USA Biology Olympiad Practice

Refractory Period

"Downtime" after action potential when a second action potential cannot be initiated

growth factor

(1) A protein that must be present in the extracellular environment (culture medium or animal body) for the growth and normal development of certain types of cells. (2) A local regulator that acts on nearby cells to stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation.

transduction

(1) A type of horizontal gene transfer in which phages (viruses) carry bacterial DNA from one host cell to another. (2) In cellular communication, the conversion of a signal from outside the cell to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response.

cleavage

(1) The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane. (2) The succession of rapid cell divisions without significant growth during early embryonic development that converts the zygote to a ball of cells.

Functional Properties of a Carbonyl

-A ketone and aldehyde may be be structural isomers with different properties, as is the case for acetone and propanol. -These two groups are also found in sugars, giving rise to two major groups of sugars; aldoses (containing an aldehyde) and ketoses (containing a ketone).

Functional Properties of an Amino

-Acts as a base; can pick up an H+ from the surrounding solution (water, in living organisms). -Ionized, with a charge of 1+, under cellular conditions.

Functional Properties of Methyl

-Addition of a methyl group to DNA, or to molecules bound to DNA, affects expression of genes. -Arrangement of methyl groups in male and female sex hormones affects their shape and function.

Functional Properties of a Phosphate

-Contributes negative charge to the molecule of which it is a part (2- when at the end of a molecule, as above; 1- when located internally in a chain of phosphates). -Has the potential to react with water, releasing energy.

Functional Properties of a Carboxyl

-Has acidic properties (is a source of hydrogen ions) because the covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar. -Found in cells in the ionized form with charges of 1- and called a carboxylate ion.

Functional Properties of Sulfhydryl

-Two sulfhydryl groups can react, forming a covalent bond. This "cross-linking" helps stabilize protein structure. -Cross-linking of cysteines in hair maintains the curliness or straightness of hair.

When mating is random, in a large population, allele frequencies will remain constant...

...unless there are disturbing factors that disrupt the equilibrium.

Forebrain

1 of 3 bilaterally symmetrical anterior bulges of the neural tube Consists of cerebrum and diencephalon

Midbrain

1 of 3 bilaterally symmetrical anterior bulges of the neural tube Consists of part of the brainstem

Hindbrain

1 of 3 bilaterally symmetrical anterior bulges of the neural tube Consists of the pons, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata

Proximal Tubule

1 of 3 regions of nephron (closer)

Distal Tubule

1 of 3 regions of nephron (farther)

Loop of Henle

1 of 3 regions of nephrons Hairpin turn with descending and ascending limbs

3 useful functions of TCA cycle

1. Uses glucose atoms to form reduced coenzymes. In the last stage of glucose oxidation (the electron transport chain) these H atoms finally make energy available as ATP, through the process of oxidative phosphorylation. 2. It produces a molecule of ATP by substrate level phosphorylation (reaction T5). Since the cycle turns twice for every glucose oxidised , the yield is 2 ATP's per glucose molecule. 3. It produces carbon intermediates for biosynthesis. This is particularly relevant in plants, where biosynthesis rather than energy production is the main role of the TCA cycle.

Normal breathing rate

12-20 cycles per minute Over 17000+ breaths a day

Selective Reabsorption

2nd step Use of active transport to reabsorb valuable solutes (glucose, certain salts, amino acids) from filtrate

Example of a Methyl

5-Methyl cytidine is a component of DNA that has been modified by addition of the methyl group.

Nuclear Pores

9nm (approx) gaps in the nuclear envelope that allow the passage of RNA and ribosomes out of the nucleas and the entry of selected small proteins and small water soluble molecules.

R

= per capita birth-per capita death

G protein

A GTP-binding protein that relays signals from a plasma membrane signal receptor, known as a G protein-coupled receptor, to other signal transduction proteins inside the cell.

Bolus

A ball of food manipulated by the tongue during chewing

Hepatic Portal Vein

A blood vessel that leads directly to the liver from the villi in the small intestine

Afferent Arteriole

A branch of the renal artery that subdivides into the capillaries of the glomerulus Supplies nephrons with blood

malignant tumor

A cancerous tumor that is invasive enough to impair the functions of one or more organs.

Epiglottis

A cartilaginous flap that blocks the glottis during swallowing

fermentation

A catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose without an electron transport chain and that produces a characteristic end product, such as ethyl alcohol or lactic acid.

epinephrine

A catecholamine that, when secreted as a hormone by the adrenal medulla, mediates "fight-or-flight" responses to short-term stresses; also released by some neurons as a neurotransmitter; also known as adrenaline.

Substrate specificity

A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts. An ezyme can only react upon the substrate with which it locks.

cis-unsaturated fatty acid

A cis configuration means that adjacent hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond. The rigidity of the double bond freezes its conformation and, in the case of the cis isomer, causes the chain to bend and restricts the conformational freedom of the fatty acid. The more double bonds the chain has in the cis configuration, the less flexibility it has. When a chain has many cis bonds, it becomes quite curved in its most accessible conformations. For example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a "kink" in it, whereas linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend. Alpha-linolenic acid, with three double bonds, favors a hooked shape. The effect of this is that, in restricted environments, such as when fatty acids are part of a phospholipid in a lipid bilayer, or triglycerides in lipid droplets, cis bonds limit the ability of fatty acids to be closely packed, and therefore could affect the melting temperature of the membrane or of the fat.

Sphingolipids

A class of lipids containing a backbone of sphingoid bases, a set of aliphatic amino alcohols that includes sphingosine. They were discovered in brain extracts in the 1870s and were named for the mythological Sphinx because of their enigmatic nature. These compounds play important roles in signal transmission and cell recognition. Sphingolipidoses, or disorders of sphingolipid metabolism, have particular impact on neural tissue. A sphingolipid with an R group consisting of a hydrogen atom only is a ceramide. Other common R groups include phosphocholine, yielding a sphingomyelin, and various sugar monomers or dimers, yielding cerebrosides and globosides, respectively. Cerebrosides and globosides are collectively known as glycosphingolipids.

Pyridoxal

A coenzyme which assists transaminase enzymes in the deamination of proteins to allow them to be fed in to the TCA cycle, also known as vitamin B6.

Ketone bodies

A combination of two acetyl CoA molecules which is used as fuel by the heart and brain.

α Helix

A common motif in the secondary structure of proteins, the alpha helix (α-helix) is a right-handed coiled or spiral conformation, in which every backbone N-H group donates a hydrogen bond to the backbone C=O group of the amino acid four residues earlier (i+4 \rightarrow i hydrogen bonding). This secondary structure is also sometimes called a classic Pauling-Corey-Branson alpha helix . Among types of local structure in proteins, the α-helix is the most regular and the most predictable from sequence, as well as the most prevalent.

reaction center complex

A complex of proteins associated with a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor. Located centrally in a photosystem, this complex triggers the light reactions of photosynthesis. Excited by light energy, the pair of chlorophylls donates an electron to the primary electron acceptor, which passes an electron to an electron transport chain.

light-harvesting complex

A complex of proteins associated with pigment molecules (including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) that captures light energy and transfers it to reaction-center pigments in a photosystem.

Succinate

A component of the citric acid cycle and is capable of donating electrons to the electron transport chain by the reaction: succinate + FAD → fumarate + FADH2. This is catalysed by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase (or complex II of the mitochondrial ETC). The complex is a 4 subunit membrane-bound lipoprotein which couples the oxidation of succinate to the reduction of ubiquinone. Intermediate electron carriers are FAD and three Fe2S2 clusters part of subunit B.

Malnourished

A diet deficient in one or more essential nutrients

Alimentary Canal

A digestive tube extending between two openings, a mouth and an anus

cell plate

A double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis.

thylakoid

A flattened membranous sac inside a chloroplast. Thylakoids exist in an interconnected system in the chloroplast and contain the molecular "machinery" used to convert light energy to chemical energy.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A form of learning involving an increase in the strength of a synaptic transmission that occurs when presynaptic neurons produce a brief, high-frequency series of action potentials Process by which memories are stored and learning takes place

nitric oxide (NO)

A gas produced by many types of cells that functions as a local regulator and as a neurotransmitter.

Sialic Acid

A generic term for the N- or O-substituted derivatives of neuraminic acid, a monosaccharide with a nine-carbon backbone. It is the sugar present on cadherins and N-CAMS which gives them their negative charge. It is also the name for the most common member of this group, N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac or NANA). Sialic acids are found widely distributed in animal tissues and to a lesser extent in other species ranging from plants and fungi to yeasts and bacteria, mostly in glycoproteins and gangliosides. The amino group generally bears either an acetyl or glycolyl group but other modifications have been described. The hydroxyl substituents may vary considerably: acetyl, lactyl, methyl, sulfate, and phosphate groups have been found.

actin

A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments (actin filaments) in muscle and other kinds of cells.

action spectrum

A graph that profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving a particular process.

chlorophyll

A green pigment located within the chloroplasts of plants and algae and in the membranes of certain prokaryotes. Chlorophyll a participates directly in the light reactions, which convert solar energy to chemical energy.

Fimbriae

A hair-like appendage that allows prokaryotes to stike to their substrate or to one another

Structure of a Hydroxyl

A hydrogen atom is bonded with an oxygen atom, which in turn is bonded to the carbon skeleton of the organic molecule. (--OH)

cooperativity

A kind of allosteric regulation whereby a shape change in one subunit of a protein caused by substrate binding is transmitted to all the others, facilitating binding of subsequent substrate molecules.

benign tumor

A mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of its origin.

Spectrin

A membrane protein that cross links actin filaments.

Carrier Protein

A membrane protein, involved in passive and active transport, that binds to a solute molecule or ion and releases it on the other side of the membrane. An example of this is the glucose carrier protein in mammalian cells which responds only to glucose and not other sugars and moves glucose down a concentration gradient from the outside to the inside of the cell.

photorespiration

A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen and ATP, releases carbon dioxide, and decreases photosynthetic output. Photorespiration generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of carbon dioxide.

beta oxidation

A metabolic sequence that breaks fatty acids down to two-carbon fragments that enter the citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA.

binary fission

A method of asexual reproduction by "division in half." In prokaryotes, binary fission does not involve mitosis; but in single-celled eukaryotes that undergo binary fission, mitosis is part of the process.

stoma

A microscopic pore surrounded by guard cells in the epidermis of leaves and stems that allows gas exchange between the environment and the interior of the plant.

ligand

A molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one.

Parkinson's Disease

A motor disorder characterized by difficulty in initiating movements, slowness of movement, rigidity, masked facial expression, muscle tremors, poor balance, flexed posture, and a shuffling gait

Connexon

A multisubunit protein which holds gap junctions together in animal cells.

Nuclear lamina

A netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope.

Enzyme Substrate Complex

A non-covalent complex composed of a substrate bound to the active site of the enzyme

Heme

A nonpolypeptide component with an iron atom that binds oxygen.

Acid Chyme

A nutrient-rich broth of swallowed food found in the stomach

Structure of Phosphate

A phosphorus atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms; one oxygen is bonded to the carbon skeleton; two oxygens carry negative charges.

chlorophyll a

A photosynthetic pigment that participates directly in the light reactions, which convert solar energy to chemical energy.

C4 plant

A plant in which the Calvin cycle is preceded by reactions that incorporate CO2 into a four-carbon compound, the end product of which supplies CO2 for the Calvin cycle.

CAM plant

A plant that uses crassulacean acid metabolism, an adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions. In this process, carbon dioxide entering open stomata during the night is converted to organic acids, which release CO2 for the Calvin cycle during the day, when stomata are closed.

C3 plant

A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a three-carbon compound as the first stable intermediate.

Hofstee-Eadie plot

A plot used to obtain a more accurate indication of Km and Vmax. Simplified - v/[S] so the figures used to plot the original hyperbolic rectangle are used dviding the enzyme byt hte substrate. These new figures are then plotted on along the horizontal axis and a best fit line drawn along them. The point at which the line crosses the vertical axis is the Vmax, the point at which it crosses the horizontal axis is the Km.

Allosteric Inhibitor

A product produced later in a catalytic pathway which inhibits the activity of enxymes earlier in the catalytic pathway.

Dipeptide

A protein formed by two amino acids linked by a peptide bond,

ligand-gated ion channel

A protein pore in cellular membranes that opens or closes in response to A signaling chemical (its ligand), allowing or blocking the flow of specific ions.

aster

A radial array of short microtubules that extends from each centrosome toward the plasma membrane in an animal cell undergoing mitosis.

receptor tyrosine kinase

A receptor protein in the plasma membrane, the cytoplasmic (intracellular) part of which can catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a tyrosine on another protein. Receptor tyrosine kinases often respond to the binding of a signaling molecule by dimerizing and then phosphorylating a tyrosine on the cytoplasmic portion of the other receptor in the dimer. The phosphorylated tyrosines on the receptors then activate other signal transduction proteins within the cell.

transcription factor

A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and affects transcription of specific genes.

Limbic System

A ring of structures around the brainstem Includes amygdala, hippocampus,and olfactory bulb, along with inner portions of the cortex's lobes and sections of the thalamus and hypothalamus Mediate primary emotions

linear electron flow

A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems (I and II) and produces ATP, NADPH, and O2. The net electron flow is from H2O to NADP+.

cyclic electron flow

A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves only photosystem I and that produces ATP but not NADPH or O2.

diacylglycerol (DAG)

A second messenger produced by the cleavage of a certain kind of phospholipid in the plasma membrane.

inositol trisphosphate (IP3)

A second messenger that functions as an intermediate between certain nonsteroid hormones and a third messenger, a rise in cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration.

local regulator

A secreted molecule that influences cells near where it is secreted.

signal transduction pathway

A series of steps linking a mechanical or chemical stimulus to a specific cellular response.

Brainstem

A set of structures deep within the brain Consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

Schizophrenia

A severe mental disturbance characterized by psychotic episodes in which patients lose the ability to distinguish reality Symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, blunted emotions, distractibility, lack of initiative, and poverty of speech

Oligonucleotide

A short polymer of 2 to twenty nucleotides. Derived from the Greek word Oligo, meaning few or little.

Ubiquitin

A small regulatory protein that has been found in almost all tissues (ubiquitously) of eukaryotic organisms. Among other functions, it directs protein recycling.It can be attached to proteins and label them for destruction. This protein tag directs proteins to the proteasome, which is a large protein complex in the cell that degrades and recycles unneeded proteins. This discovery won the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 2004. The tags can also direct proteins to other locations in the cell, where they control other protein and cell mechanisms.

Lacteal

A small vessel of the lymphatic system that penetrates the core of the villus

second messenger

A small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecule or ion, such as a calcium ion (Ca2+) or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior in response to a signaling molecule bound by a signal receptor protein.

Gap junction

A specialised type of cell junction, an example of which is the smooth muscle of the intestine. The gap's allow for effective transmission of molecules and electrical activity between the cells.

Transaminase

A specific enzyme which catalyses the transfer of NH₂ from amino acids to α-Ketoglutarate of the TCA cycle (forming glutamate which can also be used for protein synthesis) during the break down of amino acids derived from proteins, in carnivorous animals or in other animals at times of low availability of glucose or TAGs for energy production. Their are specific versions of this enzyme for each of the two acidic amino acids.

testosterone

A steroid hormone required for development of the male reproductive system, spermatogenesis, and male secondary sex characteristics; the major androgen in mammals.

Capsule (bacteria)

A sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein that surrounds the cell wall of some prokaryotes

Collagen

A strong protein which can provide strength and/or flexibility found in animal tissue.

kinetochore

A structure of proteins attached to the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.

competitive inhibitor

A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it mimics.

biofilm

A surface-coating colony of one or more species of prokaryotes that engage in metabolic cooperation.

Cytoskeleton

A system of specialised long filament like proteins found in the cytosol of eukaryote cells which forms the constantly changing 'scaffolding'. They have many roles such as movement of motile cells, transport of organelles around the cell and intracellular movement of chromosomes during mitosis.

Enzyme Assay

A technique used to measure the rate of activity of an enzyme by measuring the products expected of the enzyme activity, for example CO₂.

Endospore

A thick-coated, resistant cell produced by some bacterial cells when they are exposed to harsh conditions

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)

A three-carbon carbohydrate that is the direct product of the Calvin cycle; it is also an intermediate in glycolysis.

Thylakoid

A thylakoid is a membrane-bound compartment inside chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. They are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. Thylakoids consist of a thylakoid membrane surrounding a thylakoid lumen. Chloroplast thylakoids frequently form stacks of disks referred to as grana (singular: granum). Grana are connected by intergrana or stroma thylakoids, which join granum stacks together as a single functional compartment.

Blood-Brain Barrier

A tight junction between cells that line the capillaries in the brain and spinal cord Restricts passage of most substances into the CNS Allows the extracellular chemical environment of the CNS to be tightly controlled

Caveolin

A transmembrane protein responsible for the formation of caveola.

gap junction

A type of intercellular junction in animals that allows the passage of materials between cells.

scaffolding protein

A type of large relay protein to which several other relay proteins are simultaneously attached, increasing the efficiency of signal transduction.

Substrate level phosphorylations

A type of metabolism that results in the formation and creation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or guanosine triphosphate (GTP) by the direct transfer and donation of a phosphoryl (PO3) group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) or guanosine diphosphate (GDP) from a phosphorylated reactive intermediate. By convention, the phosphoryl group that is transferred is referred to as a phosphate group.

Peptidoglycan

A type of polymer in bacterial cell walls consisting of modified sugars cross-linked by short peptides

Cholesterol

A waxy steroid of fat that is produced in the liver or intestines. It is used to produce hormones and cell membranes and is transported in the blood plasma of all mammals. It is an essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes and is required to establish proper membrane permeability and fluidity.It causes areas of rigidity in the membrane due to the interaction of its four fused ring sections with the hydrophobic tails of surrounding lipids.In addition, cholesterol is an important component for the manufacture of bile acids, steroid hormones, and vitamin D. Cholesterol is the principal sterol synthesized by animals; however, small quantities can be synthesized in other eukaryotes such as plants and fungi. It is almost completely absent among prokaryotes including bacteria. Although cholesterol is important and necessary for mammals, high levels of cholesterol in the blood can damage arteries and are potentially linked to diseases such as those associated with the cardiovascular system (heart disease).

Zymogens

A zymogen (or proenzyme) is an inactive enzyme precursor. A zymogen requires a biochemical change (such as a hydrolysis reaction revealing the active site, or changing the configuration to reveal the active site) for it to become an active enzyme. The biochemical change usually occurs in a lysosome where a specific part of the precursor enzyme is cleaved in order to activate it. The amino acid chain that is released upon activation is called the activation peptide. The pancreas secretes zymogens partly to prevent the enzymes from digesting proteins in the cells in which they are synthesised. Fungi also secrete digestive enzymes into the environment as zymogens. The external environment has a different pH than inside the fungal cell and this changes the zymogen's structure into an active enzyme.

Bipolar Disorder

AKA manicdepressive disorder Involves mood swings from high to low

Lipopolysaccharides

Abbreviated as(LPS), also known as lipoglycans, are large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide joined by a covalent bond; they are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, act as endotoxins and elicit strong immune responses in animals.

Balsam Fir

Abies balsamea

Salivary Glands

Accessory glands of digestive system 3 pairs

Silver Maple

Acer Saccharinum

Box Elder Tree

Acer negundo

Red Maple

Acer rubrum

Sugar Maple

Acer saccharum

Example of a Carboxyl

Acetic acid

Signal Sequence

Affectionately known as the 'address label' of a polypeptide. A short (3-60 amino acids long) peptide chain that directs the transport of a protein. These may also be called targeting signals, signal peptides, transit peptides, or localization signals. The amino acid sequences of these direct proteins (which are synthesized in the cytosol) to certain organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondrial matrix, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplast, apoplast and peroxisome. Some signal peptides are cleaved from the protein by signal peptidase after the proteins are transported.

Signal recognition particle

Also called SRP, this is an abundant, cytosolic, universally conserved ribonucleoprotein (protein-RNA complex) that recognizes and targets specific proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotes and the plasma membrane in prokaryotes.

Two Dimensional PAGE

Also known as 2-D electrophoresis, begins with 1-D electrophoresis but then separates the molecules by a second property in a direction 90 degrees from the first. In 1-D electrophoresis, proteins (or other molecules) are separated in one dimension, so that all the proteins/molecules will lie along a lane but that the molecules are spread out across a 2-D gel. Because it is unlikely that two molecules will be similar in two distinct properties, molecules are more effectively separated in 2-D electrophoresis than in 1-D electrophoresis.

Oxaloacetate

Also known as OAA, an important 4C intermediate in the TCA cycle which is formed at the end of one cycle and re-enters at point T1 and combines with the acetyl CoA (the final product of glycolysis) to form a 6C citrate.Without OAA the link reaction cannot connect with the TCA cycle, thus it is vital for glucose oxidation and production of energy.

Nuclear localization signal

Also known as a nuclear localisation sequence (NLS) this is an amino acid sequence which 'tags' a protein for import into the cell nucleus by nuclear transport. Typically, this signal consists of one or more short sequences of positively charged lysines or arginines exposed on the protein surface. Different nuclear localized proteins may share the same NLS. An NLS has the opposite function of a nuclear export signal, which targets proteins out of the nucleus.

Microfilaments

Also known as actin filaments,one of three protein sub units that make up the eukaryote cytoskeleton. Found in highest concentration around the edges of the cell just below the cell membrane, they tend to form bundles. Actin polymers have the ability to disassemble and re-assemble meaning they are particulary useful for cell locomotion and in the microvilli of absorptive epithelial cells.

Autophagy

Also known as autophagocytosis,this is a catabolic process involving the degradation of a cell's own components through the lysosomal machinery. It is a tightly regulated process that plays a normal part in cell growth, development, and homeostasis, helping to maintain a balance between the synthesis, degradation, and subsequent recycling of cellular products. It is a major mechanism by which a starving cell reallocates nutrients from unnecessary processes to more-essential processes.

Facilitated diffusion

Also known as facilitated transport or passive-mediated transport) is a process of passive transport, facilitated by integral proteins. Facilitated diffusion is the spontaneous passage of molecules or ions across a biological membrane passing through specific transmembrane integral proteins in response to messages received or changes in extracellular conditions. It works along the concentration gradient and does not require any energy.

FAD

Also known as flavin adenine dinucleotide this is a redox cofactor involved in several important reactions in metabolism. It can exist in two different redox states, which it converts between by accepting or donating electrons. The molecule consists of a riboflavin moiety (vitamin B2) bound to the phosphate group of an ADP molecule. The flavin group is bound to ribitol, a sugar alcohol, by a carbon-nitrogen bond, not a glycosidic bond. Thus, riboflavin is not technically a nucleotide; the name flavin adenine dinucleotide is a misnomer. It can be reduced to FADH2, whereby it accepts two hydrogen atoms (a net gain of two electrons)

Glycosaminoglycans (GAG's)

Also known as mucopolysaccharides these are long unbranched polysaccharides consisting of a repeating disaccharide unit. The repeating unit consists of a hexose (six-carbon sugar) or a hexuronic acid, linked to a hexosamine (six-carbon sugar containing nitrogen). These are the major component of the 'gel' found in the extracellular matrix of tissue. They are negatively charged and thus attract ions, especially sodium which aids diffusion of water in to the tissue, giving tissue it's compression resistance.

Triacylglycerols

Also known as triglyceride (TG, triacylglycerol, TAG, or triacylglyceride)an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids.It is the main constituent of vegetable oil and animal fats.

Direct competition

Always produces a winner and a loser.

Name of Amino Compounds

Amines

Aspartate

Amino acid Functions as neurotransmitter in CNS

Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

Amino acid Functions as neurotransmitter in CNS

Glutamate

Amino acid Functions as neurotransmitter in CNS

Glycine

Amino acid Functions as neurotransmitter in CNS

Essential Amino Acids

Amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the body and therefore must be obtained in prefabricated form

Hydrophobic residues/amino acid

Amino acids which are non polar and are repelled by water example are Alanine, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Proline, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Tryptophan and Cystine. Hydrophbicity is also affected by pH levels in some cases.

Hydrophillic residues/amino acid

Amino acids which are polar and are attracted to water examples are Glutamine, Serine,Theronine, Histodine, Lysine. Hydrophbicity is also affected by pH levels in some cases.

NH₃

Ammonia, a biproduct of the GDH reaction during deamination which is highly toxic and water soluble, thus able to move out of the mitochodrial matrix easily.

Resiual Volume (RV)

Amount of air left in the air passages/lungs after maximum expiration (1200 mL)

chlorophyll b

An accessory photosynthetic pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a.

carotenoid

An accessory pigment, either yellow or orange, in the chloroplasts of plants and in some prokaryotes. By absorbing wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, carotenoids broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis.

Anhydrobiosis

An adaptation allowing water-dwelling animals to survive in a dormant state when their habitats dry up

crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)

An adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions, first discovered in the family Crassulaceae. In this process, a plant takes up CO2 and incorporates it into a variety of organic acids at night; during the day, CO2 is released from organic acids for use in the Calvin cycle.

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

An adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in cells.

Osmoconformer

An animal isoosmotic to its surroundings Does not actively adjust its internal osmolarity

Osmoregulator

An animal that must control its internal osmolarity Body fluids are not isoosmotic with the outside environment

mitotic spindle

An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis.

Substrate-level phosphorylation

An enzyme catalysed process in which which ATP is made by transferring phosphate directly onto ADP from a phsphporylated carbon intermediate in the cytosol. This is the only way for cells without mitochondria to make ATP, such as red blood cells and the lens of the eye. It is also a main contributor of ATP for high energy cells such as those of the immune system.

PEP carboxylase

An enzyme that adds CO2 to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form oxaloacetate in C4 plants. It acts prior to photosynthesis.

Pepsin

An enzyme that begins the hydrolysis of proteins

Hydrolases

An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a chemical bond. Systematic names of these enzymes are formed as "substrate hydrolase." However, common names are typically in the form "substratease." For example, a nuclease is a hydrolase that cleaves nucleic acids.

adenylyl cyclase

An enzyme that converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to a signal.

Salivary Amylase

An enzyme that hydrolyzes starch and glycogen

protein phosphatase

An enzyme that removes phosphate groups from (dephosphorylates) proteins, often functioning to reverse the effect of a protein kinase.

protein kinase

An enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein.

glycogen

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.

Cell Wall

An extracellular structure in plants which is rigid and surrounds the cell membrane giving it shape and support, like playtex for plants lol! It is primarily composed of cellulose which is a polysaccharide.

Elastin

An flexible protein found in the extra cellular matrix of blood vessels.

metaphase plate

An imaginary plane midway between the two poles of a cell in metaphase on which the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are located.

Enzyme Inhibition

An important control mechanism in metabolism, this is also the route of effect used by many drugs and also of many toxins.

ATP synthase

An important enzyme, a large structure which makes up 15% of the protein in the inner mitochondrial membrane, that provides energy for the cell to use through the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the most commonly used "energy currency" of cells from most organisms. It is formed from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) which releases energy. This energy is often in the form of protium or H+, moving down an electrochemical gradient, such as from the lumen into the stroma of chloroplasts or from the inter-membrane space into the matrix in mitochondria.

spectrophotometer

An instrument that measures the proportions of light of different wavelengths absorbed and transmitted by a pigment solution.

Multipass integral membrane protein

An integral protein which has a polypeptide change which loops back across the membrane several times.

α-Ketoglutaric acid

An intermediate product of the TCA cycle formed after T3 which involves the removal of 2 hydrogen atoms and a molecule of CO₂ being released from isocitrate.Its anion, α-ketoglutarate (α-KG, also called oxo-glutarate) is an important biological compound. It is the keto acid produced by de-amination of glutamate, and is an intermediate in the Krebs cycle.

cytochrome

An iron-containing protein that is a component of electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membranes of prokaryotic cells.

Isocitrate

An isomer of citrate formed after the T2 reaction in the TCA cycle.Isocitrate is formed from citrate with the help of the enzyme aconitase, and is acted upon by isocitrate dehydrogenase.

FRAP (Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching)

An optical technique capable of quantifying the two dimensional lateral diffusion of a molecularly thin film containing fluorescently labeled probes, or to examine single cells. This technique is very useful in biological studies of cell membrane diffusion and protein binding. In addition, surface deposition of a fluorescing phospholipid bilayer (or monolayer) allows the characterization of hydrophilic (or hydrophobic) surfaces in terms of surface structure and free energy. Similar, though less well known, techniques have been developed to investigate the 3-dimensional diffusion and binding of molecules inside the cell; they are also referred to as FRAP.

coenzyme

An organic molecule serving as a cofactor. Most vitamins function as coenzymes in metabolic reactions.

Prokarayotes

An organism of the kingdom of Monera, comprising the bacteria and cyanobacteria. Characterised by the abscence of a distinct, membrane bound nucleas or membrane bound organelles and by DNA that is not organised in to chromosomes. Also called moneran.

photoautotroph

An organism that harnesses light energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide.

facultative anaerobe

An organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present but that switches to anaerobic respiration or fermentation if oxygen is not present.

obligate anaerobe

An organism that only carries out fermentation or anaerobic respiration. Such organisms cannot use oxygen and in fact may be poisoned by it.

Ruminants

Animals including deer, cattle, and sheep, which have the most elaborate adaptations for a herbivore diet

Euryhaline

Animals that can survive large fluctuations in external osmolarity

Stenohaline

Animals that cannot tolerate substantial changes in the external osmolarity

Uncoupler

Any compound that increases the proton permiability of the inner mitochondrial membrane and hence severes the link between electron transport and ATP synthesis. Two example are thyroxine and brown adipose tissue.

cofactor

Any nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme. Cofactors can be permanently bound to the active site or may bind loosely with the substrate during catalysis.

Protoctist

Any of various unicellular eukaryotic organisms and their multicellular, coenocytic or colocial descendants that belong to the kingdom of Protocista according to some taxonomic systems. The protoctists include protozoans, slime moulds, various algae and other groups. In many new classification systems, all proctists are considered protists.

White Matter

Axons in the CNS found in tracts Myelin sheaths give whitish appearance

Fe-S protein

Best known for their role in the oxidation-reduction reactions of mitochondrial electron transport. Both Complex I and Complex II of oxidative phosphorylation have multiple Fe-S clusters. They have many other functions including catalysis as illustrated by aconitase, generation of radicals as illustrated by SAM-dependent enzymes, and as sulfur donors in the biosynthesis of lipoic acid and biotin. Additionally some Fe-S proteins regulate gene expression. Fe-S proteins are vulnerable to attack by biogenic nitric oxide.

Paper Birch

Betula Papyifera

Dopamine

Biogenic amine

Epinephrine

Biogenic amine Also functions as hormone

Norepinephrine

Biogenic amine Also functions as hormone

Serotonin

Biogenic amine Synthesized from amino acid tryptophan

Bowman's Capsule

Blind end of tubule forming a cu-pshaped swelling Surrounds glomerulus

Filtration

Body fluid passes through selectively permeable membranes consisting of a single layer of transport epithelium

Nerves

Bundles of fiber-like extensions of neurons

Cadherin

Cadherins (named for "calcium-dependent adhesion") are a class of type-1 transmembrane proteins. They play important roles in cell adhesion, ensuring that cells within tissues are bound together. They are dependent on calcium (Ca2+) ions to function, hence their name. The extra cellular domains on cadherins interact with their counterparts in other cell membranes and their intracellular domains interact intracellular proteins. The intracellular proteins are then bound to cytoskeleton intermediate filaments known as keratin.

Name of Carboxyl Compounds

Carboxylic acids, or organic acids.

Somatic Nervous System

Carries signals to and from skeletal muscles, mainly in response to external stimuli

Shagbark Hickory

Carya ovata

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Cell organelle responsible for attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins, synthesizing lipids and steroids, metabolizing carbohydrates and steroids (but not lipids) and regulating calcium concentration and drug metabolism.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Cell organelle responsible for synthesizing proteins.

Homogenate

Cells are broken up by a homogeniser (blender). This releases the organelles from the cell. The resultant fluid is known as the homogenate, which is then filtered to remove any complete cells and large pieces of debris.

Graded Potentials

Changes in membrane potential Larger stimulus=higher change in permeability=higher change in membrane potential

Urinary Bladder

Common collection area from ureters

Acetylcholine

Common neurotransmitter in vertebrates and invertebrates

Motor Neurons

Communicate with effector cells

Interspecific competition

Competition between different species.

Intraspecific competition

Competition between organisms within the same species.

Axon Hillock

Conical region where the axon connects to the cell body Origin of the signal that travels down the axon

Structure of a Methyl

Consists of a carbon bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The methyl group may be attached to a carbon or to a different atom.

Structure of Amino

Consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and to the carbon skeleton. (--NH2)

Structure of a Sulfhydryl

Consists of a sulfur atom bonded to an atom of hydrogen; resembles a hydroxyl group in shape.

Gray Matter

Consists of dendrites, unmyelinated axons, and neuron cell bodies

Enteric Division

Consists of networks of neurons in the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder Normally regulated by sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

Endomembrane System

Consists of nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticuluum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, various types of vacuoles, plasma membrane.

Medulla Oblongata

Contains centers that control several visceral functions including breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, swallowing, vomiting, and digestion

Ventricles

Contains cerebrospinal fluid in brain

Hormonal Proteins

Coordination if an organism's activities

Countercurrent Mulitplier Systems

Countercurrent systems which expend energy to create concentration gradients

Disulfide Bridges

Covalent bonds that are formed where two cysteine monomers, amino acids with sulfhydryl groups on their side chains, are brought close together by the folding of the protein.

cyclic AMP (cAMP)

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a ring-shaped molecule made from ATP that is a common intracellular signaling molecule (second messenger) in eukaryotic cells. It is also a regulator of some bacterial operons.

An Example of a Sulfhydryl

Cysteine. It is an important sulfur-containing amino acid.

GS FLX sequencing

DNA sequencing technique that can produce 400-600,000,000bp in 10 hours

Sanger Chain Termination - fluorescence

DNA sequencing technique that can produce 5000bp in 10 hours

Sanger Chain Termination - radioactivity

DNA sequencing technique that can produce 500bp in 10 hours

Depolarization

Decrease in magnitude of membrane potential making the inside less negative Caused by opening Na+ channels Increase in permeability Potential nears Ena

Plastid DNA

Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid found in the mitochondrion and chloroplast

All-or-nothing law

Depolarization must exceed a threshold value, but above this, the size of the impulse is the same regardless of the strength of the stimulus.

Exitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSPs)

Depolarization near the threshold caused when a neurotransmitter opens a channel that allows both Na+ and K+ to diffuse through

Reticular Formation

Diffuse network of neurons present in the core of the brainstem

Gastrovascular Cavity

Digestive sac with a single opening in simple-body animals Fucntions in both digestion and distribution of nutrients throughout the body

Cerebral Hemispheres

Division of the cerebrum Consists of cerebral cortex, internal white matter, and basal nuclei

Central Canal

Dorsal embryonic nerve cord in adults Hollow part of spinal cord

Vasa Recta

Downward extending capillaries forming a loop with descending and ascending vessels conveying blood in opposite directions Serves the loop of Henle

Ureter

Duct through which urine exits the kidneys

Emergent Properties

Due to the arrangement and interaction of parts as complexity increases. pg 3

Spatial Summation

EPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by different synapses on the same postsynaptic neuron that are added together

Functional Residual Capacity

ERV + RV

Bulk Feeders

Eat relatively large pieces of food

Nuclear Envelope

Encloses the nucleus, and separates its contents from cytoplasm. It is a double envelope, and each envelope is lipid bilayer with associated proteins, and are separated by a space of 20-40 nm. It is perforated by pore structures that are about 100 nm in diameter.

sunflowers

Example of a (plant) positive, negative relationship:

cattle trampling a field of grass

Example of a neutral, negative relationship:

malarial mosquitos

Example of a positive, negative relationship:

birds nesting in a tree

Example of a positive, neutral relationship:

bee and a flower

Example of a positive, positive relationship:

F plasmid

F plus designates cells as DNA donors during conjugation while F minus is a DNA receiver during conjugation. F plus transfer makes an F minus a F plus

Villi

Finger-like projections lining the small intestine

Allosteric enzymes

Five key characteristics (of this enzyme) 1.Larger, multi-subunit proteins consisting generally of two different subunits eg. catalytic and regulatory. 2. Substrates bind cooperatively to active sites on catalytic subunits. 3. A plot of v against s produces an S shaped sigmoid curve. 4. Effectors for these enzymes can be inhibiting or activating and their binding can also produce sigmoid curves. 5. Feedback inhibition can occur- the end product of the enzymes pathway can inhibit enzyme activity.

Metabolic flux

Flux, or metabolic flux is the rate of turnover of molecules through a metabolic pathway. Flux is regulated by the enzymes involved in a pathway. Within cells, regulation of flux is vital for all metabolic pathways to regulate the metabolic pathway's activity under different conditions. Flux is therefore of great interest in metabolic network modelling, where it is analysed via flux balance analysis.

Radial Glia

Form tracks along which newly formed neurons migrate from the neural tube (in embryo)

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Formed by filtration of blood Drains from central canal into veins Assists in supply of nutrients and hormones to different parts of the brain and in waste removal

White Ash

Fraxinus americana

Ligand

From the Latin ligandum, meaning binding, this is a substance that forms a complex with a biomolecule to serve a biological purpose. In a narrower sense, it is a signal triggering molecule, binding to a site on a target protein. The binding occurs by intermolecular forces, such as ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces. The docking (association) is usually reversible (dissociation). Actual irreversible covalent binding between a ligand and its target molecule is rare in biological systems. In contrast to the meaning in metalorganic and inorganic chemistry, it is irrelevant whether the ligand actually binds at a metal site, as is the case in hemoglobin.

Endorphins

Functions as natural analgesics Decrease pain perception

G and C

Gene-dense regions are predominantly composed of bases....

A and T

Gene-poor regions are rich in the bases....

trans face

Gives rise to vesicles, which pinch off and travel to other sites.

Honeylocust

Gleditsia triacanthos

Oligodendrocytes

Glia formed in the myelin sheaths around the axons of vertebrate neurons in the CNS

Schwann Cells

Glia formed in the myelin sheaths around the axons of vertebrate neurons in the PNS

GLUT4

Glucose transporter type 4, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GLUT4 gene. It is the insulin-regulated glucose transporter found in adipose tissues and striated muscle (skeletal and cardiac) that is responsible for insulin-regulated glucose translocation into the cell. This protein is expressed primarily in muscle and fat cells, the major tissues in the body that respond to insulinThe specific membrane transporter protein upregulated by insulin when glucose is in high concentrations in the blood.

Glutamate dehydrogenase

Glutamate dehydrogenase is an enzyme, present in most microbes and the mitochondria of eukaryotes, as are some of the other enzymes required for urea synthesis, that converts glutamate to α-Ketoglutarate, and vice versa. In animals, the produced ammonia is, however, usually bled off to the urea cycle. In bacteria, the ammonia is assimilated to amino acids via glutamate and amidotransferases. In plants, the enzyme can work in either direction depending on environment and stress. Transgenic plants expressing microbial GDHs are improved in tolerance to herbicide, water deficit, and pathogen infections.They are more nutritionally valuable.

Example of a Phosphate

Glycerol phosphate. In addition to taking part in many important chemical reactions in cells, glycerol phosphate provides the backbone for phospholipids, the most prevalent molecules in cell membranes.

Example of an Amino

Glycine. It also has a carboxyl group, so glycine is both an amine acid and a carboxyl acid. Compounds with both groups are called amino acids.

alcohol fermentation

Glycolysis followed by the conversion of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol.

lactic acid fermentation

Glycolysis followed by the conversion of pyruvate to lactate, with no release of carbon dioxide.

Basal Nuclei

Groups of neurons in cerebral hemisphere

Neurones

Highly specialized cells that link together to form pathways.

Renal Pelvis

Holds filtrate from many collecting ducts of kidney Drained by ureter

Microtubules

Hollow tubes composed of thirteen parallel filaments of polymerized tubulin, measuring about 25 nm in external diameter. Part of the cytoskeleton of ALL eukaryote cells radiating from the centrosome in the nucleas towards the edges of the cell. They are very unstable and are constantly disassembling and reassembling so most do not reach the cell cortex. These tubules play a crucial role in cell organisation, movement of organelles and the reorganization of chormosomes in to daughter cells during mitosis.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Hormone important in regulating water balance Produced by hypothalamus Stored/released from the posterior pituitary gland

Aldosterone

Hormone released by andreal glands

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSPs)

Hyperpolarization produced when neurotransmitters open channels selectively for K+

Total Lung Capacity

IRV + ERV + TV + RV (normally 6000mL in a healthy male adult)

Vital Capacity

IRV + TV + ERV -->max amount air a person can expel from lungs after max inspiration

Resolving Power

Image's clarity; limited by the shortest wavelength of radiation used for imaging

Hypothalamus

Important brain region for homeostatic regulation Contains body's thermostat Center for regulating hunger, thirst, and other basic survival mechanisms

Cerebellum

Important for coordination and error checking during motor, perceptual, and cognitive functions Likely involved in learning and remembering motor skills Coordinates movement and balance

mesophyll cell

In C4 plants, a type of loosely arranged photosynthetic cell located between the bundle sheath and the leaf surface.

Pilus (Pili)

In bacteria, a structure that links one cell to another at the start of conjugation; also known as a sex pilus or conjugation pilus

Tertiary Structure

In biochemistry and molecular biology, this structure of a protein or any other macromolecule is its three-dimensional structure, as defined by the atomic coordinates.[6] Proteins and nucleic acids are capable of diverse functions ranging from molecular recognition to catalysis. Such functions require a precise three-dimensional tertiary structure. While such structures are diverse and seemingly complex, they are composed of recurring, easily recognizable tertiary structure motifs that serve as molecular building blocks. Tertiary structure is considered to be largely determined by the biomolecule's primary structure, or the sequence of amino acids or nucleotides of which it is composed. Efforts to predict tertiary structure from the primary structure are known generally as structure prediction.

Substrate

In biochemistry, a substrate is a molecule upon which an enzyme acts. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions involving the substrate(s). In the case of a single substrate, the substrate binds with the enzyme active site, and an enzyme-substrate complex is formed. The substrate is transformed into one or more products, which are then released from the active site. The active site is now free to accept another substrate molecule. In the case of more than one substrate, these may bind in a particular order to the active site, before reacting together to produce products.

Pyruvate

In glycolysis, phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) is converted to pyruvate by pyruvate kinase. This reaction is strongly exergonic and irreversible; in gluconeogenesis, it takes two enzymes, pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase, to catalyze the reverse transformation of pyruvate to PEP. The pyruvate is removed from the mitochondria via a membrane bound protein carrier known as the pyruvate transporter.

Catalytic site

In molecular biology this site is part of an enzyme where substrates bind and undergo a chemical reaction.The majority of enzymes are proteins but RNA enzymes called ribozymes also exist. The active site of an enzyme is usually found in a cleft or pocket that is lined by amino acid residues (or nucleotides in ribozymes) that participate in recognition of the substrate. Residues that directly participate in the catalytic reaction mechanism are called active site residues.

Chaperone Protein

In molecular biology, these are proteins that assist the non-covalent folding or unfolding and the assembly or disassembly of other macromolecular structures, but do not occur in these structures when the structures are performing their normal biological functions having completed the processes of folding and/or assembly. The common perception that they are concerned primarily with protein folding is incorrect. The first protein to be called a chaperone assists the assembly of nucleosomes from folded histones and DNA and such assembly chaperones, especially in the nucleus,are concerned with the assembly of folded subunits into oligomeric structures. One major function of chaperones is to prevent both newly synthesised polypeptide chains and assembled subunits from aggregating into nonfunctional structures. It is for this reason that many chaperones, but by no means all, are also heat shock proteins because the tendency to aggregate increases as proteins are denatured by stress. However, 'steric chaperones' directly assist in the folding of specific proteins by providing essential steric information, e.g. prodomains of bacterial proteases, lipase-specific foldases, or chaperones in fimbrial adhesion systems.

Secondary active transport

In secondary active transport or co-transport, uses energy to transport molecules across a membrane; however, in contrast to primary active transport, there is no direct coupling of ATP; instead, the electrochemical potential difference created by pumping ions out of the cell is used.The two main forms of this are antiport and symport.

Gel Electrophoresis

In simple terms: This is a procedure which enables the sorting of molecules based on size and charge. Using an electric field, molecules (such as DNA) can be made to move through a gel made of agar. The molecules being sorted are dispensed into a well in the gel material. The gel is placed in an electrophoresis chamber, which is then connected to a power source. When the electric current is applied, the larger molecules move more slowly through the gel while the smaller molecules move faster. The different sized molecules form distinct bands on the gel.

primary electron acceptor

In the thylakoid membrane of a chloroplast or in the membrane of some prokaryotes, a specialized molecule that shares the reaction-center complex with a pair of chlorophyll a molecules and that accepts an electron from them.

Antiport

In this form of secondary transport two species of ion or other solutes are pumped in opposite directions across a membrane. One of these species is allowed to flow from high to low concentration which yields the entropic energy to drive the transport of the other solute from a low concentration region to a high one. An example is the sodium-calcium exchanger or antiporter, which allows three sodium ions into the cell to transport one calcium out.

Epithalamus

Includes pineal gland and choroid plexus

Hyperpolarization

Increase in magnitude of membrane potential, making the inside more negative Caused by opening K+ channels Increase in permeability Potential nears Ek

Viroids

Infective forms of nucleic acid without a protective coat of protein; naked RNA, possibly of degenerated virus, that infects plants

Renal Medulla

Inner region of mammalian kidney

Interneurons

Integrate sensory input Take into account immediate context and past events

Lamins

Intermediate filament proteins which protect the structure of the nucleas, they polymerize to from a network of filaments that lie just within the nuclear membrane. The network of these filament proteins is called the nuclear lamina.

Cristae

Internal compartments formed by the inner membrane of a mitochondrion. They are studded with proteins, including ATP synthase and a variety of cytochromes. The maximum surface for chemical reactions to occur is within the mitochondria. This allows cellular respiration (aerobic respiration since the mitochondrion requires oxygen) to occur.

Pore complex

Intricate protein structure that lines each pore and regulates entry and exit of most proteins and RNAs in the cell, as well as large complexes of macromolecules.

Black walnut

Juglans nigra

Anchoring Junction

Junctions present in many types of animal tissue which serve to hold the constituentcells to each other and to the surrounding extra cellular matrix. They all have a common general structure consisting of transmembrane protein molecules known as cadhedrins.

Eastern Red Cedar

Juniperus virginiana

carrying capasity

K, maximum population size a particular environmemt can support at a given time

Example of a Carbonyl

Ketone-Acetone (the simplest ketone) Aldehydes-Propanol

Tamarack (Eastern Larch)

Larix larcina

Caveolae

Latin for little caves, singular: caveola, which are a special type of lipid raft, are small (50-100 nanometer) invaginations of the plasma membrane in many vertebrate cell types, especially in endothelial cells and adipocytes.These flask-shaped structures are rich in proteins as well as lipids such as cholesterol and sphingolipids and have several functions in signal transduction.They are also believed to play a role in endocytosis, oncogenesis, and the uptake of pathogenic bacteria and certain viruses.They are one source of clathrin-independent endocytosis involved in turnover of adhesive complexes.

Transport Epithelium

Layer(s) of specialized epithelial cells that regulate solute movements

2

Less than __% of the human genome encodes for the production of proteins.

Substrate Feeders

Live in or on their food source, eating their way through the food

Major Depression

Low mood majority of time

Equilibrium Potential

Magnitude of membrane voltage at equilibrium

Thalamus

Main input for sensory information going to the cerebrum Main output for motor information leaving the cerebrum

Essential Nutrients

Materials that must be obtained in preassembled form because the animal's cells cannot make them from any raw material

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

Max amount of air that can be expired after breathing out normally (1100 mL)

Inspiration Reserve Volume (IRV)

Max amount of air that can be inspired after breathing in noraml (3000 mL)

Threshold

Maximum membrane voltage of depolarization

N-CAMS/Neural Cell Adehesion Molecules

Membrane glycoproteins with an extracellular region made up of several domains. They are involved in the formation of intercellular junctions in neural tissue and unlike cadherins are not calcium dependant. As with cadherins they have sialic acid sugar components giving the cell membrane a negative charge discouragin inter cell adhesion.

Plasmodesmata

Membrane lined gap junctions which cross cell walls in plants.

Cytochromes

Membrane-bound hemoproteins that contain heme groups and carry out electron transport. They are found either as monomeric proteins (e.g., cytochrome c) or as subunits of bigger enzymatic complexes that catalyze redox reactions. They are found in the mitochondrial inner membrane and endoplasmic reticulum of eukaryotes, in the chloroplasts of plants, in photosynthetic microorganisms, and in bacteria.

Alzheimer's Disease (AD)

Mental deterioration or demeentia characterized by confusion, memory loss, and a variety of other symptoms

Microvilli

Microscopic appendages in each epithelial cell of a villus Exposed to intestinal lumen

Non Polar

Molecule which has no separation of charge, so no positive or negative poles are formed.

Oral Cavity

Mouth Location of physical digestion

Transport vesicles

Move materials from the ER to the Golgi apparatus.

Contractile and Motor Proteins

Movement

Effector Cells

Muscle/endocrine cells

Effectors

Muscles / glands; bring about the response.

what is the sign for population size?

N

Glycophorin

Negatively charged membrane glycoprotein which help to prevent red blood cells from sticking together through the actions of sialic acid sugar which is attached to it's extracellular domain .

Cortical Nephrons

Nephrons with reduced loop of Henle Almost entirely confined to renal cortex 80% of nephrons

Juxtamedullary Nephrons

Nephrons with well-developed loops that extend deeply into the renal medulla Important for water conservation 20% of nephrons

Protonephridium

Network of dead-end tubules lacking internal openings

Substance P

Neuropeptide Key excitatory neurotransmitter Mediates pain perception

Biogenic Amines

Neurotransmitters derived from amino acids

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+/NADPH)

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, an electron acceptor that, as NADPH, temporarily stores energized electrons produced during the light reactions.

NAD+; NADH

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, A coenzyme that can accept an electron and acts as an electron carrier in the electron transport chain.

NAD+

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated NAD+, is a coenzyme found in all living cells. The compound is a dinucleotide, since it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups, with one nucleotide containing an adenine base and the other containing nicotinamide.

Overnourishment

Obesity

photosystem II

One of two light-capturing units in a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane or in the membrane of some prokaryotes; it has two molecules of P680 chlorophyll a at its reaction center.

photosystem I

One of two light-capturing units in a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane or in the membrane of some prokaryotes; it has two molecules of P700 chlorophyll a at its reaction center.

Stretch-Gated Ion Channels

Open when membrane is mechanically deformed Found in cells that sense stretch

Gated Ion Channels

Open/close in response to 1 of 3 kinds of stimuli

Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

Open/close when a chemical (such as a neurotransmitter) binds to the channel Found at synapses

Voltage-Gated Ion Channels

Open/close with a change in the membrane potential Found in axon, dendrites, and cell body

Peroxisomes

Organelles that are plentiful in liver cells and adipocytes, responsible for breaking down fatty acids and amino acids in to hydrogen peroxide (among other things) via the action of an enzyme known as catalayse.

Vitamins

Organic molecules required in the diet in amounts that are quite small compared with the relatively large required quantities of essential amino acids and fatty acids

Malpighian Tubules

Organs that remove nitrogenous waste Function in osmoregulation

Eastern Hophornbean (Easten Ironwood)

Ostrya Virginiana

Cofactors

Other conditions required by enzymes in order for them to perform their roles. For example metal ions (Mg²⁺ + K⁺) or coenzymes such as NDP, ATP or ADP. They cannot be made in the body of mammals and must be derived from vitamins in the diet.

Cerebral Cortex

Outer portion of the cerebrum

Renal Cortex

Outer region of mammalian kidney

Neocortex

Outermost region of mammalian cerebrum Consists of 6 parallel layers of neurons arranged tangential to the brain surface

Suprachiasmatic Nuclei (SCN)

Pair of hypothalamic structures making up the biological clock in mammals

Spinal Nerves

Part of PNS Originate in spinal cord, extend to body parts below the head

Cranial Nerves

Part of PNS Originate in the brain, terminate in organs of the head and upper body

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)

Part of a complex feedback circuit that functions in homeostasis

Glomerulus

Part of nephron Consists of ball of capillaries

Cerebrum

Part of the forebrain Includes cerebral hemispheres, cerebral cortex, white matter, and basal nuclei

Pons

Participates in regulation with medulla

Pepsinogen

Pepsin secreted in an inactive form

Angiotensin II

Peptide converted from angiotensin (plasma protein) by chemical reaction initiated by renin Functions as hormone to regulate blood pressure

Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF)

Peptide opposing RAAS Released by walls of atria of heart

adaptive radiation

Period of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill vacant ecological roles in their communities.

Polar

Pertaining to a compound exhibiting polarity or dipole moment, that is a compound bearing a partial positive charge on one side and a partial negative charge on the other.

Phospholipids

Phospholipids are a class of lipids and are a major component of all cell membranes as they can form lipid bilayers. Most phospholipids contain a diglyceride, a phosphate group, and a simple organic molecule such as choline; one exception to this rule is sphingomyelin, which is derived from sphingosine instead of glycerol. The first phospholipid identified as such in biological tissues was lecithin, or phosphatidylcholine, in the egg yolk, by Theodore Nicolas Gobley, a French chemist and pharmacist, in 1847. The structure of the a phospholipid molecule consists of hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads, it also consists of cholesterol molecules which are found in-between the spaces of the phospholipid.

White Spruce

Picea Glacua

Black Spruce

Picea mariana

Blue Spruce

Picea pungens

Eastern White Pine

Pinus Strobus

Jack Pine

Pinus banksiana

Red Pine

Pinus resinosa

Quaking Aspen

Populus Tremuloides

Balsam Poplar

Populus balsamifera

Eastern Cottonwood

Populus deltoides

Bigtooth (largetooth) Aspen

Populus grandidentata

Proteasomes

Proteasomes are very large protein complexes inside all eukaryotes and archaea, and in some bacteria. In eukaryotes, they are located in the nucleus and the cytoplasm.The main function of the proteasome is to degrade unneeded or damaged proteins by proteolysis, a chemical reaction that breaks peptide bonds. Enzymes that carry out such reactions are called proteases. Proteasomes are part of a major mechanism by which cells regulate the concentration of particular proteins and degrade misfolded proteins. The degradation process yields peptides of about seven to eight amino acids long, which can then be further degraded into amino acids and used in synthesizing new proteins. Proteins to be destroyed are labelled by ubiquitin.

Defensive Proteins

Protection against disease

Chaperonins

Protein molecules that assist in the proper folding of other proteins.

Denaturation

Protein unravels and loses its shape due to the protein's environment, pH, salt concentration, or temp. This causes the protein to be biologically inactive.

Peripheral membrane proteins

Proteins found in the cell membrane which attached to only one side of the membrane.

Integral membrane proteins

Proteins which span the width of the cell membrane, protruding on the apical and basal surface.

Astrocytes

Provide structural support for neurons Regulate extracellular concecrations of ions and neurotransmitters

Black Cherry

Prunus serotina

White Oak

Quercus alba

Bur Oak

Quercus marcocarpa

Northern Red Oak

Quercus rubra

Receptor mediated endocytosis

RME, also called clathrin-dependent endocytosis, is a process by which cells internalize molecules (endocytosis) by the inward budding of plasma membrane vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being internalized.

Biological Clock

Regulate a variety of physiological phenomena including hormone release,hunger, and heightened sensitivity to external stimuli

Autonomatic Nervous System

Regulates internal environment by controlling smooth and cardiac muscles and organs of the digestive, cardiovascular, excretory, and endocrine systems

50

Repetitive sequences (that don't code for proteins) make up at least ___% of human genome.

Receptor Proteins

Response of cell to chemical stimulii

Action Potential

Response to stimulus strong enough to cause depolarization to reach the threshold

Common Buckthorn

Rhamnus cathartica

rubisco

Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle (the addition of CO2 to RuBP).

SDS-PAGE

SDS-PAGE, sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, is a technique widely used in biochemistry, forensics, genetics and molecular biology to separate proteins according to their electrophoretic mobility (a function of length of polypeptide chain or molecular weight). SDS gel electrophoresis of samples that have identical charge per unit mass due to binding of SDS results in fractionation by size. This method can be used to separate all types, even those that are not water soluble.

MItochondrian

Sausage shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane folds in to cristae. This organelle plays a fundamental role in the production of ATP in eukarayote cells and they are abundant in cells which require high amounts of energy such as muscle cells.

Ganglia

Segmentally arranged clusters of neurons (Sing. "Ganglion")

Neuropeptides

Short chains of amino acids Serve as neurotransmitters

Mr

Shorthand for molecular mass.

Suspension Feeders

Sift small food particles from the water

Minerals

Simple inorganic nutrients usually required in small amounts

yeast

Single-celled fungus that reproduces asexually by binary fission or by the pinching of small buds off a parent cell; some species exhibit cell fusion between different mating types.

origin of replication

Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides.

Peptide

Small chains of amino acids.

Chylomicrons

Small globules of fats, cholesterol, and proteins

Vesicles

Small lipid-bounded spheres which transport proteins, glyco proteins and newly synthesized lipids (which are imbedded in the sphere itself) from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi Apparatus or from the Golgi apparatus to another destination. They move short distances by the process of difussion, moving long distances requires the assistance of proteins associated with microtubules.

Lysosomes

Small organelles which contain digestive enzymes with an internal pH of around 5. They are responsible for breaking down large molecules taken in to the cell by phagocytosis and also for the breaking down of old organelles.

American Mountain Ash

Sorbus americana

Histones

Special proteins around which DNA is wrapped.

Receptors

Specialised sensory cells that detect internal or external stimuli; act as transducers by converting one form of energy into electrochemical energy.

Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA)

Specialized tissue located near the afferent arteriole Supplies blood to the glomerulus

Storage Proteins

Storage of amino acids

Stroma

Stroma (fluid), the fluid in between grana, where carbohydrate formation reactions occur in the chloroplasts of plant cells photosynthesizing

centrosome

Structure present in the cytoplasm of animal cells, important during cell division; functions as a microtubule-organizing center. A centrosome has two centrioles.

Metabolic channelling

Substrate channeling is when the intermediary metabolic product of one enzyme is passed directly to another enzyme or active site without being released into solution. When several consecutive enzymes of a metabolic pathway channel substrates between themselves, this is called a metabolon. Channeling can make a metabolic pathway more rapid and efficient than it would be if the enzymes were randomly distributed in the cytosol, or prevent the release of unstable intermediates. It can also protect an intermediate from being consumed by competing reactions catalyzed by other enzymes.

Succinyl-CoA

Succinyl-Coenzyme A, abbreviated as Succinyl-CoA or SucCoA, is a combination of succinic acid and coenzyme A. It is an important intermediate in the citric acid cycle, where it is synthesized from α-Ketoglutarate by α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase through decarboxylation. During the process, coenzyme A is added.

Fluid Feeders

Suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host

Glia

Supporting cells that are essential for structural integrity of the nervous system and normal functioning of neurons

Inspiratory Volume

TV + IRV

Alveolar Respiration

TV - Dead Space or the volume of gas per unit time that reaches the alveoli, the respiratory portions of the lungs where gas exchange occurs.

Pulmonary Ventilation

TV rate or the total volume of gas entering the lungs per minute

Cell fractionation

Takes cells apart and separates the major organelles and other subcellular structures from one another. Centrifuge is used for this.

phosphorylation

The 'giving' of Pi, a phosphate group.

Mitochondrial DNA

The DNA located in mitochondria It can be regarded as the smallest chromosome, and was the first significant part of the human genome to be sequenced. In most species, including humans, mtDNA is inherited solely from the mother. The DNA sequence of mtDNA has been determined from a large number of organisms and individuals (including some organisms that are extinct), and the comparison of those DNA sequences represents a mainstay of phylogenetics, in that it allows biologists to elucidate the evolutionary relationships among species. It also permits an examination of the relatedness of populations, and so has become important in anthropology and field biology.

Tidal Volume (TV)

The amount of air inspired or expired in a regular breath (500 mL)

Malate

The anion of malic acid, this is an intermediate formed after reaction T7 in the TCA cycle. The enzyme Fumarase adds two hydrogens and one oxygen to fumate to form this

Taxis

The capability of directed movement toward or away from a subject

Alpha carbon

The carbon bonded to the carboxyl group in an amino acid.

Coordinator

The central nervous system (CNS) = brain + spinal cord; processes information and initiates appropriate response.

The gamma rod

The centrally located crank shaft found in ATP synthase thought to be involved in the conversion of an energy gradient in to elastic energy.

Constitutive release

The constant release of small amounts of a substances from the cell membrane.

Efferent Arteriole

The converged capillaries leaving the glomerulus

Photosynthesis

The conversion of sunlight energy into C-C covalent bonds of a carbohydrate (makes glucose)

cytokinesis

The division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis, meiosis I, or meiosis II.

Temporal Summation

The effect of two EPSPs occurring in rapid succession at a single synapse and being added together

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a eukaryotic organelle that forms an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles, and cisternae within cells. Rough endoplasmic reticula synthesize proteins, while smooth endoplasmic reticula synthesize lipids and steroids, metabolize carbohydrates and steroids (but not lipids), and regulate calcium concentration, drug metabolism, and attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins. Sarcoplasmic reticula solely regulate calcium levels.

telophase

The fifth and final stage of mitosis, in which daughter nuclei are forming and cytokinesis has typically begun.

cleavage furrow

The first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.

prophase

The first stage of mitosis, in which the chromatin condenses, the mitotic spindle begins to form, and the nucleolus disappears, but the nucleus remains intact.

Biosynthetic-Secretory pathway

The first step of this protein synthesis pathway is the cotranslational targeting pathway, followed by the post translational modification of newly synthesized proteins in the ER and the Golgi beofre finally being either returned to the ER, forwarded on to other cell organelles or secreted from the cell by endocytosis.

Chromatin

The form of DNA during most of the cell cycle (the form in which DNA can be read)

Allosteric Regulation

The form of enzyme regulation brought about when an effector molecule binds to an enzyme at it's allosteric site, thus bringing about changes in it's conformation and therefor effecting it's ability to function. This form of regulation is immediately effective and also immediately reversible.

substrate-level phosphorylation

The formation of ATP by an enzyme directly transferring a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism.

anaphase

The fourth stage of mitosis, in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell.

mesophyll

The ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis and specialized for photosynthesis.

Raft hypothesis

The hypothesis that small 'rafts', semi rigid microdomains, dense in glycosphingolipids containing saturated fatty acids, cholesterols and various GPI anchored proteins exist in cell membranes. This has been supported by a number of fluorescence studies and it has been siggested that they may be hot spots for signalling.

SNARE hypothesis

The hypothesis that t- SNARE and v-SNARE proteins are embedded in vessicles to ensure that they only fuse with the correct destination organnele or membrane.

carbon fixation

The initial incorporation of carbon from CO2 into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism (a plant, another photosynthetic organism, or a chemoautotrophic prokaryote).

Salatory Conduction

The inward current produced during the rising phase of the action potential at a node Travels to the next node where it depolarizes the membrane and generates a new action potential

signal transduction

The linkage of a mechanical, chemical, or electromagnetic stimulus to a specific cellular response.

Uric Acid

The major nitrogenous waste excreted by insects, land snails, birds, and many reptiles

Spherical Micelle

The most stable structure for an aggregate of single tailed amphipathic liquid molecules e.g detergent in water.

Carboxyl Terminus

The name by which the -COOH (carboxyl) free end of a peptide is known.

Amino Terminus

The name by which the -NH₂ free end of a peptide is known.

Plasmalemma

The name by which the cell membrane of a plant is sometimes known.

Respiratory complexes

The name given to 'bunched together' electron carriers of the electron transport chain.

Nascent Chain

The name given to a growing polypeptide chain. Literally translated this word means beginning to exist or develop.

Connective Tissue

The name often given to tissue that contain a large proportion of extracellular matrix. In this tissues the cells that are secreting the materials are often quite far from each other.

Phyloric Sphincter

The opening from the stomach to the small intestine Helps regulate the passage of chyme into the intestine

pH Optima

The optimum pH in which an enzyme is most active, this is normally related to the normal environment of the enzyme, for example Pepsin has a pH optima of around 2, ideal for the acidic environment of the vertebrate stomach.

density-dependent inhibition

The phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another.

Vmax

The point on a hyperbolic plot/during an enzyme assay at which the maximum rate of substrate to product conversion is reached and the line begins to level out. This is often used to indicate the maximum rate of enzyme activity, however it is only approximate as the plot line never completely levels out.

Km

The point on a rectangular hyperbola which is half the value of the Vmax. It indicates the affinity of an enzyme and substrate a high value means low affinity and a low value means high affinity (the enzyme substrate locks more securely and takes longer to seperate and release products).

proton-motive force

The potential energy stored in the form of an electrochemical gradient, generated by the pumping of hydrogen ions across a biological membrane during chemiosmosis.

Exocytosis

The process by which substances are exported from a cell.

Phagocytosis/Endocytosis

The process by which substances or pathogens are taken in to a cell by engulfment by a vesicular structure surrounded by cell membrane.

photophosphorylation

The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton-motive force generated across the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast or the membrane of certain prokaryotes during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

Chemiosmotic coupling

The process that couples or links the electron transport chain to ATP synthes. Chemiosmosis is described as one of the mechanisms by which ATP is produced. As the electrons pass through the electron transport chain, energy is released, which is used to establish a proton gradient across a selectively-permeable membrane. The proton gradient drives the protons (hydrogen ions) to move down the gradient, releasing the energy that is in turn captured in the terminal phosphate bonds of ATP.

oxidative phosphorylation

The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; the third major stage of cellular respiration.

Membrane Biogenesis

The production of new membrane material, whic takes place in the ER.

Tubulin

The protein of which the microtubules of the eukaryote cytoskeleton are formed.

Reductionism

The reduction of complex substances to simpler components that are manageable to study. This is a powerful strategy in biology. pg 3

Regulated release

The release of substances from a cell membrane only when specific conditions exist. A good example is the release of gastrointestinal hormones and digestive enzymes in response to food.

cell division

The reproduction of cells.

anchorage dependence

The requirement that a cell must be attached to a substratum in order to divide.

Growth Cone

The responsive region at the leading edge of the growing axon

Undernourishment

The result of a diet that is chronically deficient in calories

Lateralization

The result of competing functions segregating and displacing each other in the cortex of the left and right cerebral hemispheres

Calvin cycle/reactions

The second of two major stages in photosynthesis (following the light reactions), involving fixation of atmospheric CO2 and reduction of the fixed carbon into carbohydrate.

prometaphase

The second stage of mitosis, in which discrete chromosomes consisting of identical sister chromatids appear, the nuclear envelope fragments, and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes.

centromere

The specialized region of the chromosome where two sister chromatids are most closely attached.

amplification

The strengthening of stimulus energy during transduction.

Liposomes

The structure formed by two tailed lipids when mixed with water, it consists of a spherical bilayer withthe hydrophobic tails pointing inwards and the hydrophillic heads pointing outwards in close contact with each other and the water.

Peritubular Capillaries

The subdivided efferent arteriole Surrounds the proximal and distal tubules

Induced Fit

The term used to describe the effect of a substrate on the active site of an enzyme on binding. This suggests that the active site and substrate are not an exact fit but the actual binding of the substrate induces a change in the structure of the active site.

metaphase

The third stage of mitosis, in which the spindle is complete and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the metaphase plate.

The c ring

The tiny electrically driven motor found in ATP synthase.

energy coupling

The use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one.

β sheet

The β sheet (also β-pleated sheet) is the second form of regular secondary structure in proteins, only somewhat less common than alpha helix. Beta sheets consist of beta strands connected laterally by at least two or three backbone hydrogen bonds, forming a generally twisted, pleated sheet. A beta strand (also β strand) is a stretch of polypeptide chain typically 3 to 10 amino acids long with backbone in an almost fully extended conformation. The higher-level association of β sheets has been implicated in formation of the protein aggregates and fibrils observed in many human diseases, notably the amyloidoses such as Alzheimer's disease.

Plastids

These are major organelles found in the cells of plants and algae. They are the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical compounds used by the cell, often containing pigments used in photosynthesis. The types of pigments present can change or determine the cell's color.These organelles are responsible for photosynthesis, storage of products like starch and for synthesis. All types are derived from proplastids (formerly "eoplasts", eo-: dawn, early), which are present in the meristematic regions of the plant. Proplastids and young chloroplasts commonly divide, but more mature chloroplasts also have this capacity.

Tight junctions

These cell junctions are linked very closely and prevent movement of membrane proteins, in the skin for example or in the role mainting the polarity of the cells of the intestine.

Nuclear pore complex

These complexes in the nuclear membrane allow the transport of water-soluble molecules across the nuclear envelope. This transport includes RNA and ribosomes moving from nucleus to the cytoplasm and proteins (such as DNA polymerase and lamins), carbohydrates, signal molecules and lipids moving into the nucleus. It is notable that the nuclear pore complex (NPC) can actively conduct 1000 translocations per complex per second. Although smaller molecules simply diffuse through the pores, larger molecules may be recognized by specific signal sequences and then be diffused with the help of nucleoporins into or out of the nucleus. This is known as the RAN cycle. Each of the eight protein subunits surrounding the actual pore (the outer ring) projects a spoke-shaped protein into the pore channel. The center of the pore often appears to contain a plug-like structure. It is yet unknown whether this corresponds to an actual plug or is merely cargo caught in transit.

Allosteric Activator

These effectors are often products of an earlier step in a catalytic pathway, they act to increase the activity of an enzyme at a time of high substrate availability.

Non Competitive Inhibitor

These inhibitors do not appear to have the same structure as substrate, it therefor binds at a different site on the enzyme and the ES complex can still form. It does however hinder the catylitic action of the enzyme and the end product is never produced.

Adherens Junctions

These junctions function in the same way as anchoring junctions, linking intercellular cytoskeletons using cadherin. Unlike the anchoring junctions these junctions use the actin filaments not the intermediate filaments to secure the cells.

Ficks Law

These laws of diffusion describe diffusion and can be used to solve for the diffusion coefficient, D. They were derived by Adolf Fick in the year 1855.The equation relates the difference (Ch-Cl) between the higher, Ch, and the lower Cl, concentrations of the substance, the area (A) and the thickness (x)of the membrane and a constant (D), called the diffusion coefficient, the value of which depends on the nature of the diffusing substance (e.g polarity, size, temperature etc).

Amphipathic Lipids

These lipids are molecules that are mostly lipid-like (hydrophobic) in structure, but at one end have a region that is polar or ionic (hydrophilic). The hydrophilic region is usually referred to as the head group, and the lipid portion is known as the tail(s). Cell membranes typically consist of three separate classes of lipids of this type. These include phospholipids, glycolipids, and steroids.

Chloroplasts

These plant organelles have their own DNA like mitochondria. They are normally larger than mitochondria though and they also have a three membrane system.

Corpus Callosum

Thick band of axons that allows communication between right and left cerebral cortices

Short-Term Memory

Things such as information, anticipation, or goals stored in locations in the frontal lobes that are released when they become irrelevant

Long-Term Memory

Things such as phone numbers or faces or other knowledge that we wish to retain Activated in a process requiring the hippocampus

Name of Sulfhydryl Compounds

Thiols.

Peptide Bond

This bond occurs when the amino group from one protein joins with the carboxyl group of another, forming a dipeptide.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

This complex (PDC) is a complex of three enzymes that transform pyruvate into acetyl-CoA by a process called pyruvate decarboxylation. Acetyl-CoA may then be used in the citric acid cycle to carry out cellular respiration, and this complex links the glycolysis metabolic pathway to the citric acid cycle. Pyruvate decarboxylation is also known as the "pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction" because it also involves the oxidation of pyruvate.This multi-enzyme complex is related structurally and functionally to the oxoglutarate dehydrogenase and branched-chain oxo-acid dehydrogenase multi-enzyme complexes.

Michaelis-Menton equation

This equation can be used if a range of [S] values is known, to plot a line. E + S ↔ ES → E + P

Gel Filtration

This form of filtration chromatography seprarates proteins, peptides, and oligonucleotides on the basis of size. Molecules move through a bed of porous beads, diffusing into the beads to greater or lesser degrees. Smaller molecules diffuse further into the pores of the beads and therefore move through the bed more slowly, while larger molecules enter less or not at all and thus move through the bed more quickly. Both molecular weight and three-dimensional shape contribute to the degree of retention. This technique may be used for analysis of molecular size, for separations of components in a mixture, or for salt removal or buffer exchange from a preparation of macromolecules.

Competitive Inhibitor

This form of inhibitor is very similar in structure to the substrate and can thus form an enzyme inhibitor complex which prevents the enzyme substrate complex from forming. It is theorised that the higher concentration of substrate to that of inhibitor the lower the rate of inhibitor interaction thus allowing Vmax to be obtained.

Symport

This form of secondary active transport uses the downhill movement of one solute species from high to low concentration to move another molecule uphill from low concentration to high concentration (against its electrochemical gradient). An example is the glucose symporter SGLT1, which co-transports one glucose (or galactose) molecule into the cell for every two sodium ions it imports into the cell. This symporter is located in the small intestines, trachea, heart, brain, testis, and prostate. It is also located in the S3 segment of the proximal tubule in each nephron in the kidneys. Its mechanism is exploited in glucose rehydration therapy and defects in SGLT1 prevent effective reabsorption of glucose, causing familial renal glucosuria.

Reversible Inhibitors

This inhibition can be relieved by the removal of the inhibitor from the enzyme solution due to weak reversible interactions they form with the enzyme.

Fumarate

This is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, formed after reaction T6, used by cells to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from food. It is formed by the oxidation of succinate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase. Fumarate is then converted by the enzyme fumarase to malate. Human skin naturally produces fumaric acid when exposed to sunlight. Fumarate is also a product of the urea cycle.

Golgi apparatus

This is an organelle found in all eukaryotic cells.It was identified in 1897 by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi, after whom it is named. It processes and packages proteins after their synthesis and before they make their way to their destination; it is particularly important in the processing of proteins for secretion. Its size varies in different types of cells depending on cell function; a hormone secreting cell will contain a far larger version of this organelle than a muscle cell for example. It also forms a part of the cellular endomembrane system.

Post-translation modification

This is the chemical modification of a protein after its translation. It is one of the later steps in protein biosynthesis, and thus gene expression, for many proteins.A protein (also called a polypeptide) is a chain of amino acids. During protein synthesis, 20 different amino acids can be incorporated to become a protein. After translation, the posttranslational modification of amino acids extends the range of functions of the protein by attaching it to other biochemical functional groups (such as acetate, phosphate, various lipids and carbohydrates), changing the chemical nature of an amino acid (e.g. citrullination), or making structural changes (e.g. formation of disulfide bridges).Also, enzymes may remove amino acids from the amino end of the protein, or cut the peptide chain in the middle. For instance, the peptide hormone insulin is cut twice after disulfide bonds are formed, and a propeptide is removed from the middle of the chain; the resulting protein consists of two polypeptide chains connected by disulfide bonds. Also, most nascent polypeptides start with the amino acid methionine because the "start" codon on mRNA also codes for this amino acid. This amino acid is usually taken off during post-translational modification.Other modifications, like phosphorylation, are part of common mechanisms for controlling the behavior of a protein, for instance activating or inactivating an enzyme.

Cooperativity

This is the concept that allosteric enzymes have multiple active sites and that binding of a bustrate to one of these active sites changes the conformation of the other sites making ES binding more likely. This gives the enzyme greater sensitivity to change allowing better responsiveness to changes in substrate availability.

R Group

This is the group which varies in proteins and can be any of twenty amino acids, the polarity of this Group dictates how a protein will behave in certain pH conditions. This explains why enzymes require a certain pH to function.

Feedback inhibition of regulatory enzymes

This is the mechanism by which the activity of an enzyme is allosterically effected by the later products in the catalytic pathway, thus preventing over production of the product. So the penultimate product of the enzyme also acts as the effector molecule at the enzyme allosteric site.

Primary Structure

This is the name given to the sequence of amino acid monomer units, or residues of which a compound is composed.

Oxidative phosphorylation

This is the process by which electrons are transferred from electron donors to electron acceptors such as oxygen, in redox reactions. These redox reactions release energy, which is used to form ATP. In eukaryotes, these redox reactions are carried out by a series of protein complexes within mitochondria, whereas, in prokaryotes, these proteins are located in the cells' inner membranes. These linked sets of proteins are called electron transport chains. In eukaryotes, five main protein complexes are involved, whereas in prokaryotes many different enzymes are present, using a variety of electron donors and acceptors.

LDH reaction

This is the reaction which interconverts pyruvate and lactate with concomitant interconversion of NADH and NAD+ catalysed by lactate dehydrogenase. It converts pyruvate, the final product of glycolysis, to lactate when oxygen is absent or in short supply, and it performs the reverse reaction during the Cori cycle in the liver. At high concentrations of lactate, the enzyme exhibits feedback inhibition, and the rate of conversion of pyruvate to lactate is decreased.

Mitochondrial Matrix

This matrix contains soluble enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of pyruvate and other small organic molecules. It also contains the mitochondria's DNA and ribosomes. The word "matrix" stems from the fact that this space is viscous, compared to the relatively aqueous cytoplasm.

Extracellular Matrix

This matrix is secreted by cells and laid down externally and it's properties vary enormously depending on it's chemical composition and which tissue is being examined. In some cells it acts as cement or scaffolding. In plants it can be associated with individual cells.

Reversible covalent modification

This process involves the reversible addition of a small chemical group (e.g phosphate, acetyl) to the side chain of a particular amino acid residue. The most common example of this modification is protein phosphorolation. This process plays a major role in cell functioning.

Proteolyisis

This process is the directed degradation (digestion) of proteins which fail to fold correctly by cellular enzymes called proteases or by intramolecular digestion.

Clathrin

This protein plays a major role in the formation of coated vesicles. It forms a triskelion shape composed of three clathrin heavy chains and three light chains. When the triskelia interact they form a polyhedral lattice that surrounds the vesicle. Coat-proteins, like clathrin, are used to build small vesicles in order to safely transport molecules between cells. The endocytosis and exocytosis of vesicles allows cells to transfer nutrients, to import signaling receptors, to mediate an immune response after sampling the extracellular world, and to clean up the cell debris left by tissue inflammation. On occasion, this mechanism also provides a pathway for raiding pathogens or toxins.

Western Blotting

This protein seperation technique (sometimes called the protein immunoblot) is a widely used analytical technique used to detect specific proteins in the given sample of tissue homogenate or extract. It uses gel electrophoresis to separate native or denatured proteins by the length of the polypeptide (denaturing conditions) or by the 3-D structure of the protein (native/ non-denaturing conditions). The proteins are then transferred to a membrane (typically nitrocellulose or PVDF), where they are probed (detected) using antibodies specific to the target protein. There are now many reagent companies that specialize in providing antibodies (both monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies) against tens of thousands of different proteins. Commercial antibodies can be expensive, although the unbound antibody can be reused between experiments. This method is used in the fields of molecular biology, biochemistry, immunogenetics and other molecular biology disciplines.

Sodium Pump

This pump is involved in active transport and is responsible for cells containing relatively high concentrations of potassium ions but low concentrations of sodium ions. It moves these two ions in opposite directions across the plasma membrane. This was investigated by following the passage of radioactively labeled ions across the plasma membrane of certain cells. It was found that the concentrations of sodium and potassium ions on the two other sides of the membrane are interdependent, suggesting that the same carrier transports both ions. It is now known that the carrier is an ATP-ase and that it pumps three sodium ions out of the cell for every two potassium ions pumped in.

The link reaction

This reaction, which involves pyruvate decarboxylation, forms an important link between the metabolic pathways of glycolysis and the citric acid or Krebs cycle. In eukaryotes, the reaction takes place only inside the mitochondrial matrix; in prokaryotes similar reactions take place in the cytoplasm and at the plasma membrane. To summarise: 1. Pyruvate (represented by the 3 carbon molecule in the diagram) is decarboxylated: CO2 is removed. 2. It is added to CoA to form Acetyl CoA Acetyl CoA is then ready for use in the Krebs Cycle. The Link reaction is important as acetyl-CoA is needed for the Krebs cycle to happen.

Heterochromatin

This shows as dark areas on the eukaryotic nucleas; it is densly packed chormatin (DNA and protein complex) which cannot be transcribed.

Early endosomes

This stage of endosome matures in several ways to form late endosomes.They consist of a dynamic tubular-vesicular network (vesicles up to 1 µm in diameter with connected tubules of approx. 50 nm diameter). Markers include RAB5 and RAB4, Transferrin and its receptor and EEA1. They become increasingly acidic mainly through the activity of the V-ATPase. Many molecules that are recycled are removed by concentration in the tubular regions of early endosomes. Loss of these tubules to recycling pathways means that late endosomes mostly lack tubules. They also increase in size due to the homotypic fusion of early endosomes into larger vesicles.

Primary active transport

This type of transport is also called direct active transport, directly uses energy to transport molecules across a membrane. Most of the enzymes that perform this type of transport are transmembrane ATPases. A primary ATPase universal to all cellular life is the sodium-potassium pump, which helps to maintain the cell potential. Other sources of energy for Primary active transport are redox energy and photon energy (light). An example of primary active transport using Redox energy is the mitochondrial electron transport chain that uses the reduction energy of NADH to move protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane against their concentration gradient. An example of primary active transport using light energy are the proteins involved in photosynthesis that use the energy of photons to create a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane and also to create reduction power in the form of NADPH.

Pharynx

Throat A junction that opens to both the esophagus and the windpipe

Northern White cedar

Thuja occidentalis

(Eastern) Hemlock

Tsuga canadensis

Urethra

Tube through which urine is expelled from the urinary bladder

Metanephridia

Tubular excretory system with internal openings that collect body fluids

Mobile carriers

Two such carriers are found in the ETC in the form of ubiquinone (or Q) and the protein cytochrome c.

Red 'oxidative' fibres

Type I fibers appear red due to the presence of the oxygen binding protein myoglobin. These fibers are suited for endurance and are slow to fatigue because they use oxidative metabolism to generate ATP.

White 'glycolytic' fibres

Type II fibers are white due to the absence of myoglobin and a reliance on glycolytic enzymes. These fibers are efficient for short bursts of speed and power and use both oxidative metabolism and anaerobic metabolism depending on the particular sub-type. These fibers are quicker to fatigue.

American Basswood

Ulmus americana

Slippery (red) Elm

Ulmus rubra

Essential Fatty Acids

Unsaturated fatty acids that animals cannot synthesize

Secretion

Use of active transport to add nonessential solutes and wastes (excess salts and toxins) back into filtrate

Nuclear Magnetic Response (NMR)

Used to determine the 3-D structure of proteins, but does not require protein crystallization.

X-ray Crystallography

Used to determine the 3-D structures of many other proteins.

cis face

Usually located near the ER.

Irreversible Inhibitors

Usually not of biological origins, these act by forming strong covalent bonds with the enzyme, poisoning them. The bond is so strong it is irreversible and example of this would be heavy metal toxicity.

Membrane Potential

Voltage difference across the plasma membrane

Filtrate

Water and small solutes (salts, sugars, amino acids, nitrogenous wastes) forced into the excretory system

Nerve Nets

Web of nerves

Renaturation

When a denaturated protein is brought back together when the physical and chemical aspects of the environment are brought back together.

Structure of a Carboxyl

When an oxygen atom is double bonded to a carbon atom that is also bonded to an --OH group, the entire assembly of atoms is called a carboxyl group. (--COOH)

Respiratory control

When electron carriers of the ETC 'sense' the slowing down of ATP synthase, due to full sotkc of ATP in the mitochondria, they too slow down the transfer of electrons, thus automatically conserving fuel when ATP is plentiful.

Nucleoid

Where DNA is present in prokaryotic cells.

Coupling

Where an energy releasing reaction (oxidation) drives and energy requiring reaction (phosphorylation).

Amensalism

Where an organism inflicts harm to another organism without any costs or benefits received by itself.

Supernatant

Where lighter particles from centrifuge reside; the heavier ones reside in the pellet

Allelopathy

Where one organism produces a chemical substance which has a harmful effect on another organism.

Cannibalism

Where one population eats organisms within the same population because of scarce food resources.

Competition

Where organisms fight for the same resources.

stroma

Within the chloroplast, the dense fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.

R plasmids

a bacterial plasmid carrying genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics

mobilome

a collection of genes and genetic elements that can actively move within a single genome and/or have the capacity to move between different individuals - eg. plasmids, transposons, DNA transduced by viruses

taxis

a directed movement or away from a stiumulus

Taxa

a group of one or more populations of an organism seen (by taxonomists) to form a unit.

In ecology, predation is..

a mechanism of population control.

slime layer

a not well defined capsule

episome

a plasmid that can integrate or excise with a chromosome via homologous recombination

prime plasmid

a plasmid that has recently acquired chunks of chromosome

peptidoglycan

a pollymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides

heterocysts

a specialized cell that engages in nitrogen fixation in some filamentous cyanobacteria

endospore

a thick-coated, resistant cell produced by some bacterial cells when they are exposed to harsh conditions; water is removed and metabolsim halts

Lymphocyte

a type of white blood cell in the vertebrate immune system

Helper T cells

activate B cell (specific for the same antigen)

clumped dispersion

aggregated in patches

Phenetics/ Artificial Classification

an attempt to classify organisms based on overall morphology and similarity.

Cladistics/ Natural Classification

an attempt to group organisms according to their evolutionary relationships.

pilli

appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA from one cell to the other

AB INITIO

approach for counting number of genes that involves comparing the sequence to key motifs in a gene

extrinsic

approach for counting number of genes that involves comparing the sequence to previously known sequences

~5 nm

approximate thickness of the cell membrane (include label)

methanogens

archaea that release methane as a by-product of their unique ways of obtaining energy

Ti

bacterial plasmid that conjugates with a plant cell

change in population size formula

birth-deaths

density independent

birth/death don't change with density

Complement proteins

blood proteins that contribute to the breakdown and removal of pathogens

Chemosynthesis

capture of energy released from certain inorganic chemical reactions (likely permitted life on Earth before an ozone layer was formed)

Monoclonal antibodies

carry drugs to specific target cells; treat variety of diseases; used in pregnancy testing/AIDS testing kits

Y

chromosome with the fewest genes

double minutes

circular fragments of chromosomal DNA amplified in human cancer cells

type 2 survivorship curve

constant death rate over lifetime (rodents)

Central grey matter

contains cell bodies + relay neurons

Outer white matter

contains myelinated axons that run up and down spinal cord to and from brain

prokaryotic cell wall

contains peptidoglycon and is surrounded by a layer of polysaccharide or protein

Spleen

contains wbcs that respond to any antigens collected from the blood

populations decline because?

death or emigration

density dependent limiting

death rates rise with the population

quorum sensing

demonstrated in bacillus; gene is switched on when in a population but switched off when in isolation

K selection

density dependent, crowded environments, adoptions favor traits that help survival under crowded circumstances

R selection

density independent favors rapid reproduction traits

Sporophyte generation

diploid stage; spores made by meiosis

Bryophytes

do not have true stems/leaves/a vascular system.

type 3 survivorship curve

drops sharply on left side but flattens out at a certain stage. Many young left on their own (fish, spiders)

Thymus

educates T cells; provides environment for them to grow in

Lysozyme

enzyme that damages bacterial walls

DNA methylase

enzyme that protects the host chromosome from restriction endonucleases

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

equilibrium principle stating that allele/genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences.

uniform dispersal

evenly spaced, somtimes caused by interaction between individuals

Archegonia

female part; produces eggs

Lymph nodes

filter out bacteria + waste; contain wbcs to fight infection

type 1 survivorship curve

flat at start then drops steeply (human)

boom-bust cycle

fluctuations with regularity that can't be explained by change alone

bacteriophage

form of virus that infects bacteria

Capsule

found on the sporophyte generation of a moss; contains spores; covered by a lid

C value paradox

genome size does not always equate to the number of genes in a genome

Prothallus

germinated fern

Gametophyte generation

haploid stage; gametes made by mitosis

human population growth

has been growing exponentially with 300 years but can't do so forever

bundle-sheath cell

in C4 plants, a type of photosynthetic cell arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of A leaf.

bottom line of reproduction

it all depends on the survival rate of the offspring, if poor repeated reproduction is favored, if good big bang is favored

Phagocytes

large white blood cells which engulf foreign material

capsule

layer surrounding by a sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein

Relay neurons

link sensory + motor neurons to CNS

endotoxins

lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria

flagella

long cellular appendages specialized for locomotion; probably an analogous structure

big bang reproduction

lots of babies then die (century plants, salmon)- semelparity

Antherida

male part; produces sperm

B cells (B lymphocytes)

mature in the bone marrow; secrete antibodies

T cells

mature in the thymus; react to viruses like antibodies do; several types (Killer, Helper, Regulatory)

biofilms

metabolic cooperation between different prokaryotic species often occurs in surface-coating colonies

Spores

minute, independent cells that can divide on their own to make many-celled bodies ; have a simple structure (genetic material encased in a protective coat)

transposable elements

mobile DNA sequences that are able to jump from one genomic location to another within a cell

demographic transition

moving from high birth and death to low birth and death

Disturbing evolutionary influences

mutations / natural selection / non-random mating / genetic drift

obligate anaerobes

organisms poisoned by oxygen

obligate aerobes

organisms that must use oxygen for cellular respiration and can't grow without it

Facultative anaerobes

organisms that use oxygen if it is present but can also carry out fermentation or anaerboic respiration in an anaerobic environment

Lymph vessels

pick up waste (lymph: protein, cellular debris, bacteria + viruses) and carry it to lymph nodes; located throughout your body like arteries or veins

Fragmentation (MOSS REPRODUCTION)

pieces of a gametophyte break off and regenerate

survivorship curves

plot of number in a cohort still alive at each stage

R is negative if?

population is declining

R is positive if?

population is growing

Innate immune system

primary defences; present from birth

transfection

process where foreign DNA is forced into mammalian cells by treatment with calcium / phosphates / electroporation

Memory cells

produced by B cells; multiply into plasma cells which can produce large numbers of antibodies in the secondary response, making it much faster

capsid

protein that contains a nucleic acid genome

pilus

protein tube that allows conjugation

exotoxins

proteins secreted by certain bacteria and other organism

age structure

relative number of individuals in each stage

repeated reproduction

reproduce annually, few young each time- iteroparity, lizards

additions to population size happen because?

reproduction, immigration

what are seven things that cause negative feedback?

resource limitation, territoriality, avaiability of nestings sights, health of organisms, predation, accumulation of toxic waste, disease

Rhizoid

roots of a moss

21000

roughly the number of genes in the human genome

chromothripsis

shattering of chromosomes in cancer cells

fimbriae

short, hairlike appendages of a prokaryotic cell that helps it adhere to the substrate of other cells

10-100 nm

size of a virus (include label)

1 µm

size of bacteria (include label)

10-100 µm

size of eukaryotic cells (include label)

Cytokines

small protein molecules which function as activators and inhibitors of cell signalling pathways for the growth, differentiation and behaviour of cells within the immune system

Bone marrow

soft tissue inside your bones where all blood cells and lymphocytes are made

how does demographic transition happens (5)

some countries regulate birth rate (China), voluntary contraception, family planning, social change (women working), delayed reproduction

dispersion

spacing of individuals within a geographic area

Adaptive immune system

specialised and systematic; acquired

crown gall

structure formed in plant cancer

anaerobic respirateion

substances other than oxygen accept electrons at the downhill end of electron transport chain

F Factor

the DNA segment that confers the ability to form pili for conjugation and associated functinos required for the transfer of DNA from donor to recipient, It may exist as a plasmid or be integrated into the bacterial chromosome

competence

the ability of a prokaryotic cell to take up DNA from the environment

Nitrogen Fixation

the conversion of nitrogen into ammonia

host

the larger organism in a symbiotic relationship

Fronds

the leaf of a fern

symbiont

the smaller organism in the relationship

Biosystematics

the statistical analysis of data obtained from genetic and biochemical studies to asses the taxonomic relationships of organisms / the study of the diversification of living forms.

bioremediation

the use of organisms to remove pollutants from soi, air, or water

Dead space ventilation

the volume of gas per unit time that does not reach these respiratory portions, but instead remains in the airways [trachea, bronchi, etc.

sulfhydryl group

thiols

Gemmae (MOSS REPRODUCTION)

tiny structures on the gametophyte that can be separated by raindrops and spread

life history

traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival

Motor neurons

transmit impulses from CNS to effectors

Sensory neurons

transmit impulses from receptors to CNS

transposon

transposable element that contains extra genetic information

Lymphoid tissue clumps

trap antigens and present them to lymphocytes to trigger an immune response; located along respiratory + gastrointestinal systems

yeast and fungi

two eukaryotic organisms in which plasmids can occur

virion

virus particle

adenovirus

virus propagated extrachromosomally in the nucleus

retrovirus

virus whose genome is integrated into the host cell genome

integration

where a plasmid has been incorporated into the chromosome to make one continuous molecule

excision

where an integrated plasmid is removed from the chromosome

R is zero if?

zero population growth, no change