Virology Midterm (Quizzes & Self Assessments)

Enveloped viruses do not have a capsid. A) True B) False

B) False The capsid & envelope are separate structures, although they can interact. Enveloped viruses also contain a capsid surrounding their genome.

Vesicular stomatitis virus uses a process called "prime and realign" for adding poly(A) sequence to its mRNA molecule A) True B) False

B) False The process used by VSV is reiterative copying. Prime and realign is a mechanism used for de novo initiation of RNA synthesis.

What is the correct order of integration? [__] Joining [__] Repair [__] Processing

1 - Processing 2 - Joining 3 - Repair

What are the general steps in virus replication?

1) Cell Entry - Attachment, Penetration, Uncoating 2) Macromolecular synthesis (programmed gene expression, viral mRNA and protein synthesis, viral genome replication) 3) Assembly 4) Release and maturation

List two of the four sources of RNA diversity among RNA viruses.

1) Misincorporation of nucleotides during RNA synthesis 2) RNA genome reassortment C) Recombination D) ENA editing

Splicing removes introns from a pre-mRNA in a way that always produces the same mature mRNA from a particular gene region. A) True B) False

B) False There are frequently alternative splicing patterns for a pre-mRNA.

Viral capsids are assembled according to protein-protein interactions based on (select 3): A) Icosahedral symmetry B) Spiral organization C) Helical symmetry D) Complex interactions E) Double helix formation

A, C, D A) Icosahedral symmetry C) Helical symmetry D) Complex interactions

RNA interference mediated by siRNAs is a potent anti-viral defense in mammals. A) True B) False

B) False siRNAs is a potent anti-viral defense used by plants, fungi, and invertebrates.

RNA can be transcribed directly from a single-stranded DNA viral genome. A) True B) False

B) False ssDNA templates must be copied from a dsDNA form

In a positive autoregulatory loop, a viral gene product initially made at a low basal rate upregulates its own expression, thereby increasing levels of that gene product during the course of an infection. A) True B) False

A) True

Negative-sense RNA viral genomes are bound and structured by nucleocapsid proteins, while positive-sense RNA genomes are not incorporated into nucleoprotein complexes. A) True B) False

A) True

Negative-strand and double-stranded RNA viruses require the presence of a pre-packaged RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to initiate RNA synthesis upon entry into the host cell. A) True B) False

A) True

Positive-strand RNA virus genomes can serve as viral mRNA, while negative-strand RNA viruses require the synthesis of viral mRNA from the negative-strand genome. A) True B) False

A) True

RNA editing can occur either co-transcriptionally or post-transcriptionally. A) True B) False

A) True

The fidelity of DNA polymerase in coping DNA is higher than the fidelity of RNA polymerase in transcribing RNAs. A) True B) False

A) True

The three genes common to simple and complex retroviruses are gag, pol, and env. A) True B) False

A) True

Uncoating of a virus at the plasma membrane typically involves fusion of the virus and cell lipid bilayers. A) True B) False

A) True

Match the definition related to RNA virus diversity with the correct term: transmission of pathogens between different species. A) Zoonosis B) RNA editing C) Recombination D) Reassortment E) Quasispecies F) Misincorporation

A) Zoonosis

Select the three genes that are common to simple and complex retroviral genomes. A) Gag B) Env C) Nef D) Pol E) Rev

A, B, D A) Gag B) Env D) Pol

Viruses cause disease by which of the following? Select all that apply. A) Breaching the body's natural defense barrier B) Evading the host's immune response C) Indirectly killing the infected cells D) Triggering destructive immune and inflammatory processes E) Evolving genetically

A, B, D, E A) Breaching the body's natural defense barrier B) Evading the host's immune response D) Triggering destructive immune and inflammatory processes E) Evolving genetically

The viral proteins SV40 large T-antigen, HPV-E7, and Ad-E1A have activities that prepare the cell to: A) Allow DNA replication in the cytoplasm B) Make large amounts of viral DNA C) Make large amounts of viral structural proteins for packaging new infectious virions D) Undergo apoptosis to release new infectious viruses

B) Make large amounts of viral DNA

Match the term related to RNA structure and synthesis: appropriation of 5' ends from cellular mRNAs for the addition to viral mRNAs. A) Cap snatching B) Elongation C) Prime & Realign D) Pseudoknot E) Reiterative copying

A) Cap snatching

Which of the following terms is defined by: Found at both ends of the provirus. A) Long terminal repeat B) (-) strong stop DNA C) Polypurine tract D) Provirus E) Pseudodiploid

A) Long terminal repeat

The function of the viral capsid is to: A) Protect the viral genome from environmental hazards such as UV irradiation, extremes of pH, nucleolytic attack B) Block the host anti-viral defenses C) Serve as the viral genome, encoding all viral proteins D) Provide enzymatic activity for the replication of the viral genome

A) Protect the viral genome from environmental hazards such as UV irradiation, extremes of pH, nucleolytic attack

The core promoter of a gene: A) Provides binding site for general transcription factors that serve to recruit RNA polymerase II to this region of the DNA B) Is a DNA sequence where RNA polymerase II can bind directly and independently to initiate RNA synthesis C) Provides a binding site for transcriptional activators or repressors that are expressed in a cell-specific manner D) Is only necessary for cellular genes, but not for viral genes

A) Provides binding site for general transcription factors that serve to recruit RNA polymerase II to this region of the DNA

The early and late phases of infection by DNA viruses are: A) Separated by the onset of viral DNA synthesis B) Characterized by the early production of structural proteins needed for virus assembly C) Clearly and distinctly separated by the complete absence of late gene expression in early stages of infection and the complete absence of early gene regulation in the late stage D) Regulated only by changes in the activity of cellular transcription factors

A) Separated by the onset of viral DNA synthesis

Which of the following statements is true regarding viruses that have a (+) strand RNA genome and replicate through a RNA intermediate? A) These viruses must encode enzymes necessary to copy the (+) strand RNA genome into a (-) strand to serve as a template for the production of additional genome copies B) The genome of these viruses is copied into a (-) strand to produce viral mRNAs C) All enzymatic activities required for replication of these viruses can be provided by host cell enzymes D) These viruses must replicate in the host cell nucleus in order to access necessary host enzymatic activities

A) These viruses must encode enzymes necessary to copy the (+) strand RNA genome into a (-) strand to serve as a template for the production of additional genome copies

Protein synthesis takes place on ribosomes, which are large RNA-protein complexes found in the cytoplasm of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE regarding eukaryotic ribosomes? A) Transfer RNAs are small RNAs that form part of the structure of the 40S subunit B) Each small (40S) r-subunit contains one copy of an 18S RNA, plus ~30 different proteins C) Each large (60S) r-subunit contains one copy of a 28S RNA, a 5.8S RNA, and a 5S RNA, plus ~50 different proteins D) The combined 40S and 60S ribosomal subunits form an 80S complex E) Together, the ribosomal RNAs account for ~85% or more of the total RNA in a cell

A) Transfer RNAs are small RNAs that form part of the structure of the 40S subunit -tRNAs are not part of the 40S subunit structure -tRNA is part of the ternary complex, which associates with the 40S subunit during initiation, forming the 43S pre-initiation complex

All viral proteins are translated by the host cell machinery. A) True B) False

A) True

Covalently closed circular hepadnaviral DNA is produced by reverse transcription and not by the host cell DNA synthesis machinery. A) True B) False

A) True

Early endosomes are typically in a pH range of 6.0 to 6.5. A) True B) False

A) True

Select the distinguishing characteristics of reverse transcriptase (RT). Select all that apply. A) The copying fidelity of RT is low, resulting in 1 nucleotide misincorporation in every 10,000 to 1,000,000 base pairs copied B) RT is uniquely glycosylated C) DNA polymerization carried out by RT is relatively slow compared to other DNA polymerases D) RT includes RNase H activiy E) RT Includes proof-reading activity

A, C, D A) The copying fidelity of RT is low, resulting in 1 nucleotide misincorporation in every 10,000 to 1,000,000 base pairs copied C) DNA polymerization carried out by RT is relatively slow compared to other DNA polymerases D) RT includes RNase H activiy

Mechanisms that are used to regulate the switch between mRNA synthesis and genome copying include (select all that apply): A) Regulation of the presence of nucleocapsid proteins B) Activation of RdRp by phosphorylation C) Synthesis of mRNA and genome copies from different templates D) Suppression of mRNA termination at secondary structures E) Suppression of mRNA polyadenylation

A, C, D, E A) Regulation of the presence of nucleocapsid proteins C) Synthesis of mRNA and genome copies from different templates D) Suppression of mRNA termination at secondary structures E) Suppression of mRNA polyadenylation

Characteristics used to classify viruses include (select all that apply): A) The composition (RNA or DNA) of their genome B) Symptoms of the disease they cause C) The presence or absence of an envelope D) The geographical location where they were first isolated E) The polarity of their nucleic acid genome

A, C, E A) The composition (RNA or DNA) of their genome C) The presence or absence of an envelope E) The polarity of their nucleic acid genome

Select the two activities that distinctly define retroviruses. A) Integration B) Temporal cascade of viral gene expression C) Exclusively cytoplasmic replication D) Reverse transcription E) Distinct patterns of viral gene expression during lytic replication and latency

A, D A) Integration D) Reverse transcription

Which of the following represent possible configurations for a viral genome? Select all that apply. A) Circular, dsDNA B) Linear, dsDNA C) dsRNA, segmented D) ssRNA, (+) polarity E) ssRNA, (-) polarity F) ssDNA

All answers apply. A) Circular, dsDNA B) Linear, dsDNA C) dsRNA, segmented D) ssRNA, (+) polarity E) ssRNA, (-) polarity F) ssDNA

Viruses can infect (select all that apply): A) Mammals B) Plants C) Bacteria D) Archea E) Insects F) Worms

All answers apply. A) Mammals B) Plants C) Bacteria D) Archea E) Insects F) Worms

The cap structure of an mRNA is formed by methylation of the first G residue transcribed by RNA polymerase II. A) True B) False

B) False The G residue is added by a guanyl transferase, not the polymerase.

Which of the following terms is defined by: negative sense DNA produced by reverse transcriptase using the tRNA. A) Long terminal repeat B) (-) strong stop DNA C) Polypurine tract D) Provirus E) Pseudodiploid

B) (-) strong stop DNA

Viral envelopes: A) Are formed from lipids synthesized by viral enzymes B) Are derived from host cell membranes C) Form a protective layer immediately surrounding the viral genome D) Do not contain embedded viral proteins

B) Are derived from host cell membranes

The process used by influenza virus to acquire cellular mRNA 5' caps for the synthesis of viral mRNA is called: A) Reiterative copying B) Cap snatching C) Prime and realign D) Elongation E) Recombination

B) Cap snatching

Match the definition related to RNA structure and synthesis to the correct term: addition of nucleotide to a growing RNA strand. A) Cap snatching B) Elongation C) Prime & Realign D) Pseudoknot E) Reiterative copying

B) Elongation

Influenza virus antigenic drift arises from genomic segment reassortment, while antigenic shift caused by misincorporations in the HA and NA genes that occur during replication. A) True B) False

B) False

Integration site preference is loosely dependent on the primary host DNA sequence, but not on gene structure (coding vs non-coding). A) True B) False

B) False

Positive-strand RNA viruses require the presence of a RdRp in the virion to initiate RNA synthesis in the host cell. A) True B) False

B) False

Receptor-mediated endocytosis is the only way an enveloped virus can enter a cell. A) True B) False

B) False

Synthesis of DNA during replication of viral DNA genomes can be initiated in the absence of a primer. A) True B) False

B) False

The processing step during integration is critically dependent on a terminal 3'-GA-5' dinucleotide in the proviral sequence. A) True B) False

B) False

Translation is most frequently regulated during the longation phase of protein synthesis that requires the activity of the factor eEF-2 and GTP. A) True B) False

B) False

Viruses released from the cell they infected are infectious immediately upon release. A) True B) False

B) False

The long terminal repeat is only found on the 5' end of the proviral RNA, where it functions as a promoter that regulates viral gene expression. A) True B) False

B) False Although the LTR does function as a viral promoter in its 5' position, a LTR can be found on both ends of the proviral DNA genome.

Integrase is not packaged into nascent virions, but is instead expressed de novo early during viral replication. A) True B) False

B) False Integrase is packed into nascent virions, so it can be used to complete steps in the replication cycle.

The site of integration is not dependent on the target sequence. A) True B) False

B) False Integration is loosely dependent on sequence and DNA structure.

Polyadenylation of the adenoviral late transcripts occurs at one of the five possible sites in the pre-mRNA transcript that are randomly selected. A) True B) False

B) False Poly(A) site selection is regulated during the course of the infection.

Which of the following statements regarding viral structural proteins is true? A) Since viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, all structural proteins of a virus are encoded in the host cell genome B) Proteins of the viral capsid help to protect the viral genome C) Viral proteins play a role in the infectious cycle once the virus has entered a host cell D) No interaction between viral proteins and host cell proteins is necessary when viruses attach to a host cell during infection E) Viral proteins are invisible to the host immune system and do not induce an immune response

B) Proteins of the viral capsid help to protect the viral genome

Match the definition related to RNA virus diversity with the correct term: Post-synthesis alterations in the viral mRNA. A) Zoonosis B) RNA editing C) Recombination D) Reassortment E) Quasispecies F) Misincorporation

B) RNA editing

Which of the following statements regarding viral envelopes is true? A) All viruses are surrounded by a lipid bilayer called the viral membrane B) Some viruses acquire a membrane envelope as they bud from the host cell membrane C) Proteins of a viral enveloped are located solely on the viral surface and do not interact with internal viral components such as the matrix or capsid D) A viral envelope can contain host cell proteins, but not viral proteins

B) Some viruses acquire a membrane envelope as they bud from the host cell membrane

Which of the following statements regarding the HIV-1 Tat protein is FALSE? A) Tat initiates a positive autoregulatory loop that promotes replication of the virus B) Tat binds to a structured region called TAR that is located in the viral promoter region in the LTR C) Tat acts to promote the synthesis of full-length transcripts from the promoter found in the viral LTR D) Tat is translated from mRNAs that have been processed from full-length viral transcripts that were initiated from the viral LTR

B) Tat binds to a structured region called TAR that is located in the viral promoter region in the LTR

Viruses are regarded as obligate intracellular parasites because: A) They can kill cells by eating their ribosomes B) They rely on cellular energy resources and biosynthetic machinery to replicate C) They cause disease because they use up all of the host cell energy D) They can reproduce outside of cells, but must infect cells to spread

B) They rely on cellular energy resources and biosynthetic machinery to replicate

The utilization of the CD4 receptor by HIV for attachment and entry is an example of ___? A) Glycoprotein (peplomer) B) Tropism C) Entry D) Attachment E) Capsid

B) Tropism

Which of the following proteins help guide the assembly of virus particles? Select all that apply. A) Lipid rafts B) Glycoproteins C) DNA genome D) Matrix proteins E) Capsid proteins

B, D B) Glycoproteins D) Matrix proteins

Which of the following proteins help guide the assembly of virus particles? Select all that apply. A) Lipid rafts B) Glycoproteins C) DNA genome D) Capsid proteins E) Matrix proteins

B, E B) Glycoproteins E) Matrix proteins

Explain in 1-2 sentences why the HIV-1 viral particle contains 50-100 copies of reverse transcriptase (RT) and integrase (IN).

Both enzymes are required to complete steps in the replication cycle that take place before viral gene expression can begin. Therefore, copies of both enzymes must be pre-packaged and delivered inside the infecting virus.

Which of the following types of viral genome can function directly as a protein-coding mRNA in the infected cell? A) ssDNA B) dsDNA C) (+) strand RNA D) (-) strand RNA E) dsRNA

C) (+) strand RNA

This type of RNA virus includes positive and negative sense regions, and requires an intermediate template called an antigenome RNA. A) (-) strand RNA virus B) (+) strand RNA virus C) Ambisense RNA virus D) dsRNA virus

C) Ambisense RNA virus

Arenavirus is ___ RNA virus that makes the switch from mRNA synthesis to genome copying using ___. A) A (-) sense; suppression of stem-loop mediated mRNA termination B) A (+) sense; different templates for mRNA synthesis and genome copying C) An ambisense; suppression of stem-loop mediated mRNA termination D) An ambisense; alterations in RdRp specificity by sequential proteolytic cleavage E) Double-stranded; the same template for mRNA synthesis and genome copying

C) An ambisense; suppression of stem-loop mediated mRNA termination

The simplest icosahedral capsids: A) Is always enveloped B) Require at least 20 different types of capsid proteins C) Can be assembled from a single type of capsid protein D) Forms a filamentous structure E) Must use different proteins to form the vertices and facets

C) Can be assembled from a single type of capsid protein

The unusual folded structure at the ends of the small AAV DNA genome provides a solution to which of the following molecular problems? A) mRNA stability: ends of transcripts are protected from degradation by exonucleases B) Transcription initiation: requires binding sites for protein factors to identify start site C) Genome replication: DNA polymerase requires a primer D) Polyadenylation: requires binding of protein factors to specific sequence elements in mRNA

C) Genome replication: DNA polymerase requires a primer

The proof-reading activity of DNA polymerase: A) Allows addition of new nucleotides to the 5' end of a DNA strand in order to repair miscorporated, incorrectly base-paired mechanisms B) Induce a double-stranded break at the position of a miscorporated nucleotide that is repaired by non-homologous end joining C) Includes a 3' to 5' exonuclease to remove misincoporated nucleotides D) Is not active when viral DNA genomes are being copied, allowing rapid evoluation of dsDNA viruses

C) Includes a 3' to 5' exonuclease to remove misincoporated nucleotides

A transcriptional cascade that occurs during an adenoviral infection: A) Is initiated by the release of viral E1A protein that enters the infected cell with the virion B) Is initiated by Tat activation of transcription of the viral E1A gene C) Is initiated by the transcription of the viral E1A gene by cellular RNA pol II and only cellular transcription factors D) Allows high levels of production of viral structural proteins early in infection

C) Is initiated by the transcription of the viral E1A gene by cellular RNA pol II and only cellular transcription factors

The (-) sense DNA produced by reverse transcriptase using the tRNA primer is called ____. A) Terminal RNA B) Stop gap RNA C) Negative strong stop RNA D) End gap END

C) Negative strong stop RNA

Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE regarding the kinase, PKR? A) PKR is activated by binding to dsRNA B) PKR is activated as a cellular defense that globally suppresses translation in a cell C) PKR is a virally encoded kinase that phosphorylates and suppresses the activity of eIF-4E D) PKR specifically targets eIF-2-alpha for phosphorylation, and suppresses translation through an indirect mechanism that depletes active ternary complex E) PKR expression is induced by interferon signaling during a viral infection

C) PKR is a virally encoded kinase that phosphorylates and suppresses the activity of eIF-4E -PKR is a a cellular kinase; up-regulated in response to IFN -PKR phosphorylates eIF-2, leading to down-regulation of protein synthesis

Which of the following is NOT TRUE regarding eIF-4E? A) eIF-4E is part of the eIF-4F complex, which also contains eIF-4G and eIF-4A B) eIF-4E binds directly to the 7mG cap at the 5' end of the mRNAs C) Phosphorylated 4E-BP binds tightly to eIF-4E, preventing it from binding to 5' 7mG caps, and thereby inhibiting translation D) Phosphorylation of eIF-4E affects the affinity of its binding to the 5' 7mG cap E) eIF-4E is inactivated by binding to 4E-BP

C) Phosphorylated 4E-BP binds tightly to eIF-4E, preventing it from binding to 5' 7mG caps, and thereby inhibiting translation -Phosphorylated 4E-BP CANNOT BIND to eIF-4E, so eIF-4E is free to bind to eIF-4G to promote cap-dependent translation -In the absence of phosphorylation, 4E-BP binds to eIF-4E, preventing its interaction with eIF-4G and inhibiting cap-dependent translation

Which of the following terms is defined by: RNA fragment that serves as a primer for (+) strand. A) Long terminal repeat B) (-) strong stop DNA C) Polypurine tract D) Provirus E) Pseudodiploid

C) Polypurine tract

Match the term related to RNA structure and synthesis: mechanism used for the de novo initiation of RNA synthesis by a RdRp. A) Cap snatching B) Elongation C) Prime & Realign D) Pseudoknot E) Reiterative copying

C) Prime & Realign

Match the definition related to RNA virus diversity with the correct term: exchange of RNA sequences between two different RNA genomes. A) Zoonosis B) RNA editing C) Recombination D) Reassortment E) Quasispecies F) Misincorporation

C) Recombination

Which of the following mechanisms is NOT used by DNA viruses to solve the problem of copying the full-length of their genome? A) Circular, dsDNA genomes B) Priming of DNA synthesis from protein primers at genome ends C) Telomeres at the chromosome ends D) Folding of repetitive DNA sequence at the genome ends

C) Telomeres at the chromosome ends

The ternary complex is composed of which of the following components? A) eIF2, GTP B) eIF2, GDP, Gly-tRNAi C) eIF2, GTP, Met-tRNAi D) eIF3, GTP, Met-tRNAi e) eIF2, eIF3, eIF-4E

C) eIF2, GTP, Met-tRNAi

Because of its relatively low fidelity, reverse transcriptase introduces errors at a rate of approximately 1 per ____ nucleotides added to a growing strand of DNA. A) 10 to 100 B) 100 to 1,000 C) 1,000 to 10,000 D) 10,000 to 1,000,000

D) 10,000 to 1,000,000

Which of the following statements regarding transcription from viral genes is false? A) A DNA virus with an entirely cytoplasmic replication cycle must encode its own RNA polymerase B) DNA viruses that use a cellular RNA polymerase, use RNA polymerase II to transcribe their mRNAs C) Viral transcription factors can alter the activity of components of the cellular transcriptional machinery D) All genes encoded in a viral dsDNA genome must be transcribed only using viral transcription factors

D) All genes encoded in a viral dsDNA genome must be transcribed only using viral transcription factors

Which of the following is a functional property of the capsid? A) Protection of the genome B) Attachment to host cells C) Antigenicity D) All of the above

D) All of the above

Which structural component of HIV-1 is directly involved in virus fusion with a host cell? A) P7 B) P17 C) P24 D) Gp41

D) Gp41

Which of the following features of a eukaryotic cellular mRNA does NOT affect the efficiency of translation initiation of that mRNA? A) Secondary structure in the 5' UTR B) 5' 7-methyl G cap C) 3' poly(A) tail with PABP D) Length of the ORF E) The sequence context surrounding the first AUG triplet, from the 5' end

D) Length of the ORF

Which of the following terms is defined by: final, double-stranded DNA produce of reverse transcription. A) Long terminal repeat B) (-) strong stop DNA C) Polypurine tract D) Provirus E) Pseudodiploid

D) Provirus

Match the term related to RNA structure and synthesis: secondary structure formed by base-pairing sequences within a loop with bases outside the loop. A) Cap snatching B) Elongation C) Prime & Realign D) Pseudoknot E) Reiterative copying

D) Pseudoknot

Match the definition related to RNA virus diversity with the correct term: mixing of RNA genomic segments to creat a viral genotype. A) Zoonosis B) RNA editing C) Recombination D) Reassortment E) Quasispecies F) Misincorporation

D) Reassortment

A RNA virus RdRp is commonly structured with a ___-handed symmetry and a ___-hand structure. A) Left; open B) Left; closed C) Right; open D) Right; closed

D) Right; closed

Which of the following is NOT an example of cytopathic effect induced by viral infection? A) Synctia B) Warts C) Negri body D) Virus replication E) Inclusion body

D) Virus replication

Which of the following terms is defined by: only one copy of proviral DNA is integrated despite infection by a virus that contains two copies of the genome RNA. A) Long terminal repeat B) (-) strong stop DNA C) Polypurine tract D) Provirus E) Pseudodiploid

E) Pseudodiploid

Match the definition related to RNA virus diversity with the correct term: populations of similar but distinct viral genomes. A) Zoonosis B) RNA editing C) Recombination D) Reassortment E) Quasispecies F) Misincorporation

E) Quasispecies

Match the term related to RNA structure and synthesis: polymerase slipping that leads to generation of poly(A) sequences on viral RNA. A) Cap snatching B) Elongation C) Prime & Realign D) Pseudoknot E) Reiterative copying

E) Reiterative copying

Which of the following translation factors will most likely NOT be needed for the translation of a viral mRNA that contains an IRES? A) eRF-1 B) eRF-1A C) eIF-2 D) eIF-3 E) eIF-4E

E) eIF-4E -Direct binding of certain initiation factors to the IRES include a large portion of the cleaved eIF-4G protein, as well as eIF-3 and additional factors -Cannot interact with eIF-4E due to cleavage of eIF-4G

Match the definition related to RNA virus diversity with the correct term: errors in nucleotide addition by the RdRp. A) Zoonosis B) RNA editing C) Recombination D) Reassortment E) Quasispecies F) Misincorporation

F) Misincorporation