, Kennedy embarrassed, public relations triumph for Castro, ransom paid for release of invaders.
Hillary Clinton
First Lady from 1992-2000; maintained a significant career as First Lady; attacked by conservatives and anti-feminists; took leading role in government affairs; promoted equality of sexes (women and children's rights).
Boris Yeltsin
First leader of the Russian Republic. His pro-democracy reaction when Gorbachev's push for reform was held off by the Communist establishment was a rallying point for Russian democratic supporters. President of the Russian Republic in 1991. Helped end the USSR and force Gorbachev to resign.
SCLC
Formed in 1957. Southern Christian Leadership Conference, churches link together to inform blacks about changes in the Civil Rights Movement, led by MLK Jr., was a success. purpose- to carry on nonviolent crusades against evils of 2nd class citizens.
NASA
Founded in 1958 to compete with Russia's space program. It gained prestige and power with Kennedy's charge to reach the moon by the end of the 1960s.
War Powers Act 1973
Gave any president the power to go to war under certain circumstances, but required that he could only do so for 90 days before being required to officially bring the matter before Congress. President must notify Congress within 48 hours of mobilizing troops. Cannot be there for more than 60 days.
who was president during fall of Berlin wall?
George H. W. Bush
Newt Gingrich
Gingrich was the Republican speaker in the House. He pushed for more conservative legislation during Clinton's presidency. led the "Contract with America" and eventually became the Speaker of the House; he and Clinton battled many times while he demanded tax cuts and a balancing of the budget Public opinion turned against him in 1995/96 when he and other republican leaders caused government to shut down because they refused to pass a continuing resolution during budget debates to put pressure on the president
freedom riders
Group of civil rights workers who took bus trips through southern states in 1961 to protest illegal bus segregation. Kennedy sent US Marshals to support them and issued an order banning segregation in all interstate travel facilities.
Nikita Khrushchev
He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, following the death of Joseph Stalin, and Chairman of the Council of Ministers from 1958 to 1964. He was responsible for the De-Stalinization of the USSR, as well as several liberal reforms ranging from agriculture to foreign policy. Aggressive Soviet leader whose failed gamble of putting missiles in Cuba cost him his job.
Mikhail Gorbachev
Head of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. His liberalization effort improved relations with the West, but he lost power after his reforms led to the collapse of Communist governments in eastern Europe. Soviet statesman whose foreign policy brought an end to the Cold War and whose domestic policy introduced major reforms. saw improved relations with Reagan, instituted glasnost and perestroika which helped lead to the downfall of the Soviet Union.
Napalm
Highly flammable chemical dropped from US planes in firebombing attacks during the Vietnam War. Appears that water is on fire.
HUAC, Loyalty Program
House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) -Committee in Congress set up in 1938 -investigate disloyalty (started b/c of WW2) Loyalty Program -setup during Truman administration (1947) -federal employees face background checks -Loyalty Review Board
The Fall of Communism
Hungary: Hungarian soldiers pull down the fence on their border with Austria; East German immigrants flood into the country and escape over the border into Austria. Poland: holds free elections Czechoslovakia: President Husak resigns and a mainly non-Communist government takes power. Romania: protestors overthrow Romanian government Germany: Reagan gives speech to Gorbachev to tear down Berlin Wall Nov. 1989- East and West Germany reunified from Berlin Wall tearing down. Russia: Russia holds free elections because Gorbachev is pro-democracy Communist hard-liners institute a coup in Russia and hold President Gorbachev under house arrest; Boris Yeltsin organizes thousands to resist the coup in Moscow, USSR collapses
Effects of 9/11
Immigration laws became very strict Laws that followed include the Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act of 2002 (EBSVERA), which tightened visa screening, border inspections, and tracking of foreign-born persons, including foreign students, particularly through broad use of biometric fingerprint records. It also served as an impetus to create the US-VISIT program, as the bill mandated information-sharing systems that made national security data available to immigration officers responsible for issuing visas, making removal or admissions decisions, and for investigations and identification of non-citizens. With the goal of strengthening border security, the Bush Administration created the Department of Homeland Security in 2002, a cabinet-level office that merged 22 government agencies. Immigration and Naturalization Service and the US Customs Service — both formerly part of the Department of Justice — were consolidated into the newly formed U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). The agency has overseen a massive increase in deportations, which have nearly doubled since 9/11.
Iran Hostage Crisis
In November 1979, revolutionaries stormed the American embassy in Tehran and held 52 Americans hostage. The Carter administration tried unsuccessfully to negotiate for the hostages release. On January 20, 1981, the day Carter left office, Iran released the Americans, ending their 444 days in captivity. almost all of the situation occurred under Carter's presidency, but due to the Iranian dislike of Carter, Iran waited until hours after Reagan was elected to release the hostages. This happened because an Islamic fundamentalist government, led by Ayatollah Khomeini had come to power. Khomeini was bitterly anti-American. The US let the Shah, who had just been deposed after a long rule over Iran, into New York for medical treatment. So they wanted to get back at the US and the Shah by holding Americans hostage. The hostages were released when President Carter finally secured a deal, through Switzerland and Algeria, to unfreeze Iran's assets in the US in exchange for the hostages' release. affected the mood of the US
SDI
In the Reagan Administration Strategic Defense Initiative (nicknamed Star Wars) It would detect any nuclear missile that the USSR sent off. Reagan's proposed Strategic Defense Initiative (1983), also known as "Star Wars," called for a land- or space-based shield against a nuclear attack. Although SDI was criticized as unfeasible and in violation of the Antiballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, Congress approved billions of dollars for development.
Iron Curtain
It formed the imaginary boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas, splitting Western democracies from Eastern Communists. The term was used by Churchill and symbolized efforts by the USSR to block itself and its satellite nations from contact with the West. Affected US foreign policy by causing an increased aggression towards the USSR.
Warsaw Pact
It was a collective defense treaty among the USSR and seven other satellite nations in Eastern Europe. The Soviets saw NATO as a threat and reacted by creating their own alliance, so that if they were attacked by the West, the alliance would come to their defense. Goals: to protect Eastern Europe and communism.
Robert McNamara
JFK's Secretary of Defense during the Vietnam War. He left Johnson administration to head the World Bank. He lead the Ford Motor Company and reformed the Defense Department. He came to believe that fighting the war was a mistake because the war could not be won.
Tet Offensive
January 1968 1968; North Vietnamese & Viet Cong launched an attack; US and ARVN beat back the offensive; major defeat for communism, Vietcong destroyed and N. Vietnamese Army debilitated, but Americans reacted sharply, more anti-war sentiment. Impact: Domestic US reaction: disbelief, anger, distrust of Johnson administration. Hey Hey LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?
Cuban Missile Crisis
July 1962- Soviet ships sailed missiles into Cuba in order to defend Cuba from attack and knock out air/naval bases. US- 1st option- airstrike of missile sites *Ultimate Decision- massive American invasion force ready. *A blockade (quarantine) was put in force to prevent further Soviet shipments of missiles. US was ready to sink any Cuban ship. USSR- Khrushchev was not willing to back down. Ordered general mobilization. After U-2 was shot down, JFK chose not to bomb missile sites and make peace. **Settlement/Results: -Soviets had to back down and withdraw missiles from Cuba -US agreed to not invade Cuba and (secretly) remove missiles in Turkey.
Election of 1960
Kennedy v. Nixon Nixon hoped to win by riding coattails of Eisenhower and he was more experienced. Kennedy was better because he was pro-Civil Rights and looked/acted/spoke better on TV. However, he was said to be young or inexperienced. When MLK was arrested he called his wife to persuade judge to release MLK on bail, which then caused him an increase in AA voters. Kennedy won.
Civil War in China
Leader Communists: Mao Zedong -US supported nationalists -US played peacemaker between two groups, but failed to negotiate peace. sent 2$ billion worth of military equipment and supplies. US failed to influence these forces. -After more than 20 years of struggle, the Communists ruled all of mainland China. They established a new gov't, the People's Republic of China, which US refused to accept China's true government. -US was stunned that China became communists. State Department believed that they failed to influence forces. Trying to do more would only have created a war in Asia, which US was not prepared to fight. China fell to communism in 1949.
Fidel Castro
Led a Cuban Revolution (1953-1959). Cuban socialist leader who overthrew a dictator in 1959 and established a Marxist socialist state in Cuba.
Freedom Summer Project
Led by Robert Moses in Mississippi by campaigning to register AA voters, it hoped to attract national attention and influence Congress to pass a voting rights act. volunteers- thousands of students- mostly white and 1/3 female went into Miss. to help register voters. Goal- passage of the Voting Rights Act
Thurgood Marshall
NAACP Attorney, American civil rights lawyer, later first black justice on the Supreme Court of the United States. Marshall was a tireless advocate for the rights of minorities and the poor. Argued the case of Brown v Board of Education.
NAACP
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded in 1909 to abolish segregation and discrimination, to oppose racism and to gain civil rights for African Americans, got Supreme Court to declare grandfather clause unconstitutional mainly through court cases (behind the Brown v. Board of Education case)
President Nixon Resigns
Nixon covered up the burglary at Democratic Party Headquarters & the Watergate Scandal and bribed people to cover it up, which was against the law. He was being pressured and decided to resign since the House was going to impeach him and he would have gone to jail.
Nixon Administration
Nixon's new federalism: enhanced/hurt social programs by... -increasing social security, medicare and medicaid payments -food stamps more accessible -vetoed a bill to provide more funding for Housing Urban Development -impoundment of funds Nixon's Southern Strategy: -tried to appeal to their unhappiness with federal desegregation policies. -promised to appoint a Southerner to the Supreme Court. Nixon hindered the civil rights movement... -delayed desegregation plans and to stop busing -opposed extension of the Voting Rights Act Steps Against Stagflation: -raising of interest rates, froze wages and prices; helped with inflation but moved US into a mild recession. Realpolitik: Nixon traveled to Communist China and USSR for diplomatic negotiations to put realpolitik in action.
NAFTA
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a pact that unites Canada, Mexico, and the United States in one of the world's largest free-trade zones. It builds on a free-trade agreement between the United States and Canada that became effective in 1989 (during Clinton's presidency) A trade agreement between Canada, the United States and Mexico that encourages free trade between these North American countries.
Eisenhower and the Highway System
On June 29, 1956, President Dwight Eisenhower signed the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956. The bill created a 41,000-mile "National System of Interstate and Defense Highways" that would, according to Eisenhower, *eliminate unsafe roads, inefficient routes, traffic jams and all of the other things that got in the way of "speedy, safe transcontinental travel." At the same time, highway advocates argued, "in case of atomic attack on our key cities, the road net [would] permit quick evacuation of target areas." For all of these reasons, the 1956 law declared that the construction of an elaborate expressway system was "essential to the national interest."
Lee Harvey Oswald
On November 22, 1963, he assassinated President Kennedy who was riding downtown Dallas, Texas. Oswald was later shot in front of television cameras by Jack Ruby. The Warren Commission was the group responsible for investigating JKF's assassination, and they decided that Lee Harvey Oswald was working alone.
US action in Persian Gulf War
Operation where U.S. troops invaded Iraq and Saddam's forces collapsed almost immediately. Baghdad fell, and Saddam and other Iraqi leaders went into hiding. In the months that followed Saddam and many of his supporters were captured. They were trying to protect access to the Persian Gulf
The Ceasefire, 1973
Peace is at hand - Kissinger (Sec. of State) North Vietnam attacks South; most massive US bombing commences Ceasefire signed between US, South Vietnam, and North Vietnam. Peace with honor (Pres. Nixon) Peace Negotiations, US and Vietnamese argue for 5 months over the size of the conference table. Conditions: 1. US remove all troops 2. North Vietnam could leave troops already in South Vietnam 3. North Vietnam would resume war 4. No provisions for POWs or MIAs. American troops leave. in 1975 North Vietnam defeats South, Saigon renamed Ho Chi Minh City Costs: 3,000,000 Vietnamese killed 58,000 Americans killed Under funding of Great Society programs 150000000000 in US spending US morale, self-confidence, trust of gov't decimated Impact: 26th amendment: 18-year-olds can vote Nixon abolished the draft of all volunteer army War Powers Act Disregard for veterans seen as baby killers Lessons for future: 1. wars must be short duration 2. wars must yield few American casualties 3. restrict media access to battlefields 4. develop and maintain Congressional and public support 5. set clear, winnable goals 6. set deadline for troop withdrawals.
Clinton's 1966 Campaign
President Clinton's chances of winning were initially considered slim in the middle of his term as his party had lost both the House and the Senate in 1994 for the first time in decades; he had reneged on promises to cut taxes in order to reduce the deficit, enacted a Federal assault weapons ban, and had a failed healthcare reform initiative. He was able to regain ground as the economy began to recover from the early 1990s recession with a relatively stable world stage. economic recession and youth vote helps Clinton get elected. 1966- Clinton signed a bill that reformed welfare by ending a 61 year guarantee of federal aid to the poor.
Jimmy Carter
President after Ford from 1977-1981; Democrat; signed SALT II, relinquished US control of the Panama Canal, Camp David Accords-negotiated peace between Israel and Egypt; chemical contamination emergency in Love Canal; final part of term marred by Iran Hostage Crisis. he was able to win the presidency because he was outside of Washington and the country was in a recession & economy wasn't doing well.
INF Treaty
Reagan and Gorbachev signed this treaty, which provided for the dismantling of all intermediate range nuclear weapons in Russia and all of Europe. Considered by some to be Reagan's single most important piece of foreign policy.
Glasnost & Perestroika
Refers to the Soviet Union's policies of "Openness" and "Restructuring" under Premier Mikhail Gorbachev. Economic reforms. Signified the end of the decades-old Iron Curtain Soviet system. called for lesser government control of economy the 2 policies pushed by Gorbachev. 1). meaning openness- aimed to gradually end secretive Soviet society by introducing free speech and some political liberty. 2). meaning restructuring- intended to revive Soviet economy by adopting many free-market practices, i.e. profit motives and end to subsidized prices.
24th Amendment (1964)
Right to Vote in Federal Elections----Tax Payment; Outlawed the payment of a tax as a condition for taking part in elections. Eliminated poll taxes.
Iran-Contra Affair/Scandal
Scandal during Reagan presidency in which the US arranged to secretly sell arms to Iran and use the profits to find and support the Contras in Nicaragua. in order to secure the release of American prisoners as well as to fund the Contras in Nicaragua. scandal that erupted after the Reagan administration sold weapons to Iran in hopes of freeing American hostages in Lebanon; money from the arms sales was used to aid the Contras (anti-Communist insurgents) in Nicaragua, even though Congress had prohibited this assistance. Talk of Reagan's impeachment ended when presidential aides took the blame for the illegal activity.
Camp David Accords
Secret meeting between presidents of Egypt and Israel, which is significant because they were at war and they actually decided to meet each other. However, Egyptians were mad because they didn't get to vote and Muslims were angry due to their peace treaty. (1978) were negotiated at the presidential retreat of Camp David by Egypt's Anwar Sadat and Israel Menachem Begin; they were brokered by U.S. President Jimmy Carter. They led to a peace treaty the next year that returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, guaranteed Israeli access to the Red Sea and Suez Canal, and more-or-less normalized diplomatic and economic relations between the two countries. This isolated Egypt from the other Arab countries and led to Sadat's assassination in 1981. The first signed agreement between Israel and an Arab country, in which Egyptian president Anwar Sadat recognized Israel as a legitimate state and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin agreed to return the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt.
Brown v B.O.E. 1954
Separate is not equal for education. 1954 Case was that Brown's children had to attend an all black public school very far from their home when there was an all white school close by. They believed it was unfair. Also, they believed that black schools were not given the same quality resources and advantages in the classroom than white schools. The Supreme Court ruled that school segregation is unconstitutional and violation of the 14th amendment equal protection clause. Court established "separate but equal" doctrine in 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling, but this decision reversed it. Court declared that now, "separate but equal" has no place in public education. Segregation created a feeling of inferiority among AA. Supreme Court has helped determine public policy.
Lawrence, Walsh
Special prosecutor for the Iran -contra scandal. Indicted various members of the Reagan administration who were involved.
SNCC
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. one of the principal organizations of the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. It emerged from a series of student meetings led by Ella Baker in 1960. SNCC grew into a large organization with many supporters in the North who helped raise funds to support SNCC's work in the South. It played a major role in the sit-ins and freedom rides, a leading role in the 1963 March on Washington, the Freedom Summer, and the MFDP. Formed to give young people more of a voice in the movement. Baker was concerned that SCLC was out of touch with young blacks and was not working fast enough. They desegregated lunch counters, by enduring arrests and beatings. Had sit-ins. Picketed outside of chain stores with segregated lunch counters. Used nonviolence to protest equal rights.
Spies for the Soviets
The Hollywood 10: accused of disloyalty; being communists effect- refused to answer questions of HUAC, so they were imprisoned and blacklisted; careers and reputations were destroyed. Alger Hiss: accused of spying for USSR effect- jury convicted him of perjury- for lying about passing documents- and sent him to jail. Ethel and Julius Rosenburg: found guilty of espionage (spying for USSR) effect- sentenced to death. lied about being communists.
OPEC & America's Petroleum Dependence
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries that placed an embargo on oil sold to Israel's supporters. Caused worldwide oil shortage and long lines at gas stations in the US. The supply of fuel in the US immediately declined, the nation fell into recession, companies decreased investment and employment inflation skyrocketed 1973- Yom Kippur War broke out with Israel against Egypt and Syria. US sent military aid to Israel and Opec cut off the US oil sales and when they resumed selling to the US in 1974 prices quadrupled and only worsened stagflation (high inflation&high unemployment) Placed an embargo on oil, so oil prices rose and the country went into a recession.
Executive Privilege
The President's self-declared power to keep executive communications confidential, especially if they relate to national security. Informal amendment to Constitution (by tradition). Can lead to conflict with other branches (Watergate). The right of the president to withhold info from Congress/ refuse to testify; limited by U.S. v. Nixon. He refused to give the recordings to the Supreme Court. Presidential Election of 1972- Nixon gets reelected and wins by a landslide. he never needed to do the scandal to win. the silent majority votes for him.
2000 Election
The Supreme Court ended the tightly-contested presidential election of 2000 by prohibiting any further recounts. a candidate can win the election without a majority of the popular vote. Bush v. Gore, very controversial-Bush won (lost popular vote, won electoral vote)
Pardon of Nixon
The pardon of Richard Nixon, which occurred in 1974, was US history's most significant presidential pardon. Given by Gerald Ford, the President at that point in time, the pardon of Richard Nixon removed all punishment towards Richard Nixon as a result of Nixon's attempt to steal information from the Democratic Party at Watergate. Richard Nixon resigned before he was impeached as a result of the Watergate incident, although he did not have to serve any time in prison as a result of this pardon. This is significant as this was the first and only pardon of a presidential impeachment. Nixon had to appoint Ford as VP earlier because his original VP stole money.
McCarthyism
The term associated with Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin who led the search for communists in America during the early 1950s through his leadership in the House Un-American Activities Committee. McCarthy was a greater threat to the nation than Communist sympathizers were *The practice of making accusations of treason without evidence. -He investigated suspected communists (1950-54) due to the Red Scare. -Used smear tactics: unfair political attack on opposing candidate in order to undermine their political position and sway the opinions of the voters and gain support. used this in order to raise doubts and ruin reputations. -someone even opposing McCarthy's tactics was then accused of being a communist -McCarthy was noted for making claims that a large number of communists worked in the US federal government. -He was considered a fraud because he had little evidence and made up some information. -Blacklisted people -He succeeded at first because he took advantage of communist concerns. Republicans believed that they could win the 1952 election if the public Southern purging US of communists, so they didn't stop McCarthy's attacks. -McCarthy Hearings were compared to the Salem Witch Trials. -Tyding lost election because McCarthy said he was soft on Communism. Falling Out of Favor: -McCarthy fell out of favor because he began making accusations of the US army, which resulted in a nationally televised Senate investigation. Senate condemned him for improper conduct that brought dishonor. -He was asked to lessen his hearings because he began to attack his own party and the White House. -Due to seeing McCarthy on TV, public opinion changed greatly because they saw him using smear tactics.
Civil Rights Act 1964
This act made racial, religious, and sex discrimination by employers illegal and gave the government the power to enforce all laws governing civil rights, including desegregation of schools and public places. Banned discrimination in public accommodations, prohibited discrimination in any federally assisted program, outlawed discrimination in most employment; enlarged federal powers to protect voting rights and to speed school desegregation; this and the voting rights act helped to give African-Americans equality on paper, and more federally-protected power so that social equality was a more realistic goal.
Patriot Act
This law passed during G. W. Bush's presidency after 9/11 expanded the tools used to fight terrorism and improved communication between law enforcement and intelligence agencies Increased the lack of privacy in the US the Bush administration enacted this act, which expanded the government's ability to monitor the activities of Americans & conduct investigations of suspected terrorists
Brinkmanship
US must be prepared to use all of its nuclear weapons against an aggressor. The goal was to intimidate other countries to do what the US wanted and to avoid nuclear annihilation. Since USSR also had nuclear weapons, this led to *Mutual Assured Destruction*- belief that if the US used its nuclear weapons then the USSR would use theirs; both sides would destroy one another. In response to MAD- government created duck and cover videos and encouraged people to build their own fall out shelters.
Vietminh
Vietnamese revolutionary organization started by Ho Chi Minh in 1941, that led the struggle for Vietnamese independence from France. Japan forced out of Vietnam in 1945
Watergate Scandal
Water Gate Hotel summer of 1972 Nixon hired people to bug the DNC (Democratic National Committee Headquarters) to make sure he would win the reelection. a political scandal involving what House of Judiciary Committee charged with abuse of power, bribery, obstruction of justice, and contempt of Congress. It was a failed attempt and later on lead to his resignation. March 1973- Burglars implicated the White House June 1973- Butterfield revealed that all conversations in the oval office were recorded. October 1973- Saturday Night Massacre (The night in which several of Nixon's top officials were fired due to the scandal) July 1974- Supreme Court says that Nixon must turn over the tapes. He gives the transcripts as a distraction but they still wanted the tapes. Nixon paid people to cover up illegal activities. He eventually gave in the tapes. but said it was for national security. There was 18 mins missing. August 1974- Nixon resigned the presidency right before being impeached.
Satellite Nation
a country that is formally independent, but under heavy political and economical influence or control by another country. ex. Nations in Eastern Europe that were dominated by the Soviet Union, which acted as buffer zones against attacks. ~Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, East Germany, Romania, and Bulgaria.
Blacklisted
a list where people were denied from work To be labeled a troublemaker and unable to get a job; to have one's name of the owner's "do not hire" list.
affirmative action programs
a plan designed to increase the number of minority employees at all levels within an organization. special efforts to hire minorities.
Gains of Black Power and Civil Rights Movement
a) increased pride and awareness of racial identity b) passage of civil rights laws ending legal segregation c) significant increases in black voters and elected officials d) growth of affirmative action programs
doves
advocated U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam
Collective Security
agreement by a group of nations to defend the other in case of an attack on any member. they act as one to preserve the peace of all.
Economic Opportunities Act 1964
aided in war of poverty, funded youth programs, anti-poverty measures, small business loans and job training. Job Corps and Project Head Start. pull factor leading to immigration to US
United Nations
an international organization formed in 1945 to increase political and economic cooperation among member countries. The organization works on economic and social development programs, improving human rights and reducing global conflicts. countries come together to work out problems in order to prevent another world war.
The Boland Amendment
banned military aid to Nicaragua for 2 years.
Somozas
came to power in Nicaragua in 1937 and with US support went unopposed until 1979 when the Sandinistas launched guerilla attacks on the dictatorship and seized the poverty stricken nation; the US feared another communist nation and ended them
Berlin Airlift
cause: Soviets blockaded Berlin for almost a year, blocking the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western control. effect: The U.S. and Britain began to supply West Berlin with food and other supplies by air. The U.S. also joined 10 other nations in NATO.
Truman Doctrine
cause: Stalin broke his promises from the Yalta and Potsdam Conference by refusing free elections in Eastern Europe, installing governments dominated by the USSR, and abusing the buffer zones by spreading communism. Stalin kept communism in power outside USSR by refusing free elections. effect: the doctrine itself *The U.S. policy declared by Pres. Truman in 1947 that the US would support by providing economic and military aid to free nations threatened by internal/external opponents. Significance- essential in keeping Soviet-influence from spreading and greatly reduced the danger of communist takeover in Turkey and Greece.
Marshall Plan
causes: - Communism spreading - Soviet aggression in Czechoslovakia effect: marshall plan *The program presented by Secretary of State Marshall in 1947, under which the U.S. would supply economic aid to Western European nations to help them rebuild after WW2. Created in an attempt to draw them closer politically, so that they would support capitalism and U.S. would support any anti-communist regime. Significance- it revived European hopes, caused Western Europe to flourish (due to money given by US), and caused Communist Party to lose much of its appeal to voters. More aid was given to France and U.K. b/c they were allies earlier in WW2 and they despised Communism. It also was beneficial to American economy. ~Soviets opposed this plan because they didn't want to remove their trade barriers and didn't want to stop their domination and spread of communism.
George W. Bush
closest election in US history 43rd president of the US who began a campaign toward energy self-sufficiency and against terrorism in 2001 ill prepared for office. Used republican control of congress to pass major tax cuts (by 1 vote both times). Became increasingly conservative.
Fall of Berlin Wall
communism failed as a government. The berlin wall fell around the 1980s but people say that communism started to crumble around the late 1970s, and Russia just could not keep up its power in other countries like it use to. This event in 1989 marked the symbolic end of the Cold War and was the beginning of the collapse of communism in eastern Europe. Reagan gave a divisive speech, challenging Gorbachev to go through with his reforms and tear down the wall. Gorbachev then did and reunified East and West Germany.
Arms Race
competition between US and USSR to have the best armed forces. 1949, USSR made its first atomic bomb, and US wanted to make an even more powerful weapon. USSR made a Hydrogen bomb and the competition continued. Eisenhower created a policy in reaction to arms race called Brinkmanship.
Arab-Israeli Conflict
complex argument between many different groups of people in Palestine (Israel, parts of Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria); argument over international boundaries, human rights, resources, religion, diplomatic relationships, national security, and colonization. US supported Israel, which angered Arabs.
LBJ's Great Society
conservative backlash (war on poverty) reduce poverty, racial injustices, promote better quality of life, improved arts and education. combat illiteracy, unemployment, and disease. aiding those in poverty by providing health insurance and financial aid through Medicare Act and Economic Opportunities Act. His focus was on cities, countrysides, and classrooms. cities- urban renewal, building more highways, homes, and facilities countrysides- taking care of pollution and global warming classrooms- education should be taken seriously. Project Head Start: a federal program designed to improve education under privileged preschoolers. people against Great Society: conservatives, racist groups, wealthy people
More about George H. W. Bush
credited end of cold war, fall of Berlin wall continued to work with Gorbachev after Reagan to achieve peace most difficult test (persian gulf war): Hussein invading Kuwait great foreign policy president After war H. W. Bush's votes increased, however he raised taxes and betrayed people trust
Cold War results
disappearance of communism in Eastern Europe, end of Soviet Union, radical shift of power relations, Berlin Wall torn down.
Ortega
elected president of Nicaragua in 1984 the leader of the opposition to the Contras, the Scandanistas.
Voting Rights Act 1965
eliminated literacy tests and stated that federal examiners could enroll voters denied suffrage by local official. prohibited racial discrimination in voting. black percentage rose by 10%.
hawks
favored strong military force in Vietnam
James Meredith
first AA student to attend University of Mississippi he integrated the school.
NATO
formed by Western European countries and the US as a military protective pact against the USSR and the Eastern countries of Europe. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was founded by the U.S., Canada, and several other Western European nations to provide collective security against the Soviet Union. It was formed so that if they were invaded by the Soviets, the alliance would come to their defense. It was also a way to say USSR keep out and divide themselves from the communism (threat). NATO meant that US could have military presence across Europe, which would allow for easier defense against a Soviet attack. Goals: safeguard Allies' freedom and security from Soviets. most Western European nations joined because they wanted the protection.
Gorbachev coup
group attempting to have Gorbachev resign; beginning of the fall of the Soviet Union and the Cold War coming to an end; group did manage to put Gorbachev under house arrest and demand that he resign from leadership of the Soviet Union; US did nothing to help Gorbachev.
Kent State
in KS University where National Guardsmen opened fire on students protesting against the Vietnam War on May 4,1970, wounding nine and killing four.
mass consumption & effect of advertising
increased of good bought, increased advertising
March on Washington
more than 250, 000 (75,000 Whites) Americans political rally for Civil Rights of African Americans. *Goal- persuade Congress to pass Kennedy's Civil Rights Bill.* took place in Washington, D.C. on August 28, 1963. Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his historic "I Have a Dream" speech advocating racial harmony at the Lincoln Memorial during the march. Widely credited as helping lead to the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965).
Immigration Act of 1965
opened doors to non-European immigrants. ended quotas based on nationality.
Stagflation
persistent high inflation (increased price, decreased value of money) combined with high unemployment and stagnant demand in a country's economy.
Black Power Movement
political movement to achieve a form of Black Power. It saw various forms of activism, where some were violent and some peaceful, all hoping to achieve black empowerment. They used violence when necessary. In 1966, MLK and SCLC was losing influence because they weren't very effective. Stokely Carmichael organizer of SNCC later became a Black Panther and replaced Freedom Now to Black Power. He said 6 years was too long with the slow nonviolent actions of MLK. He urged AA to not adopt white ways, but build their own culture. influence of Malcolm X ---> Stokely Carmichael & more militant SNCC ---. Black Panthers: Huey Newton, Bobby Seale, Eldridge Cleaver.
integration
process of bringing people of different races together.
de facto segregation
racial segregation by custom and tradition, practice ex. -Whites/Blacks voluntarily segregating themselves. -"White flight" Under De Facto Segregation. The federal government demanded that the state of MA would desegregate their schools. Black children and white children attended the same public schools. As a result, white parents enrolled their children in public schools or simply moved out of the city and into the suburbs. It is not 70-90% minority students who attend that school after the white people moved out. -a concentration of urban African Americans in slum areas
de jure segregation
racial separation established by law ex. Jim Crow Laws
realpolitik
realistic policies based on the needs of the state, it replaced containment during Nixon's presidency. payed more attention to powerful countries. It eased Cold War tensions with a more flexible approach.
segregation
separation of people based on racial, ethnic, or other differences.
SALT Treaties
strategic arms limitation talks treaty, suspended the building of nuclear weapons and put all sorts of limits on nuclear warfare, but both nations had a ridiculous amount of weapons.
POWS
surrendered Vietnam war soldiers
Containment
the blocking of another nation's attempt to spread its influence--esp. the efforts of the U.S. to block the spread of Soviet influence during the late 1940s-early 1950s. The spread of communism led to extreme fear in the U.S. and the government wanted to take actions toward stopping the spread. essential element of the policy was to hold communism within the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.
opportunity cost
the cost of an alternative that must be forgone in order to pursue a certain action. Put another way, the benefits you could have received by taking an alternative action. what a person sacrifices when choosing an alternative option. ex. The opportunity cost of going to college is the money you would have earned if you worked instead. On the one hand, you lose four years of salary while getting your degree; on the other hand, you hope to earn more during your career, thanks to your education, to offset the lost wages.
busing
the integration of white and black schools
Legacy of Watergate
the public and media developed a more cynical view of politicians. many people lost their trust in government.
George H. W. Bush
was the 42nd president of the United States, previously being Ronald Reagan's vice-president. His policies and ideals derived heavily from his predecessor and were built on them. He was a well-to-do oil tycoon before devoting himself to the public. He served as a congressman, emissary to China, ambassador to the UN, director of the CIA, and vice president before becoming president.