Water Quality: 2019-2020 Scioly but better

Geographic Range The Barramundi Cod is generally found in the waters off the Northern Australian coast and as far as Western Australia. Although this fish is plentiful in these waters it is not limited to this area. The Barramundi Cod is also known to inhabit the waters of the Western Pacific, from Southern Japan to Palau and has also been seen in the Eastern Indian Ocean, from the Nicobars to Broome (Froese and Pauly 2000 ). Biogeographic Regionsaustralian native Habitat Barramundi Cod are most frequently found in dead or silty reef areas to a depth of 40 m. They inhabit lagoons and seaward reefs and are not uncommon around coral reefs and in tide pools. The younger fish live in shallow water and are occasionally seen in rock pools at low tide (Froese and Pauly 2000). Aquatic Biomesreef Physical Description The Barramundi Cod is a very distinctive looking fish. The profile of its head is and it has scattered black spots on its body and fins. The Barramundi Cod can grow up to 70 cm in length. It is usually either fawn, reddish-brown, or terra-cotta colored. Its most notable feature is that its body is completely covered with round black spots. The largest spots are found on the fish's back and are usually smaller than the eye. On the younger fish the spots are larger but less numerous (Australia Museum 2000; Marshall 1964). Other Physical Featuresbilateral symmetry Reproduction Barramundi Cod reproduce by means of protogyny, which means there is sequential hermaphroditism in which an individual transforms from female to male. The eggs are scattered in open water and are fertilized externally. Once the eggs are fertilized they are left unguarded. (Froese and Pauly, 2000). Behavior The Barramundi Cod has a curious personality. It fears what is not familiar to it. When something unfamiliar approaches them, they usually swim away but do not swim very far. They swim very differently from other fishes; they move very slowly with many odd turns and sometimes it seems as if they are trying to swim upside down (Martinsson 1997). Key Behaviorsnatatorial motile Communication and Perception Perception Channelstactile chemical Food Habits Barramundi Cod are known to eat nekton, organisms that can swim against currents. For example, they prefer eating finfishes, squid, cuttle fish, and bony fish (Froese and Pauly, 2000). Economic Importance for Humans: Positive The only economic gain that humans receive from Barramundi Cod comes from catching and selling juveniles for aquarium displays and selling the adults as a source of food (Froese and Pauly 2000). Conservation Status Barramundi Cod are not threatened or endangered at this time. This species is not on the IUCN (The World Conservation Union) Red List, so there is no current need for conservation. The only problem is that they are the most prized and highly priced of all groupers in Chinese restaurants. As a result of this, there is a chance that in the future this fish might become endangered due to over-fishing (Froese and Pauly 2000).

Barramundi Cod

Ecology Adults are usually found in pairs and remain in the same area for days, months or even years. It has never been observed to move a distance greater than half a meter unless disturbed, and even then, the paired individuals attempt to stay together. If claw arms break, they regrow, but end up unequal in size. Nocturnal reef dweller, rocky bottoms and sponge pockets. They are found in 2 to 4 meters of water, usually beyond the turbulent zone, but have been observed as deep as down to 130ft (40m). They are occasionally found in undercut mats of rhizomes of Thalassia or discarded man-made objects. Act as cleaners, attracting fish by waving the long antennae and uses its three pairs of claws to remove parasites, fungi and damaged tissue from the fish. Life Cycle Males and females pair off to mate, possibly pairing off as juveniles and remaining together for years. Mating behavior occurs in the following sequence: antennule contact, erection of female body, grasping, mating and spawning. Nine larval stages have been described. After being laid, the eggs hatch 16 days later (at 28 deg C), and usually at night. Teleplanic larvae may be able to delay metamorphosis until reaching suitable habitat. Depending on diet and temperature, adult banded coral shrimp molt every 3 to 8 weeks. Geographic Range Stenopus hispidus is cosmopolitan. It can be found in tropic waters throughout the Indo-Pacific Region from the Red Sea and southern Africa to the Hawaiian Tuamotu. It is also found in the western Atlantic, from Bermuda and off the coast of North Carolina to the Gulf of Mexico and southern Florida to the northern coast of South America. (Zhang, et al., August 1998) Biogeographic Regions indian ocean native atlantic ocean native pacific ocean native Other Geographic Terms cosmopolitan Habitat Stenopus hispidus can be found in a variety of reef habitats from coral ledges to rocky ledges and crevices, but are occasionally found in undercut mats of rhizomes of Thalassia or discarded man-made objects such as car tires and buckets (Colin, 1978; Limbaugh et al., 1961). They are found in 2 to 4 meters of water, usually beyond the turbulent zone, but have been observed as deep as 210 meters (Limbaugh et al., 1961; Williams, 1984). (Colin, 1978; Limbaugh, et al., 1961) Habitat Regions tropical saltwater or marine Aquatic Biomes reef Range depth2 to 210 m6.56 to 688.98 ft Average depth2-4 mft ood Habits S. hispidus consumes the parasites, injured tissue and undesirable food particles it "cleans" from cooperating coral reef fish species. (Limbaugh, et al., 1961) Primary Dietcarnivore eats non-insect arthropods eats other marine invertebrates Animal Foodsaquatic or marine worms aquatic crustaceans other marine invertebrates zooplankton Foraging Behaviorfilter-feeding Predation There are no regular predators of Stenopus hispidus, but they do not entirely escape predation. Some complete individuals have been found in the stomach of some groupers such as Epinephelus merra. (Debelius and Baensch, 1997) Known Predators honeycomb groupers (Epinephelus merra) Ecosystem Roles Stenopus hispidus is a "cleaning shrimp." Individuals remove and consume parasites, injured tissue and rejected food particles from some coral reef organisms (Limbaugh et al., 1961). S. hispidus perches near the opening of the cave or ledge in which they are living and wave their antennae to attract fish (Humann, 1992). These locations sometimes become known as cleaning stations. Individuals have the freedom to enter the mouth and gill cavities of host organisms, without being eaten, but usually remain in contact with the substrate when cleaning. Species that S. hispidus has been known to clean include morays, tangs, grunts and groupers (Limbaugh et al., 1961). (Humann, 1992; Limbaugh, et al., 1961) Mutualist Species morays, Muraenidae tangs, Acanthurus grunts, Haemulidae groupers, Epinephelinae

Branded Coral Shrimp

Fact Sheet Family name: Scaridae Order name: Perciformes Common name: Bumphead, Giant humphead, Green humphead, Double-headed parrotfish and other variations on these names Scientific name: Bolbometopon Muricatum Distinguishing Features Bumphead parrotfish - photo courtesy of Klaus E. Fiedler The humphead is the largest of the parrotfishes at 130 cm in length and weighing up to 46 kg. They are distinguished by beak-like teeth plates only partially covered by fleshy lips. Males and females look the same in this species. The juveniles start out a greenish brown colour with 5 bands of whitish spots arrayed vertically along their body. As the adults mature they develop a pronounced bump on their vertical head profile. When fully grown they range from olive or bluish-green to slate grey, with a yellowish to pink blaze down the front of their face. Adults are sometimes confused with the juvenile Napoleon wrasse, which can be differentiated by 2 black lines running behind its eye. Behaviour Gregarious by nature, bumphead parrotfish form shoals of 20 to 100 fish, resting in shallow, sandy lagoon flats, around caves and shipwrecks at night. During the day, the adults move to the seaward side as they scour the coral reef for food. In areas where they are exposed to fishing pressure or high sea traffic, humpheads have become wary of reefs near human habitats. In marine protected areas these gentle giants are far more approachable and even indifferent to divers. You can often see them tearing around before your eyes and seemingly not paying you the slightest bit of notice. Feeding Habits Bumphead parrotfish are primarily corallivores. Feeding on benthic algae and live coral during the day, the school leaves the reef lagoon with the adults moving further afield, while the juveniles remain closer to home in seagrass beds. Humpheads truly live up to their name by occasionally bumping the coral with their heads, breaking it into smaller pieces that are more easily consumed. They are equipped with pharyngeal teeth at the back of their throat to sufficiently grind the hard coral into a digestible paste. Any indigestible elements are passed out in the fish's faeces, creating vital sediment. As each fish consumes up to 5 tons of reef carbonates per year, they are important coral sand producers, positively affecting the resilience of the coral reef's ecosystem. Of course this fine white sand often ends up washing ashore, so think of that the next time you are on a soft powdery beach. You may be grateful that the earth beneath your feet had passed through some bumpheads' alimentary canal, although fish poop might not be a great conversation topic during a romantic stroll! Reproduction Most humphead parrotfish begin life as females, with even the males possessing hermaphroditic qualities which are triggered during a pre-reproductive period to undergo the physiological changes required to become a male when the dominant male dies, or leaves the group. Courtship and pelagic spawning activities occur during the early morning of a lunar cycle. Large gatherings of up to 100 tightly packed fish collect at channel mouths, near gutters or promontories. 2 fish will voluntarily rise, front-to-front, to approximately 1m below the surface, where they discharge a haze of sperm and eggs. The couple then returns to the shoal. Life Cycle The newly-hatched humphead larvae drift with the current, where they feed on algae until they can seek refuge in the shallows, preferring mangrove forest root systems and seagrass lagoons where they feed primarily on seaweed for up to 3 years before joining the adults in the reefs. Slow to mature, bumphead parrotfish only begin reproduction late in their cycle, when no smaller than 60 cm in length. Considering they live up to 40 years and grow to 130 cm, this results in slow replenishment of the species. Predation Occasionally preyed upon by large sharks, humans present the greatest threat to the double-headed parrotfish. They return to the same location every night to sleep in large shoals, making them extremely vulnerable to spearfishermen and netters. In addition, there is a high demand for these fish in the aquarium trade. Traditionally this fish is also captured for ceremonial events and has a high culturally significant value in certain island communities. Distribution Prevalent near coral reefs throughout the Indo-Pacific region, the highest concentrations of this species is found in Micronesia, Malaysia and the Great Barrier Reef of Australia. Unfortunately bumpheads have been fished to extinction in some regions. Habitat The humphead's daily routine always keeps them close to the coral reef they depend on for food. Moving into the shallow, sandy lagoons at night, they search out caves and wrecks to sleep in. At daybreak the adults venture into seaward barrier or fringing reefs up to a depth of 30m. The juveniles remain in more sheltered lagoons and grassy seabeds. Ecological Considerations The bumphead parrotfish is categorised as 'vulnerable' on the World Conservation Union (IUCN) 'Red List of Threatened Species' and as a Management Unit Species (MUS) in the Coral Reef Ecosystems Fishery Management Plan for the Western Pacific. The slow growth and delayed reproduction of the humphead results in slow replenishment of the species, making them very vulnerable to over-fishing. Major pressure comes from the commercial fishing industry. Scuba assisted spearfishing of the past resulted in the bumphead almost being fished to extinction in Fiji. Island communities are realising the valuable economic rewards resulting from the diving tourist trade, making them more amenable to conservation strategies. Fishing regulations in many countries now include the ban on the use of spear-fishing and night fishing of this species; and an ever-increasing number of coral reefs are being declared as marine protected areas or "no-take" zones. These measures are vital for the continued presence of the humphead parrotfish in our oceans

Bumphead Parrotfish

Diet : Butterfly fishes are generally diurnal. This means that they feed during daylight and rest in their coral habitat at night. A good number of butterfly fish species feed on plankton located in the water, sea anemones, small crustaceans and corals. The species of butterfly fish that feed on plankton are the small species. They usually cluster in large groups unlike the adults that prefer to cling to their mating partner. Habitat : Butterfly fishes live in salt-water habitat. That is why they are only located in oceans like the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic. However, there are over 100 known species of butterfly fish and they often cluster together and live in large groups. This large group habitat is called school. Behavior : Butterfly fish exhibit a unique and interesting behavioral trait while escaping from their predators. They hide themselves in cervices located in the coral in order to escape being detected by its predator. This is aided by their small size. Their predators include: sharks, eels and snappers. Lifestyle : As earlier stated, butterfly fish can live up to 10 years but older fishes are believed to live for a longer period of time. These classes of butterfly fish are ones that are kept in a well organized aquarium. Those that are live wild tend to live for 7 years. These fishes live in specific water conditions because they are selective in their choice of habitat. They need close supervision and a difficult type of fish to groom. Lifecycle : They exhibit a unique and interesting mating behavior. This is because they form mating pairs to remain with throughout their lifetime. Butterfly fish lay their eggs on water which later become an integral part of plankton. That is why, majority of the eggs of butterfly fish end up as meals for other sea creatures that live on plankton. After hatching, the fry (baby butterfly fish) are protected by armored plates which develop on their bodies. These armored plates gradually disappear as the armored fish gets older and they live for up to 10 years. Predators : Butterfly fish act as prey to a wide range of animals. Examples include: sharks, eel and other sea creatures. However, they use several strategies to escape from their predators. Breeding : The aquarium should not be loaded with water and should be relatively quiet. The water should not be hard and should be slightly acidic. Acidic water is suitable for rearing fry and spawning and the pH should range from 7.0 to 7.8. This will make the butterfly fishes healthy and happy. While breeding butterfly fishes, persuading them to spawn is pretty easy. All you need to do is to make a cool water change and the white eggs will immediately rise to the surface of the water and lay themselves in floating plants. After 24 hours, they will turn dark and start sinking. These large eggs are hatched within seven days and the fry are likely to be eaten by their parents because there is no form of parental care. However, if you wish to raise butterfly fish fry, you are expected to isolate the parents from eggs. However, breeding fry remains the more difficult than getting to hatch the eggs. This is because the baby butterfly fishes are not good hunters due to their immobility. Breeding Environment : As earlier stated, It is most appropriate to provide a salt-water habitat for the survival of butterfly fish. This is due to their selective nature.The butterfly fish is selective in its choice of habitat. That is why it lives in specific aquatic habitats. Therefore, grooming them will prove difficult. Appearance : One can easily mistaken a butterfly fish for an angelfish. This is because they are similar in color but it is imperative to know that the angelfish is relatively bigger in size than the butterfly fish. In order to distinguish a butterfly fish from an angelfish, look at its body, eyes and mouth. You will discover that it has a more pointed mouth than angelfish. Butterfly fishes also have dark bands around their eyes and dark spots on their bodies. Life Span : Butterfly fishes live between 6 - 12 years. They lay eggs on water which later develops into matured butterfly fishes.

Butterfly Fish

Species Description These impressively adorned 20 to 30cm sized starfish (PERSGA/GEF 2003) exist in two colour morphs: grey-green to red-brown in the Pacific Ocean, and blue to pale red in the Indian Ocean (Benzie, 1999). Colour combinations can vary from purplish-blue with red tipped spines to green with yellow-tipped spines (Moran, 1997). Those on the Great Barrier Reef are normally brown or reddish grey with red-tipped spines, while those in Thailand are a brilliant purple (Moran, 1997). Specimens of up to 60cm (and even 80cm) in total diameter have been collected (Chesher, 1969; Moran, 1997). The juvenile starfish begins with 5 arms and develops into an adult with an astounding 16 to 20 arms, all heavily armed with poisonous spines 4 to 5cm in length, which can inflict painful wounds (Moran, 1997; Birk, 1979). Arm values vary between localities with a range of 14 to 18 given for the Great Barrier Reef (Moran 1997). Starfish are usually concealed during daylight hours, hiding in crevices (Brikeland and Lucas, 1990; Chesher, 1969). Groups of starfish often move as huge masses of 20 to 200 individuals, presenting a terrifying \"front\" which destroys the reef as it moves through (Chesher, 1969). Signs of starfish presence are obvious; the coral skeleton is left behind as the result of starfish feeding and stands out sharply as patches of pure white, which eventually become overgrown with algae (Chesher, 1969). In some cases, herbivorous sea urchins move in to feed on algae, creating a pattern against the white coral that resembles the holes of swiss cheese (Tsuda et al. 1970). Notes (1) An interesting example of mutualism has been described between the sessil branching pocilloporid corals, which obviously have a limited behavioural capacity to fend off enemies, and crustacean species. The crab Trapezia ferruginea and the shrimp Alpheus lottini live on the coral as symbionts and are protected by coral mucus from predators. In return, they protect corals from enemy attacks, including predation by the coral-feeding starfish, Acanthaster planci (Glynn, 1976, in Hay et al. 2004). Species the starfish would readily feed on if it weren't for the presence of these mutualistic crustaceans include: Acropora gemmifera, A. nasuta, A. loripes, Seriatopora hystrix, Pocillopora damicornis and Stylophora pistillata (Pratchett, 2001). (2) The question of whether Acanthaster planci outbreaks are a naturally recurring phenomena or a novel, more recent development remains unanswered. Some scientists have found evidence which indicates that Acanthaster planci outbreaks have been an integral part of the ecosystem for at least 7000 years on some reefs (Walbran et al. 1989, in Keesing et al. 1992). This would imply coral reefs were able to naturally recover from such events. However, other authors refute the evidence of this hypothesis (Keesing et al. 1992). Lifecycle Stages For a detailed diagrammatic representation of the complex life cycle of Acanthaster planci please see: Australian Institute of Marine Science. 1997. Crown-of-thorns Starfish Life Cycle. After the gametes (eggs and sperms) and hormones (which stimulate other individuals to release gametes) of A. planci are shed into the seawater they have a short amount of time to become fertilised before they become unviable (Madl, 1998). After fertilisation, the zygote develops into a larvae. After drifting around for two to three weeks, the 0.5mm small larvae starts to morph and eventually settles and attaches itself to the sea floor where it completes its metamorphosis (Madl, 1998). Larval life may last longer than three weeks if conditions are unfavourable (Birkeland and Lucus, 1990, in Benzie, 1999). Various substrates, particularly crustose coralline algae with bacterial surface films, induce Acanthaster's planktonic larvae to settle and metamorphose (Johnson and Cartwright, 1996). One group of scientists found that thyroxine accelerates development in Acanthaster through larval stages (Johnson and Cartwright, 1996). After settlement, the larva metamorphoses into a juvenile starfish, a process which takes about two days (Moran, 1997). Initially the juvenile starfish has only five rudimentary arms, but additional arms develop rapidly as the starfish begins to feed on encrusting algae (Moran, 1997). At the end of six months, the starfish is about 1cm in size and begins to feed on corals (Moran, 1997). Individuals are able to reproduce after two years (Lucas, 1973, in Babcock and Mundy, 1992). Being a rapid grazer of coral polyps, it takes only three to four years for the coral-feeding starfish to reach a reasonable size of 30-35cm (Madl, 1998). After three to four years, it is thought to go into a senile phase where growth declines dramatically and reproduction is low (Moran, 1997). It is not known how long starfish live, although they have been kept in aquaria for as long as eight years (Moran, 1997). Uses During Acanthaster planci outbreaks in Japan, the carcasses of starfish were used as fertiliser (M. Yamaguchi, pers. comm., in Birkeland and Lucus 1990). Acanthaster planci is a significant coral predator and is known as a keystone species. It has the potential to alter coral ecosystems in significant and important ways. This makes it a useful indicator species and one which should be monitored when assessing the health of coral reef ecosystems (see Hill and Wilkinson 2004). Habitat Description The coral-feeding starfish (Acanthaster planci) is limited by the location of its food source - coral - from just below spring tide level to a depth limit of 65 metres (Chesher, 1969). Soft substrate is avoided by the coral-feeding starfish as it lacks a gripping surface for the tube feet to hold on to (Chesher, 1969). In areas of strong wave action, sand can provide a barrier to movement of the starfish between reef patches (Chesher, 1969). The starfish prefers to live in more sheltered areas, such as lagoons, and in deeper water along reef fronts (Moran, 1997). They generally avoid shallow water on the tops of reefs, where the water conditions are likely to be more turbulent (Moran, 1997). When the weather is calm the potential range of the starfish increases and the starfish may cross sand patches and may feed in shallow water areas (Chesher, 1969; Moran, 1997). Reproduction Sexes are separate and females release huge amounts of gametes directly into the sea (Benzie, 1999). An individual female Acanthaster planci can produce up to 60 million eggs per year (Conand, 1985, in Babcock and Mundy, 1992). If conditions are favourable and there is an abundant larval survival, the high reproductive potential of even a few adult A. planci may allow the production of a massive settlement of juveniles (Birkeland, 1982). According to data derived from one location in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, major spawning occurred in December 1991, with smaller spawning events following in January (Babcock and Mundy, 1992). Over two-thirds of the population aggregate to participate in this spawning event, which usually occurs in the morning or afternoon and may be driven by pheromones released into currents (Babcock and Mundy, 1992). A. planci often spawns in a characteristic arched posture, usually on top of elevated rocks or corals at elevations of 30m to reefs flats (Babcock and Mundy, 1992). Migration to shallow water is commonly associated with A. planci spawning (Babcock et al. 1994). Babcock and Mundy (1992) record 47% fertilisation rates between animals separated by 32m and 23% for animals separated by over 60m. Fertilisation rates achieved are two orders of magnitude greater than those recorded for other marine organisms, due to the large amounts of gametes produced (Babcock and Mundy, 1992). Nutrition Acanthaster planci larvae feed on phytoplankton (Birkeland, 1982) and dissolved organic matter (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1994). Once they have developed into juvenile starfish they feed on encrusting algae (Moran, 1997). Adult Acanthaster planci feed primarily on coral, hence one of its names (coral-feeding starfish). The starfish feeds on polyps of corals by everting its stomach and secreting enzymes (Birk, 1979). Other animals feed on coral but none so efficiently as Acanthaster planci (Chesher, 1969), which is aptly referred to as a \"corallivore\" and spends on average about 45% of its time feeding (De'ath and Moran, 1998). A single starfish of Acanthaster planci can graze ten square metres a year of coral (Vicente, 1999). Measurement of feeding rates of Acanthaster planci have shown that feeding rates in summer are about twice that in winter, but are significantly depressed following the summer spawning season (Keesing and Lucas, 1992). In the laboratory, specimens have eaten molluscs and echinoderms, however scleractinian corals are their primary prey (Chesher, 1969). Scleractinia is an order of coral known as stony or hard corals which is made up of 18 families. Preferred species in the Western Pacific include Montipora spp., Acropora spp. and other members in the Acroporidae and Pocilloporidae families (Colgan, 1987; Quinn and Kojis, 2003). Acropora gemmifera, A. nasuta, A. loripes, Seriatopora hystrix, Pocillopora damicornis and Stylophora pistillata are preferred species too, however, they are protected by mutualistic crustaceans (see notes) (Colgan 1987; Glynn, 1976, 1980, 1983, in Colgan, 1987; Pratchett, 2001). In French Polynesia, Acanthaster planci show a feeding preference for all growth-forms of Acropora as well as the genus Montipora and Pocillopora (Faure, 1989).

Crown of Thorns Starfish

Distribution This is the most common of several species in the genus Cyphoma, which lives in the tropical waters of the western Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina to northern coast of Brazil, including off Bermuda, in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and off the Lesser Antilles .[3] Three species of Cyphoma, known as Cyphoma gibbosum, Cyphoma signatum and Cyphoma mcguntyi have been found to be genetically similar even though their phenotypes suggest otherwise. The species of Cyphoma signatum and Cyphoma mcguntyi can be distinguished from their different patterns; whether having a fingertip pattern or brown dots. However, if these two species were being distinguished based on their morphological features, it would be difficult to differentiate them. The genotype of these species is known to be very similar even though their phenotypes are different, and thus these species are hypothesized to have physical characteristics that precede their genetic makeup. [4] Description Alive, the snail appears bright orange-yellow in color with black markings. However, these colors are not in the shell, but are only due to live mantle tissue which usually covers the shell. The mantle flaps can be retracted, exposing the shell, but this usually happens only when the animal is attacked. The shells reach on average 25-35 mm (0.98-1.38 in) of length, with a minimum size of 18 mm (0.71 in) and a maximum shell length of 44 mm (1.7 in).[5] The shape is usually elongated and the dorsum shows a thick transversal ridge. The dorsum surface is smooth and shiny and may be white or orange, with no markings at all except a longitudinal white or cream band. The base and the interior of a C. gibbosum shell is white or pinkish, with a wide aperture. Ecology Flamingo tongue on a sea rod The minimum recorded depth is at the surface, and the maximum recorded depth is 29 m.[5] The flamingo tongue snail feeds by browsing on the living tissues of the soft corals on which it lives. Common prey include Briareum spp., Gorgonia spp., Plexaura spp., and Plexaurella spp. Adult females of C. gibbosum attach eggs to coral which they have recently fed upon. After roughly 10 days, the larvae hatch. They are planktonic and eventually settle onto other gorgonian corals. Juveniles tend to remain on the underside of coral branches, while adults are far more visible and mobile. An adult scrapes the polyps off the coral with its radula, leaving an easily visible feeding scar on the coral. However, the corals can regrow the polyps, so predation by C. gibbosum is generally not lethal. Survival status This species used to be common, but it has become rather uncommon in heavily visited areas because of overcollecting by snorkelers and scuba divers, who make the mistake of thinking that the bright colors are in the shell of the animal

Flamingo Tongue Snail

Development The first step in the development process takes place when the diploid, or immature spore cell, goes through a cellular division process known as meiosis. Before this process, the diploid is actually known as a diploidzygote. Afterward, it's called a haploid spore. During meiosis, the single diploidzygote transforms from a single cell into four distinct and separate cells or spores. These haploid cells are now sexually mature and ready to mate. The male and female haploids fuse together to form gametes. VIDEO OF THE DAY After fusion, the gametes form new diploid cells and the process begins again. Lifespans differ for each species of algae, with an average life expectancy ranging from a few days to a year or two. Reproduction Algae can reproduce in one of two ways, either asexually by mitosis or sexually, with the fusion of the gametes. Asexual reproduction can happen much more quickly, but diversity is limited. Sexual reproduction allows for greater diversity but is considerably slower. Diversity Algae have adapted to live in many different aquatic environments, from freshwater ponds and lakes to oceans. Algae blooms occur when water conditions are hospitable for reproduction, usually as the colder water begins to warm in the late spring and early summer, and where the water is nutrient-rich. Large algae blooms can become hazardous to other aquatic life, such as fish and other plants, by robbing the water of dissolved oxygen and nutrients. Considerations The haploid life cycle is very common in single-celled organisms like algae, either planktonic (free floating) or filamentous (anchored). The process occurs thousands of times a day and is dependent on a number of factors for its success, including water temperature, sunlight availability, nutrient content of the water and water pH. If these conditions are ripe, the algae will thrive. If they are not, the algae cannot reproduce. Adaptations Green algae has a special adaptation. Volvox, a species of green algae, produces a zygospore after syngamy, which is a zygote (diploidzygote) that is encrusted in a protective shell that protects it from harsh conditions, making it much hardier and less dependent on perfect aquatic conditions to be successful in reproduction.

Fleshy Algae

he giant clams are the members of the clam genus Tridacna that are the largest living bivalve mollusks. There are actually several species of "giant clams" in the genus Tridacna, which are often misidentified for Tridacna gigas, the most commonly intended species referred to as "the giant clam". Tridacna gigas is one of the most endangered clam species. Antonio Pigafetta documented these in his journal as early as 1521. One of a number of large clam species native to the shallow coral reefs of the South Pacific and Indian oceans, they can weigh more than 200 kilograms (440 lb), measure as much as 120 cm (47 in) across and have an average lifespan in the wild of over 100 years.[3] They are also found off the shores of the Philippines and in the South China Sea in the coral reefs of Sabah (Malaysian Borneo). The giant clam lives in flat coral sand or broken coral and can be found at depths of as much as 20 m (66 ft).[4] Its range covers the Indo-Pacific, but populations are diminishing quickly, and the giant clam has become extinct in many areas where it was once common. The maxima clam has the largest geographical distribution among giant clam species; it can be found off high- or low-elevation islands, in lagoons or fringing reefs.[5] Its rapid growth rate is likely due to its ability to cultivate algae in its body tissue.[4] Although larval clams are planktonic, they become sessile in adulthood. The creature's mantle tissues act as a habitat for the symbiotic single-celled dinoflagellate algae (zooxanthellae) from which the adult clams get most of their nutrition. By day, the clam opens its shell and extends its mantle tissue so that the algae receive the sunlight they need to photosynthesise. Anatomy Young T. gigas are difficult to distinguish from other species of Tridacninae. Adult T. gigas are the only giant clams unable to close their shells completely. Even when closed, part of the mantle is visible, unlike the very similar T. derasa. However, this can only be recognized with increasing age and growth. Small gaps always remain between shells through which retracted brownish-yellow mantle can be seen.[6] Tridacna gigas has four or five vertical folds in its shell; this is the main characteristic that separates it from the similar shell of T. derasa, which has six or seven vertical folds.[6] As with massive deposition of coral matrices composed of calcium carbonate, the bivalves containing zooxanthellae have a tendency to grow massive calcium carbonate shells.[7] The mantle's edges are packed with symbiotic zooxanthellae that presumably utilize carbon dioxide, phosphates, and nitrates supplied by the clam.[8] The mantle border itself is covered in several hundred eyespots about .5mm in diameter. Each one consists of a small cavity containing a pupil-like aperture and a base of one hundred or more photoreceptors. These receptors allow T. gigas to respond to sudden dimming of light by withdrawing their mantles and partially closing their shells, presumably to protect from potential predators. They do not retract their mantles in response to increased illumination, but it has been observed that a change in the direction of light results in a shift in mantle orientation. In addition to a dimming response, T. gigas also responds to the movement of an object before a shadow has been cast.[9] In order for this to happen, an image forming optical system is required as the response is based on the local dimming of one part of the generated image relative to the rest. This sequential dimming of receptors caused by the movement of a dark object allows enough time for the mantle to be retracted before a potential predator is directly overhead and casting a shadow.[10] Huge maxima clam specimen in Baa Atoll, Maldives Mantle of giant clam in the Great Barrier Reef with light-sensitive spots which detect danger and cause the clam to close Giant clam in Bunaken island, Sulawesi, Indonesia Empty giant clam shell in the French National Museum of Natural History Giant clam in Waikiki Aquarium, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States Largest specimens Empty shell from the Aquarium Finisterrae in Spain The largest known T. gigas specimen measured 137 centimetres (4 ft 6 in). It was discovered around 1817 on the north western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The weight of the two shells was 230 kilograms (510 lb). This suggests that the live weight of the animal would have been roughly 250 kilograms (550 lb). Today these shells are on display in a museum in Northern Ireland.[11] Another unusually large giant clam was found in 1956 off the Japanese island of Ishigaki. However, it was not examined scientifically before 1984. The shell's length was 115 centimetres (3 ft 9 in) and the weight of the shells and soft parts was 333 kilograms (734 lb). Scientists estimated the live weight to be around 340 kilograms (750 lb).[11] Ecology Feeding Algae provide giant clams with a supplementary source of nutrition.[8] These plants consist of unicellular algae, whose metabolic products add to the clam's filter food.[4] As a result, they are able to grow as large as one meter in length even in nutrient-poor coral-reef waters.[8] The clams cultivate algae in a special circulatory system which enables them to keep a substantially higher number of symbionts per unit of volume.[12][13] In small clams—10 milligrams (0.010 g) dry tissue weight—filter feeding provides about 65% of total carbon needed for respiration and growth; large clams (10 g) acquire only 34% of carbon from this source.[14] A single species of zooxenthellae may be symbionts of both giant clams and nearby reef-building (hermatypic) corals.[8] Reproduction Tridacna gigas reproduce sexually and are hermaphrodites (producing both eggs and sperm). Self-fertilization is not possible, but this characteristic does allow them to reproduce with any other member of the species. This reduces the burden of finding a compatible mate, while simultaneously doubling the number of offspring produced by the process. As with all other forms of sexual reproduction, hermaphroditism ensures that new gene combinations be passed to further generations.[15] Since giant clams cannot move themselves, they adopt broadcast spawning, releasing sperm and eggs into the water. A transmitter substance called spawning induced substance (SIS) helps synchronize the release of sperm and eggs to ensure fertilization. The substance is released through a syphonal outlet. Other clams can detect SIS immediately. Incoming water passes chemoreceptors situated close to the incurrent syphon, which transmit the information directly to the cerebral ganglia, a simple form of brain.[16] Detection of SIS stimulates the giant clam to swell its mantle in the central region and to contract its adductor muscle. Each clam then fills its water chambers and closes the incurrent syphon. The shell contracts vigorously with the adductor's help, so the excurrent chamber's contents flows through the excurrent syphon. After a few contractions containing only water, eggs and sperm appear in the excurrent chamber and then pass through the excurrent syphon into the water. Female eggs have a diameter of 100 micrometres (0.0039 in). Egg release initiates the reproductive process. An adult T. gigas can release more than 500 million eggs at a time.[17] Spawning seems to coincide with incoming tides near the second (full), third, and fourth (new) quarters of the moon phase. Spawning contractions occur every two or three minutes, with intense spawning ranging from thirty minutes to two and a half hours. Clams that do not respond to the spawning of neighboring clams may be reproductively inactive.[18] Development The fertilized egg floats in the sea for about 12 hours until eventually a larva (trocophore) hatches. It then starts to produce a calcium carbonate shell. Two days after fertilization it measures 160 micrometres (0.0063 in). Soon it develops a "foot," which is used to move on the ground; it can also swim to search for appropriate habitat.[19] At roughly one week of age, the clam settles on the ground, although it changes location frequently within the first few weeks. The larva does not yet have symbiotic algae, so it depends completely on plankton. Free floating zooxanthellae are also captured while filtering food. Eventually the front adductor muscle disappears and the rear muscle moves into the clam's center. Many small clams die at this stage. The clam is considered a juvenile when it reaches a length of 20 cm (8 in) .[20] It is difficult to observe the growth rate of T. gigas in the wild, but laboratory-reared giant clams have been observed to grow 12 cm (4.7 in) a year.[21] Human relevance One of the two clam stoups of the Église Saint-Sulpice in Paris, carved by Jean-Baptiste Pigalle Piece of giant clam shell used as an ancient Egyptian paint holder The main reason that giant clams are becoming endangered is likely to be intensive exploitation by bivalve fishing vessels. Mainly large adults are killed, since they are the most profitable.[22] The giant clam is considered a delicacy in Japan (known as himejako), France, South East Asia and many Pacific Islands. Some Asian foods include the meat from the muscles of clams. On the black market, giant clam shells are sold as decorative accoutrements. At times large amounts of money were paid for the adductor muscle, which Chinese people believed have aphrodisiac powers.[23] A team of American and Italian researchers analyzed bivalves and found they were rich in amino acids that trigger increased levels of sex hormones.[24] Their high zinc content aids the production of testosterone.[25] Legend As is often the case with uncharacteristically large species, the giant clam has been historically misunderstood. It was known in times past as the "killer clam" and "man-eating clam", and reputable scientific and technical manuals once claimed that the great mollusc had caused deaths; versions of the U.S. Navy Diving Manual even gave detailed instructions for releasing oneself from its grasp by severing the adductor muscles used to close its shell.[26] In an account of the discovery of the Pearl of Lao Tzu, Wilburn Cobb said he was told that a Dyak diver was drowned when the Tridacna closed its shell on his arm.[27] Today the giant clam is considered neither aggressive nor particularly dangerous. While it is certainly capable of gripping a person, the shell's closing action is defensive, not aggressive, and the shell valves close too slowly to pose a serious threat.[citation needed] Furthermore, many large individuals are unable to completely close their shells. Aquaculture Mass culture of giant clams began at the Micronesian Mariculture Demonstration Center in Palau (belau).[28] A large Australian government-funded project from 1985 to 1992 mass-cultured giant clams, particularly T. gigas at James Cook University's Orpheus Island Research Station, and supported the development of hatcheries in the Pacific Islands and the Philippines.[29][30][31] Recent developments in aquaculture, specifically at Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute in Fort Pierce, Florida, and in the Marshall Islands, have succeeded in tank-raising T. gigas, both for use in home aquariums and for release into the wild. Seven of the ten known species of giant clams in the world are found in the coral reefs of the South China Sea. A programme to propagate endangered giant clams for release into the wild has been ongoing since 2007. Undertaken by the Marine Ecology Research Centre (www.merc-gayana.com) based in Gaya Island just west of Sabah's capital, Kota Kinabalu, the programme successfully nurtured all seven species of the giant clams found in Malaysian waters to sufficient maturity for them to be placed in an ocean nursery for the first time during an awareness month from 22 March until 22 April 2012 in Maloham Bay. This marine awareness month had been planned to highlight and celebrate MERC's success in raising the giant clam larvae (called "spats") to juvenile stage, to highlight the importance of the giant clams and to raise awareness and support with the general public on the threats that are faced by the giant clams within the sea. During this marine awareness month, the coral restoration programme entered its final stage and attachment of 1000 one-year-old coral fragments grown at MERC's ocean nursery onto the coral reef were done throughout the month. The coral restoration programme is aimed to provide the giant clams with a suitable home surroundings when they are big enough in the future to be placed onto the reef.

Giant Clam

escription The Venus sea fan is a delicate-looking colonial soft coral in the form of a fan composed of a lattice of branches in a single plane. The coral grows from a small base, forming several main branches with side branches and a network of small branchlets. The Venus sea fan is similar in appearance to Gorgonia ventalina, but has a slightly more untidy shape and short, stubby side growths coming out of the main plane.[2] In G. flabellum, the branches are flattened at right angles to the plane of the fan, while in G. ventalina, the branches are either round or flattened parallel to the plane of the fan. The wide-mesh sea fan (Gorgonia mariae) is also similar in appearance, but at only 30 cm, is smaller, and many of the branchlets do not interconnect.[3] The Venus sea fan is white, yellowish, or pale lavender. The fan is often found oriented perpendicular to the incoming waves and can grow to a height of 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in).[2][4] Distribution and habitat The Venus sea fan is very common in the Bahamas, and in this location is easily distinguishable from G. ventalina. In other parts of its range, Florida and the Lesser Antilles, however, the two species are more easily confused.[why?] It is a shallow-water species seldom exceeding a depth of 10 m (33 ft) and favours locations with strong wave action.[2] Biology The skeleton of the Venus sea fan is composed of calcite and a collagen-like substance. Embedded in this are the coral polyps, each of which is a filter feeder and extends its eight tentacles to catch plankton drifting past with the current.[2] The tissues contain symbiotic dinoflagellate algae Symbiodinium spp. which are photosynthetic and use sunlight to create organic carbon compounds which are then available to the host coral.

Gorgonia

Conservation The large size, slow growth, low reproductive rate, and spawning behavior have made the goliath grouper especially susceptible to overfishing. The goliath grouper is totally protected from harvest and is recognized as a "Critically Endangered" species by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). Furthermore, the IUCN concludes that the species has been "observed, estimated, inferred or suspected" of a reduction of at least 80% over the last 10 years or three generations. > Check the status of the goliath grouper at the IUCN website. In U.S. waters, take of this species has been prohibited since 1990, and the species has been protected in the Caribbean since 1993. Historical exploitation of goliath grouper annual spawning aggregation sites greatly reduced the number of reproductive adults. As goliath grouper are slow growing and require several years to reach sexual maturity, recovery for this species is expected to be slow. > Download the NOAA Technical Report on the goliath grouper and related Nassau grouper. Geographical Distribution World distribution map for the goliath grouper World distribution map for the goliath grouper The goliath grouper occurs in the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida south to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. It is also found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, from Senegal to Congo although rare in the Canary Islands. The species is also present in the eastern Pacific Ocean from the Gulf of California to Peru. Habitat Occurring in shallow, inshore waters to depths of 150 feet (46 m), the goliath grouper prefers areas of rock, coral, and mud bottoms. Strikingly patterned juveniles inhabit mangroves and brackish estuaries, especially near oyster bars. The goliath grouper is notable as one of the few groupers found in brackish waters. This fish is solitary by nature, with the adults occupying limited home ranges. It is territorial near areas of refuge such as caves, wrecks, and ledges, displaying an open mouth and quivering body to intruders. Additional warning may be delivered in the form of the goliath grouper's ability to produce a distinctly audible rumbling sound generated by the muscular contraction of the swim bladder. This sound travels great distances underwater and is also used to locate other goliath grouper. Biology Goliath grouper. Photo courtesy NOAA Goliath grouper. Photo courtesy NOAA Distinctive Features Goliath grouper are the largest members of the sea bass family in the Atlantic Ocean. The body is robust and elongate; its widest point is more than half its total length. The head is broad with small eyes. The dorsal fins are continuous with the rays of the soft dorsal longer than the spines of the first dorsal fin. The membranes between the dorsal fin elements are notched. Pectoral fins are rounded and noticeably larger than the pelvic fins. Bases of the soft dorsal and anal fins are covered with scales and thick skin. The caudal fin is rounded. Coloration This fish is generally brownish yellow, gray, or olive with small dark spots on head, body, and fins. Large adults are somber-colored. Three or four irregular faint vertical bars are present of the sides of individuals less than 3 feet (1m) in length. The rear half of the caudal penduncle of these small individuals is covered by another similar bar. The tawny colored juveniles, although not as colorful as some grouper species, are attractively patterned; exhibiting a series of dark, irregular, vertical bands and blotches. Dentition Goliath grouper have three to five rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The presence of a number of short weakly developed canine teeth is useful in distinguishing this species from other North Atlantic groupers. Coral bottoms are a preferred habitat of the goliath grouper. Photo © Don DeMaria Coral bottoms are a preferred habitat of the goliath grouper. Photo © Don DeMaria Size, Age, and Growth The goliath grouper is the largest grouper in the western Atlantic. Growing to lengths of 8.2 feet (2.5 m), this grouper can weigh as much as 800 pounds (363 kg). In Florida, the largest hook and line captured specimen weighed 680 pounds (309 kg). The oldest verifiable goliath grouper on record is 37 years. However, this specimen was sampled from a population of individuals depressed by fishing pressure and it is projected that goliath grouper may live much longer, perhaps as much as 50 years. Males achieve sexual maturity at four to six years of age and lengths of 43-45 inches (110-115 cm), females at six to seven years of age and 47-53 inches (120-135 cm). Growth rates are slow, averaging approximately four inches (10 cm) per year until the age of six years. Growth declines to about 1.2 inches (3 cm) per year at age 15, and less than .4 inches (1 cm) per year after 25 years. Goliath grouper feed on the spiny lobster. Photo © Don DeMaria Goliath grouper feed on the spiny lobster. Photo © Don DeMaria Food Habits Goliath grouper feed largely on crustaceans (in particular spiny lobsters, shrimps and crabs), fishes (including stingrays and parrotfishes), octopus, and young sea turtles. Prey is ambushed, caught with a quick rush and snap of the jaws. The sharp teeth are adapted for seizing prey and preventing escape although most prey is simply engulfed and swallowed whole. Reproduction Many groupers are protogynous hermaphrodites - a condition in which individuals first mature as females only later to become males. And although goliath grouper are assumed to conform to this reproductive mode, a 1992 study of the age, growth, and reproduction of the species found no transitional individuals, the most direct evidence of sex reversal. However, the significance of this finding is of diminished value when one considers that transitional individuals are known to be rare amongst confirmed species of protogynous hermaphrodites, such as the red grouper (Epinephelus morio) and gag (Mycteroperca microlepis). Additionally, exceptions to the rule of protogyny within a species may be common. One author offers three potential exceptions that may explain why some sexually mature male goliath groupers are smaller than some mature females - a scenario that at first would seem to be contradictory for a protogynous hermaphrodite. 1) An individual's failure to recognize certain environmental cues or the absence of those environmental cues altogether may mean that sex change is never initiated. 2) Some females may transition to the male condition prematurely, i.e., they never attain sexual maturity as a female. 3) The size at sex reversal may vary amongst populations. Kite-shaped Epinephelus larvae. Photo courtesy National Marine Fisheries Service Kite-shaped Epinephelus larvae. Photo courtesy National Marine Fisheries Service In support of the notion that the species is a protogynous hermaphrodite is the fact that the largest goliath groupers are invariably male.Spawning occurs during the summer months of July, August, and September throughout the goliath grouper's range and is strongly influenced by the lunar cycle. Spawning goliath grouper form impressive offshore aggregations of up to 100 or more individuals. Ship wrecks, rock ledges, and isolated patch reefs are preferred spawning habitat. In the 1980's these aggregations reached a low of less than 10 individuals per site as fishing pressure greatly impacted this species. Since receiving legislative protection the spawning aggregations of goliath grouper have risen to 20-40 individuals per location. The females release eggs while the males release sperm into the open offshore waters. After fertilization, the eggs are pelagic, dispersed by the water currents. Upon hatching, the larvae are kite-shaped, with the second dorsal-fin spine and pelvic fin spines greatly elongated. These pelagic larvae transform into benthic juveniles at lengths of one inch (2.5 cm), around 25 or 26 days after hatching. Predators Predators of groupers include large fish such as barracuda, king mackerel and moray eels, as well as other groupers. The sandbar shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus) and the great hammerhead shark (Sphyrna mokarran) are also known to feed on groupers. Large adults of this species likely have very few natural predators.

Grouper

Soft parts Stony corals are members of the class Anthozoa and like other members of the group, do not have a medusa stage in their life cycle. The individual animals are known as polyps and have a cylindrical body crowned by an oral disc surrounded by a ring of tentacles. The base of the polyp secretes the stony material from which the coral skeleton is formed. The body wall of the polyp consists of mesoglea sandwiched between two layers of epidermis. The mouth is at the centre of the oral disc and leads into a tubular pharynx which descends for some distance into the body before opening into the gastrovascular cavity that fills the interior of the body and tentacles. Unlike other cnidarians however, the cavity is subdivided by a number of radiating partitions, thin sheets of living tissue, known as mesenteries. The gonads are also located within the cavity walls. The polyp is retractable into the corallite, the stony cup in which it sits, being pulled back by sheet-like retractor muscles.[4] The polyps are connected by horizontal sheets of tissue known as coenosarc extending over the outer surface of the skeleton and completely covering it. These sheets are continuous with the body wall of the polyps, and include extensions of the gastrovascular cavity, so that food and water can circulate between all the different members of the colony.[4] In colonial species, the repeated asexual division of the polyps causes the corallites to be interconnected, thus forming the colonies. Also, cases exist in which the adjacent colonies of the same species form a single colony by fusing. Most colonial species have very small polyps, ranging from 1 to 3 mm (0.04 to 0.12 in) in diameter, although some solitary species may be as large as 25 cm (10 in).[4] Skeleton Diploria labyrinthiformis, a brain coral The skeleton of an individual scleractinian polyp is known as a corallite. It is secreted by the epidermis of the lower part of the body, and initially forms a cup surrounding this part of the polyp. The interior of the cup contains radially aligned plates, or septa, projecting upwards from the base. Each of these plates is flanked by a pair of mesenteries.[4] The septa are secreted by the mesenteries, and are therefore added in the same order as the mesenteries are. As a result, septa of different ages are adjacent to one another, and the symmetry of the scleractinian skeleton is radial or biradial. This pattern of septal insertion is termed "cyclic" by paleontologists. By contrast, in some fossil corals, adjacent septa lie in order of increasing age, a pattern termed serial and produces a bilateral symmetry. Scleractinians secrete a stony exoskeleton in which the septa are inserted between the mesenteries in multiples of six.[4] All modern scleractinian skeletons are composed of calcium carbonate in the form of crystals of aragonite, however, a prehistoric scleractinian (Coelosimilia) had a non-aragonite skeletal structure which was composed of calcite.[5] The structure of both simple and compound scleractinians is light and porous, rather than solid as is the case in the prehistoric order Rugosa. Scleractinians are also distinguished from rugosans by their pattern of septal insertion.[6] Growth Meandering corallite walls of an intratentacular budding coral Separate corallites of an extratentacular budding species In colonial corals, growth results from the budding of new polyps. There are two types of budding, intratentacular and extratentacular. In intratentacular budding, a new polyp develops on the oral disc, inside the ring of tentacles. This can form individual, separate polyps or a row of partially separated polyps sharing an elongate oral disc with a series of mouths. Tentacles grow around the margin of this elongated oral disc and not around the individual mouths. This is surrounded by a single corallite wall, as is the case in the meandroid corallites of brain corals.[4] Extratentacular budding always results in separate polyps, each with its own corallite wall. In the case of bushy corals such as Acropora, lateral budding from axial polyps form the basis of the trunk and branches.[4] The rate at which a stony coral colony lays down calcium carbonate depends on the species, but some of the branching species can increase in height or length by around 10 cm (4 in) a year (about the same rate as human hair grows). Other corals, like the dome and plate species, are more bulky and may only grow 0.3 to 2 cm (0.1 to 0.8 in) per year.[7] The rate of aragonite deposition varies diurnally and seasonally. Examination of cross sections of coral can show bands of deposition indicating annual growth. Like tree rings, these can be used to estimate the age of the coral.[4] Solitary corals do not bud. They gradually increase in size as they deposit more calcium carbonate and produce new whorls of septa. A large Ctenactis echinata for example normally has a single mouth, may be about 25 cm (10 in) long and have more than a thousand septa.[8] Distribution Stony corals occur in all the world's oceans. There are two main ecological groups. Hermatypic corals are mostly colonial corals which tend to live in clear, oligotrophic, shallow tropical waters; they are the world's primary reef-builders. Ahermatypic corals are either colonial or solitary and are found in all regions of the ocean and do not build reefs. Some live in tropical waters but some inhabit temperate seas, polar waters, or live at great depths, from the photic zone down to about 6,000 m (20,000 ft).[9] Ecology Hard coral Favites extends its polyps at night to feed Scleractinians fall into one of two main categories: Reef-forming or hermatypic corals, which mostly contain zooxanthellae; Non-reef-forming or ahermatypic corals, which mostly do not contain zooxanthellae In reef-forming corals, the endodermal cells are usually replete with symbiotic unicellular dinoflagellates known as zooxanthellae. There are sometimes as many as five million cells of these per 1 square centimetre (0.16 sq in) of coral tissue. The symbionts benefit the corals because up to 50% of the organic compounds they produce are used as food by the polyps. The oxygen byproduct of photosynthesis and the additional energy derived from sugars produced by zooxanthallae enable these corals to grow at a rate up to three times faster than similar species without symbionts. These corals typically grow in shallow, well-lit, warm water with moderate to brisk turbulence and abundant oxygen, and prefer firm, non-muddy surfaces on which to settle.[4] Most stony corals extend their tentacles to feed on zooplankton, but those with larger polyps take correspondingly larger prey, including various invertebrates and even small fish. In addition to capturing prey in this way, many stony corals also produce mucus films they can move over their bodies using cilia; these trap small organic particles which are then pulled towards and into the mouth. In a few stony corals, this is the primary method of feeding, and the tentacles are reduced or absent, an example being Acropora acuminata.[4] Caribbean stony corals are generally nocturnal, with the polyps retracting into their skeletons during the day, thus maximising the exposure of the zooxanthallae to the light, but in the Indo-Pacific region, many species feed by day and night.[4] Non-zooxanthellate corals are usually not reef-formers; they can be found most abundantly beneath about 500 m (1,600 ft) of water. They thrive at much colder temperatures and can live in total darkness, deriving their energy from the capture of plankton and suspended organic particles. The growth rates of most species of non-zooxanthellate corals are significantly slower than those of their counterparts, and the typical structure for these corals is less calcified and more susceptible to mechanical damage than that of zooxanthellate corals.[7] Life cycle Stony corals have a great range of reproductive strategies and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Many species have separate sexes, the whole colony being either male or female, but others are hermaphroditic, with individual polyps having both male and female gonads.[10] Some species brood their eggs but in most species, sexual reproduction results in the production of a free-swimming planula larva that eventually settles on the seabed to undergo metamorphosis into a polyp. In colonial species, this initial polyp then repeatedly divides asexually, to give rise to the entire colony.[4] Asexual reproduction Montastraea annularis can be fragmented to form new colonies. The most common means of asexual reproduction in colonial stony corals is by fragmentation. Pieces of branching corals may get detached during storms, by strong water movement or by mechanical means, and fragments fall to the sea bed. In suitable conditions, these are capable of adhering to the substrate and starting new colonies. Even such massive corals as Montastraea annularis have been shown to be capable of forming new colonies after fragmentation.[10] This process is used in the reef aquarium hobby to increase stock without the necessity to harvest corals from the wild.[11] Under adverse conditions, certain species of coral resort to another type of asexual reproduction in the form of "polyp bail-out", which may allow polyps to survive even though the parent colony dies. It involves the growth of the coenosarc to seal off the polyps, detachment of the polyps and their settlement on the seabed to initiate new colonies.[12] In other species, small balls of tissue detach themselves from the coenosarc, differentiate into polyps and start secreting calcium carbonate to form new colonies, and in Pocillopora damicornis, unfertilised eggs can develop into viable larvae.[10] Sexual reproduction The overwhelming majority of scleractinian taxa are hermaphroditic in their adult colonies.[13] In temperate regions, the usual pattern is synchronized release of eggs and sperm into the water during brief spawning events, often related to the phases of the moon.[14] In tropical regions, reproduction may occur throughout the year. In many cases, as in the genus Acropora, the eggs and sperm are released in buoyant bundles which rise to the surface. This increases the concentration of sperm and eggs and thus the likelihood of fertilization, and reduces the risk of self-fertilization.[10] Immediately after spawning, the eggs are delayed in their capability for fertilization until after the release of polar bodies. This delay, and possibly some degree of self-incompatibility, likely increases the chance of cross-fertilization. A study of four species of Scleractinia found that cross-fertilization was actually the dominant mating pattern, although three of the species were also capable of self-fertilization to varying extents.[13]

Hard Coral

Description[edit] The humphead wrasse is the largest living member of the family Labridae. Males are typically larger than females and are capable of reaching lengths of up to 2 meters from tip to tail and weighing up to 180 kg, but the average length is generally a little less than 1 meter. Females rarely grow larger than one meter in length. This species of fish can be easily identified by its large size, thick lips, two black lines behind its eyes, and the hump that appears on the forehead of larger adults. The color of the humphead wrasse can vary between a dull blue-green to more vibrant shades of green and purplish-blue. This particular reef fish prefers to live singly but adults are occasionally observed moving in small groups.[3][4][5] Humphead wrasse in an aquarium at Aeon mall, Okinawa Habitat[edit] The humphead wrasses can be located with in the east coast of Africa and Red Sea's ocean, as well as in the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. Juvenile and adult humphead wrasses are found in different ranges. Juveniles are usually found in shallow, sandy ranges that are bordering coral reef waters, while adults are mostly found in offshore and deeper areas of the coral reefs, typically in outer-reef slopes and channels, but can also be found in lagoons. Humphead wrasses are found in small groups or larger combinations within their habitat.[6][7] Reproduction[edit] The humphead wrasse is long-lived, but has a very slow breeding rate. Individuals become sexually mature at four to six years, and females are known to live for around 50 years, whereas males live a slightly shorter 45 years. Humphead wrasses are protogynous hermaphrodites, with some members of the population becoming male at about 9 years old. The factors that control the timing of sex change are not yet known. Adults move to the down-current end of the reef and form local spawning aggregations (they concentrate to spawn) at certain times of the year.[5] Humphead wrasses likely do not travel very far for their spawning aggregations.[3] The humphead wrasse pelagic eggs and larvae ultimately settle on or near coral reef habitats. Eggs are 0.65 mm in diameter and spherical, with no pigment.[5] Napoleon fish diving in the Red Sea Ecology[edit] Being very opportunistic predators, C. undulatus preys primarily on invertebrates such as mollusks (particularly gastropods, pelecypods, echinoids, crustaceans, and annelids) and fish. Half of echinoids and most pelecypods hide under the sand, leaving one of two options: the humphead wrasses rely on fish excavators like stingrays, or they themselves excavate by ejecting water and nosing around to look for prey. Often, these wrasses, like many other Red Sea wrasses, crack sea urchins (echinoids) by carrying them to a rock in their mouths and striking them against a rock by moving their heads in sideways, brisk movements.[8] They sometimes engage in cooperative hunting with the Roving coral grouper.[9] Adults are commonly found on steep coral reef slopes, channel slopes, and lagoon reefs in water 3 to 330 ft (0.91 to 100.58 m) deep. This species actively selects branching hard and soft corals and seagrasses at settlement. Juveniles tend to prefer a more cryptic existence in areas of dense branching corals, bushy macroalgae, or seagrasses, while larger individuals and adults prefer to occupy limited home ranges in more open habitat on the edges of reefs, channels, and reef passes. The species is most often observed in solitary male-female pairs, or groups of two to seven individuals.[7] Conservation[edit] A humphead wrasse at the water's surface on the Great Barrier Reef The fish is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red list and in Appendix II of CITES.[10] Species numbers for the humphead wrasse have been declining due to a number of threats, including: Intensive and species-specific removal in the live reef food fish trade throughout its core range in Southeast Asia Destructive fishing techniques, including bombs and cyanide Habitat loss and degradation Local consumption and its value as a delicacy for local and tourists A developing export market for juvenile humphead wrasse for the marine aquarium trade Lack of coordinated, consistent national and regional management Inadequate knowledge about the species Illegal, unregulated, and unreported fishing activities[11] As noted, one of the causes for population decline is the unsustainable and severe overfishing within the live reef food fish trade (LRFFT). Sabah (located on Borneo Island) is a major source for humphead wrasses. The fishing industry is specifically important to this state because of its severe poverty rates. The export of this fish out of Sabah has led to a roughly 99% decline in the population in that area. In an effort to protect the species there was a ban placed on the export of the humphead wrasse out of Sabah. However, this does not prevent illegal, unreported, and unregulated activities (IUU). The protection by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is managed in this area by the federal Department of Fisheries Malaysia, Sabah (DOFS) who issue permits to regulate fishing activity. There are two pieces of legislation that serve to protect the species as well. The Fisheries Act 1985 controls the transport of live fish as well as prohibits destructive fishing techniques and the Trade of Endangered Species Act 2008 supports Malaysia's adoption of CITES.[11] The humphead wrasse is considered to be an umbrella species, which means many other species are sympatric with this species and have much smaller ranges. The conservation of the habitat of an umbrella species such as the humphead wrasse would not only benefit this species, but also all of the other sympatric species. The concept of an umbrella species can lead to a better understanding of endangered species protection.[4] The species has historically been fished commercially in northern Australia, but has been protected in Queensland since 2003 and Western Australia since 1998. In Guangdong Province, southern mainland China, permits are required for the sale of this species; Indonesia allows fishing only for research, mariculture, and licensed artisanal fishing; the Maldives instituted an export ban in 1995; Papua New Guinea prohibits export of fish over 2 ft (61 cm) total length; and Niue has banned all fishing for this species. The humphead wrasse is a U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service species of concern. Species of concern are those species about which the NMFS, has some concerns regarding status and threats, but for which insufficient information is available to indicate a need to list the species under the Endangered Species Act. Population conservation by genetics[edit] In 1996, the humphead wrasse was listed as a vulnerable species in the IUCN Red List because in the last decade, humphead wrasse populations were declining rapidly. The genomes of the humphead wrasse must be evaluated so as to try to determine a way to help keep the species alive.[12] Since so little is known about the genetic relationships at a geographical scale of the humphead wrasse, due to a test using microsatellite loci, (usually DNA markers are used for this specific test, but the humphead wrasses lack such markers,) researchers were able to facilitate population genetic studies in this species. Of the 15 microsatellite loci used in the test, only four of them seem to have a different outcome than the other 11 loci. These microsatellite loci were all prone to null alleles. However, with the presence of these null alleles, the results may have been slightly biased, or they may be related to a particularity of the C. undulatus, which are highly restricted to coral reef habitats.[13] Illegal, unregulated, and unreported activities[edit] The Philippines, Indonesia, and Sabah Malaysia are the three largest exporters of the humphead wrasse. The fish has one of the highest retail values in Asia, especially if caught alive, and it is a delicacy in places like Malaysia. Illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) activities were identified as the major factor contributing to the failure of conservation efforts. Although the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora has placed a ban on the exportation of the humphead wrasse, in many cases, the fish are still being smuggled across the Malaysian-Philippine border.[11] Four main factors have led to the persistence of IUU activities: Lack of capacity: A lack exists of formal procedures and the work force that monitor fishing activities and enforce fishing regulations. Lack of disincentives: Fishers do not have alternatives to substitute for the humphead wrasse, due to its value. Also, sanctions for illegal activities are not harsh enough to discourage fishing of this species. Weak accountability systems: A number of people are involved in the trade of this species, making it difficult to trace its source. Also, importers and consumers alike, despite their involvement, cannot be held responsible for the illegal exportation of the humphead wrasse. Absent domestic trade controls: Regulatory gaps are seen in that domestic catching, possession, and trading of the fish are not restricted — fishers may illegally source the fish or have intentions to illegally trade it, but if they are within Malaysian waters and have appropriate permits, they cannot be prosecuted.[11] The top exports of the humphead wrasse in Malaysia were in Sandakan, Papar, and Tawau. The fish could be purchased from between US$45.30 and $69.43, while the retail price ranged from $60.38 to $120.36.[14][15] See also

Humphead Wrasse

Eggs The lobster begins life as an egg. The tiny egg, no bigger than the head of a pin, is carried inside the mother's body for nine to 12 months before being fertilized and expelled with many others at once. The female excretes a gluelike substance that attaches them to the mother's swimmerets. Here they remain for another nine to 12 months until hatching. Once hatched, the baby lobsters float to the surface to begin their larval stage. Larva Lobster larvae float at or near the surface of the water, feeding on the plankton around them. They remain in the larval stage for four to six weeks. They will molt four times in this stage, with each molt bringing about significant changes to their sizes and appearances. Juvenile After molting for the fourth time, the young lobsters are heavy enough to sink to the ocean floor. There, they seek shelter in cracks and crevices until they have grown large enough to dig their own shelters. They will remain in these shelters, expanding them as necessary, for 25 molts -- usually five to seven years -- until they reach adult stage. Adult Once adults, weighing about 1 pound, they are free to roam the ocean floor. Lobsters continue to grow their entire lives, but at a slower rate. It is difficult to determine the exact age of a lobster, but based on average yearly growth it is believed they regularly live more than 50 years, perhaps as long as 100 years. Males molt only once a year and females every two years. With each molt the lobsters may increase their lengths as much as 15 percent and their weights by as much as 40 percent. They are solitary animals who stake out a territory and drive all others lobsters away. The only time they allow other lobsters into their territory is for breeding. Breeding After female lobsters reach sexual maturity they can mate every other year. Copulation can occur only immediately after a female molts while her shell is still soft. Shortly before a fertile female is to molt, she will find a male's den and sit outside of it, releasing pheromones so he does not chase her away. Once convinced she is not a threat, the male will allow her into his den. She will remain there until she mates and her new shell hardens. The male's sperm is stored in a receptacle within the female's body for up to a year, until her eggs are mature. The eggs pass through this receptacle and are fertilized on the way out of her body. Diet While the lobster has been called a scavenger, it actually prefers fresh food, though a whiff of lobster bait might belie that fact. Its diet typically consists of crabs, clams, mussels, worms, and anoccasional sea urchin or slow-witted flounder. A lobster may eat up to 100 different kinds of animals, and occasionally eats some plants as well. One large lobster in an aquarium was seen gnawing on the tail of a skate while the fish tried vainly to flutter away. A lobster has been observed catching a crab, dragging it back to its home, and burying it like a dog buries a bone. For the next few nights the lobster snacks on the crab instead of going hunting. An opportunist, a lobster will also eat another lobster if given the chance. Captive lobsters become especially cannibalistic, which is why they must be banded in a lobster pound or separated in individual compartments in a lobster hatchery. However, cannibalism has not been observed in the wild. Because lobsters eat their molts, it is dangerous to make this inference based on gut content analysis! Predators Many animals, especially humans, eat lobsters. After humans, cod are probably the lobster's principal enemy, followed by other bottom dwelling fishes, such as flounder, sculpins, wolffish, eels, rock gunnels, crabs, and seals. Even raccoons have been known to raid coastal lobster pounds at low tide. A Lobster's Neighbors After their first month or so of life, lobsters settle down on the ocean floor and become bottom dwellers. They co-exist with other bottom-dwelling life in the Gulf of Maine such as algae, sea urchins, crabs, mussels, and sculpin. Crevices in rocks, cobble bottoms, and kelp provide good hiding places for lobsters which like to hunker down during the day. Not long ago, hordes of sea urchins had created vast open stretches of ocean floor—urchin barrens—where they had devoured kelp beds. As a result of being harvested for their roe, as uni for the Japanese market, sea urchin populations have decreased, and fields of kelp have once again flourished. Some scientists believe the resulting proliferation of hiding places for young lobsters has helped the lobster population grow. Others think the decline in cod and flounder due to overharvesting has also helped the lobster population increase. Lobsters don't make good neighbors Aside from the fact that a lobster will eat almost any of its neighbors given the opportunity, an American lobster is not by nature a convivial beast. It is aggressive, territorial, and secretive. It hides in a burrow by day and prowls the ocean floor by night. It may cover a mile or more each night foraging for up to 100 different kinds of animals (and some plants). It may sneak into its neighbor's burrow when it's not around, and sometimes even if it is! Lobsters living together, whether in tanks or in territories on the ocean bottom, soon establish a hierarchy of dominance. They usually fight once, sometimes with great ferocity, to determine who will become the boss. The winner, not surprisingly, is usually the larger and more aggressive one, but occasionally a smaller but tougher opponent wins. After that, whenever the two lobsters meet, the winner whips his antennae across the other lobster's claws. The loser grovels in the sand until the dominant one passes by. In captivity, subordinate lobsters often suffer slower growth and less frequent molting. It could be the result of stress or less food. The dominant lobster gets first choice of shelter, food, and mates. In captivity, the female lobsters actually stagger their molts in order to wait their turn to mate with the dominant male! Dr. Robert Steneck of the University of Maine has videotaped lobster behavior in many bays in Maine. "It's amazing how much more you can learn when a lobster doesn't know it's being watched," he says. "They're very sensitive to human presence." He has even used Remotely-Operated Vessels (ROVs), unmanned minisubs, to follow deep-dwelling lobsters. In one experiment, Dr. Steneck used PVC pipes for lobster shelters. He grouped them close together in a tight formation he called "lobster condos." He left a camera running to see how the lobsters would deal with living in close proximity. Several lobsters took up residence in individual "condos." Before long, Dr. Steneck observed a large male evicting smaller lobsters from their tubes. He would back into the tube, raise his claws, and more often than not, abandon the shelter after establishing his superiority. Lobsters are known as cannibals, but they don't usually eat each other unless they are in crowded conditions like a lobster pound, or if they find a particularly vulnerable lobster just after molting that is unable to get to a shelter before its new shell hardens. Courtship and mating For more than twenty years, Dr. Jelle Atema of the Marine Biological Laboratory has been studying lobster mating behavior. He claims lobsters make tender lovers. A female lobster can mate only just after she sheds her shell. Lobster society has evolved a complex, touching courtship ritual that protects the female when she is most vulnerable. When she is ready to molt, the female lobster approaches a male's den and wafts a sex "perfume" called a pheromone in his direction. Unlike a female moth, whose sex pheromone may attract dozens of random suitors, the female lobster does the choosing. She usually seeks out the largest male in the neighborhood and stands outside his den, releasing her scent in a stream of urine from openings just below her antennae. He responds by fanning the water with his swimmerets, permeating his apartment with her perfume. He emerges from his den with his claws raised aggressively. She responds with a brief boxing match or by turning away. Either attitude seems to work to curb the male's aggression. The female raises her claws and places them on his head to let him know she is ready to mate. They enter the den, and some time after, from a few hours to several days later, the female molts. At this point the male could mate with her or eat her, but he invariably does the noble thing. He gently turns her limp body over onto her back with his walking legs and his mouth parts, being careful not to tear her soft flesh. They mate "with a poignant gentleness that is almost human, " observes Dr. Atema. The male, who remains hard-shelled, inserts his first pair of swimmerets, which are rigid and grooved, and passes his sperm into a receptacle in the female's body. She stays in the safety of his den for about a week until her new shell hardens. By then the attraction has passed, and the couple part with hardly a backward glance. Pregnancy A lobster's pregnancy is long: from mating to hatching takes perhaps twenty months. After mating, the female stores the sperm for many months. When she is ready to lay her eggs, she turns onto her back and cups her tail. As many as 10,000 to 20,000 eggs are pushed out of her ovaries. They are fertilized as they pass through the sperm receptacle, marked by a small triangular shield at the base of her walking legs. A sticky substance glues the eggs to the bottom of the female's tail. She will carry the eggs for 9 to 11 months, fanning them with her swimmerets to bring them oxygen and to clean off any debris that might stick to the developing eggs. Finally, when it's time for the eggs to hatch, the female lifts her tail into the current and sets them adrift in the sea. It may take up to two weeks for all of the eggs to be released.

Lobster

Geographic Range Diadema antillarum is found in the shallow waters of the Atlantic Ocean, in the Bahamas, and the Western Atlantic from eastern Florida to Brazil. In the Eastern Atlantic D. antillarum is found in Madeira, the Gulf of Guinea, and the Canary, Cape Verde, and Annabon islands. (Hendler, et al., 1995) Biogeographic Regionsatlantic ocean native Habitat Diadema antillarum favors quiet waters, and is found most often in coral reefs. This species can also be found in turtle grass beds and on rock bottoms. (Hendler, et al., 1995) Habitat Regionstropical saltwater or marine Aquatic Biomesreef Range depth 0 to 400 m 0.00 to 1312.34 ft Physical Description Diadema antillarum is a regular (round) urchin, and displays the pentamerism of echinoderms. Mature individuals of D. antillarum can reach up to 500 mm in diameter. Diadema antillarum has thin spines that range from 300-400 mm in length and can be up to four times the diameter of the test (skeleton formed inside the body). The spines are thin, hollow, and break easily. The test is rigid and there is a reduced amount of soft tissue in the body wall as compared to other species in the family Diadematidae. The test and spines of a mature adult are typically black, but lighter colored spines may be intermixed, and in rare cases the urchin will be almost entirely white. The spines of juveniles are always banded with black and white. When the urchin dies, the spines falls off and the test remains. At the base of the urchin are branched tentacles called tube feet, which help in gathering food, respiration, locomotion, and mucous production. (Banister and Campbell, 1985; Nichols and Cooke, 1971; Hendler, et al., 1995) Other Physical Featuresectothermic heterothermic radial symmetry Development The fertilized egg has two forms: the blastula and the gastrula. These swim close to the surface of the water with the aid of cilia, and can be dispersed quite far, depending on currents. These larvae are known as the echinopluteus, and can remain in the larval stage for an average of 4-6 weeks. As the larvae mature, a vestibule is created in what will be the oral side of the urchin. Tentacles grow from this opening, on which suction areas eventually emerge. When the tentacles have suckers, they are primary poda, which serve as locomotive tools when the larva sinks to the ocean floor. At this point the skeletal plates begin to develop. When the 5 ambulical plates are developed and the terminal plate lies next to the genital plates, the urchin is fully developed, though it will continue to grow for the rest of its life. (Grzimek, 1972) Development - Life Cyclemetamorphosis Reproduction Some populations of D. antillarum have been observed to congregate during their spawning season. There is no mating of individuals as fertilization and gestation occur in the open water. (Grzimek, 1972) The spawning of D. antillarum appears to be connected to the lunar calendar. During the summer season, the egg and sperm are released once during each lunar month. This spawning period is dependant upon temperature; populations in different hemispheres may spawn at different times depending on when the warm season occurs. The egg and sperm are released into the water where they are fertilized and develop into the larval echinopluteus. Egg size has also been observed to change during the month. Spawning occurs when the eggs are largest. (Anonymous, 1967; Grzimek, 1972; Hendler, et al., 1995) Key Reproductive Featuresseasonal breeding gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate) sexual fertilization external Breeding interval Spawning is temperature dependent. Breeding season In summer, eggs and sperm are released each lunar month. There is no parental involvement post-spawning. Parental Investmentpre-fertilization provisioning Lifespan/Longevity The lifespan of D. antillarum is closely related to temperatures and food availability. Populations in warmer climates tend to have a quicker rate of development and shorter lifespan than those in colder climates. (Grzimek, 1972) Average lifespan Status: wild 6 years Typical lifespan Status: wild 4 to 8 years Behavior Extremely sensitive to light, D. antillarum remains in darker areas, like crevices in the reef, during the day, and emerges at night to feed. Groups of individuals can be found in open areas, and densities can reach up to 20 per square meter. This group size corresponds to the abundance of predators in the area. A very active urchin, D. antillarum has a high reactivity and sensitivity to changes in light and water disturbances. The urchin will wave its spines in the direction of the upsetting occurence, and retreat to sheltered areas quickly, if need be. (Banister and Campbell, 1985; Hendler, et al., 1995) Key Behaviorsnocturnal motile Communication and Perception Diadema antillarum has a highly developed light sensitivity. When a shadow appears, the urchin waves its spines in the direction of the shadow and moves away from the shadow, often into a more protected area. In this sense, D. antillarum can almost 'see' predators. It is not known how individuals communicate with each other to aggregate. (Waller, 1996) Communication Channelschemical Other Communication Modesphotic/bioluminescent Perception Channelsvisual tactile chemical Food Habits Diadema antillarum grazes on the algal turf of coral reefs primarily during the night. Foods eaten include algal turf, young corals and zoanthids. (Grzimek, 1972; Hendler, et al., 1995) Primary Dietcarnivore eats non-insect arthropods eats other marine invertebrates herbivore algivore omnivore Animal Foodsaquatic or marine worms cnidarians other marine invertebrates zooplankton Plant Foodsalgae Predation The spines of Diadema antillarum are brittle and will fragmentize if wounded. The pieces are difficult to remove, and often cause infections as they carry bacteria. The mucous coating of the spines, normally used to kill organisms that live in the spines, carries a mild poison that also aids in deterring smaller predators. Diadema antillarum has been observed to gather in groups as an added protection. (Carson, 1955; Grzimek, 1972; Hendler, et al., 1995; Waller, 1996) Known Predators queen triggerfish (Balistes vetula) Caribbean spiny lobsters (Panularis argus) Caribbean helmets (Cassis turberosa) two species of toadfish (Antennariidae) Ecosystem Roles Diadema antillarum feeds on the algal turf of the coral reefs. The algal turf grows rapidly, and without the urchin's control, can destroy the reefs. Diadema antillarum clears the reefs, making room for coral larvae to settle and grow. However, the urchin actually wears away at the calcium carbonate of the reef, too. (Hendler, et al., 1995) Commensal/Parasitic Species Tuleariocaris neglecta, black urchin shrimp Many species of cardinal fishes Apogonidae Economic Importance for Humans: Positive The gonads of sea urchins are considered a delicacy in many coastal regions, but D. antillarum is not one of the more preferred species. Sea urchin eggs are used extensively in embryological research. (Banister and Campbell, 1985; Grzimek, 1972) Positive Impactsfood research and education Economic Importance for Humans: Negative The spines of D. antillarum are very sharp and can easily pierce skin, shoes, and wetsuits. Contact with a spine is not extremely painful, but the shattering of the spine leaves organic material in the wound that can cause intensely painful infections. The poisonous mucous seems to have very little effect on humans. (Carson, 1955; Hendler, et al., 1995)

Long Spined Black Sea Urchin

Behaviour Moray eels secrete a mucus over their smooth skins in greater quantities than other eels, allowing them to swim fast around the reef without fear of abrasion. Also sand-dwelling morays can make their burrow stronger and permanent, as granules adhere with the mucus and attach to the sides of the burrows. There are often parasites on the surface of the moray eel's skin making them popular with cleaner shrimp and cleaner wrasses. Due to the small size of the gills, morays have to continuously open and close their mouths in a gaping fashion to maintain a flow of water and facilitate respiration. This is often mistaken as aggressive posturing by the unaware and is part of the reason for the moray eel's fearsome reputation. Another may be their inability, due to poor eye sight, to distinguish where food ends and where human fingers begin. As well as attacking when under threat, moray eels have been known to bite off and swallow digits of those feeding them. Feeding Habits Moray eels are carnivores and their diet consists mainly of other fish or cephalopods, as well as mollusks and crustaceans. They go hunting mostly at night and their chief hunting tool is their excellent sense of smell which makes up for their poor eyesight. This means that weakened or dead creatures tend to be easy to detect and are therefore the moray eel's favoured food. Otherwise they hide in their crevices waiting until their prey is close enough, and then they launch themselves from the burrow and clasp the prey with their powerful jaws. Their lightning fast strikes are devastatingly impressive, as diver that has seen a moray eel attack will verify. Reproduction Scientific studies have shown hermaproditism in morays, some being sequential (they are male, later becoming female) and others are synchronous (having both functional testes and ovaries at the same time) and can reproduce with either sex. Courtship among compatible morays begins when water temperatures reach their highest, and they begin sexual posturing in the form of gaping widely. Then the morays will wrap each others' long slender bodies together, either as a couple or 2 males and a female. They simultaneously release sperm and eggs in the act of fertilisation, which signals the end of their relationship. Life Cycle On hatching, the eggs take the form of leptocephalus larvae, which look like thin leaf-shaped objects, that float in the open ocean for around 8 months. Then they swim down as elvers to begin life on the reef and eventually become a moray eel, living between 6 and 36 years depending on species in a natural life cycle. Predation Their main predators are other moray eels but also large groupers, barracudas and people. In truth this represents very few predators, which explains why they have the confidence to live in burrows or crevices in the reef from which swift flight maybe difficult. Distribution and Habitat These eels are found worldwide in tropical and temperate seas, particularly in relatively shallow water among reefs and rocks, as well as in estuarine areas. Ecological Considerations Morays are fished, but are not considered endangered. This is due in no small part to their toxicity. Ciguatoxin, the main toxin of ciguatera, is produced by a toxic dinoflagellate and accumulated up through the food chain, of which moray eels are top, making them dangerous for humans to eat. This fact was apparently the cause of death for King Henry I of England, who expired shortly after feasting on a moray eel. Dive Sites

Moray EEl

Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus) is one of the large number of perciform fishes in the family Serranidae commonly referred to as groupers. It is the most important of the groupers for commercial fishery in the West Indies, but has been endangered by overfishing. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the Nassau grouper as critically endangered, due to commercial and recreational fishing and reef destruction.[1] Fishing the species is prohibited in US federal waters.[1] The Nassau grouper is a US National Marine Fisheries Service Species of Concern and is a candidate for listing under the Endangered Species Act. Description A Nassau grouper, E. striatus, ambushes its prey on Caribbean coral reefs. The Nassau grouper is a medium to large fish, growing to over a meter in length and up to 25 kg in weight. It has a thick body and large mouth, which it uses to "inhale" prey. Its color varies depending on an individual fish's circumstances and environment. In shallow water (down to 60 ft), the grouper is a tawny color, but specimens living in deeper waters are pinkish or red, or sometimes orange-red in color. Superimposed on this base color are a number of lighter stripes, darker spots, bars, and patterns, including black spots below and behind the eye, and a forked stripe on the top of the head. Distribution and habitat The Nassau grouper lives in the sea near reefs; it is one of the largest fish to be found around coral reefs. It can be found from the shoreline to nearly 100-m-deep water. It lives in the western Atlantic Ocean, from Bermuda, Florida, and the Bahamas in the north to southern Brazil, but it is only found in a few places in the Gulf of Mexico, most notably along the coast of Belize.[2] Biology It is a solitary fish, feeding in the daytime, mainly on other fish and small crustaceans such as crabs and small lobsters. It spawns in December and January, always around the time of the full moon, and always in the same locations. By the light of the full moon, huge numbers of the grouper cluster together to mate in mass spawning. Conservation The Nassau grouper is fished both commercially and for sport; it is less shy than other groupers, and is readily approached by scuba divers. However, its numbers have been sharply reduced by overfishing in recent years, and it is a slow breeder. Furthermore, its historic spawning areas are easily targeted for fishing, which tends to remove the reproductively active members of the group. The species is therefore highly vulnerable to overexploitation, and is recognised as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. The governments of the United States, the Cayman Islands, and the Bahamas have banned or instituted closed fishing seasons for the Nassau grouper in recent years. In the Cayman Islands, fishing in the spawning holes of the grouper has been banned until the end of 2016. In the case of the Bahamas, the government has instituted a closed fishing season in which fishing for the Nassau grouper is banned from December to February. It is in a very high rate decline and is at serious risk of becoming extinct. A large spawning site for the species is located at Glover's Reef, off the Belizean coast. It has been identified as one of only two viable sites remaining for the species, of 9 originally known locations. In 2002, a permanent marine protected area was established on Glover's Reef. However, the Nassau grouper's spawning region is not included in this marine protected area (MPA). Instead, their spawning area (located north of the MPA) is subjected to a three-month closure during winter spawning aggregations.[3] Many conservation methods have been put in place to help the grouper, including closed seasons, when fishing is not allowed. These seasons take place during the spawning season. Regulations allow only fish over 3 lb to be harvested to give the younger fish a chance to spawn. Some areas are protected, a complete ban on fishing the grouper in US waters has been instituted. Also, protection of the spawning sites at all times is in effect in certain places. Status reviews The U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service recently completed a review of the status of the species for Endangered Species listing.[4] They proposed to list the species as endangered.[5] However, analysis of declines in both populations as well as the size spawning aggregations has led to the species being uplisted to critically endangered by the IUCN Red List in 2018.[1] Nassau grouper Nassau grouper in Saba The Nassau grouper has been depicted on postage stamps of Cuba (1965, 1975), the Bahamas (1971 5-cent), and Antigua and Barbuda (1987 40-c). The threats to the grouper include overfishing, fishing during the breeding period, habitat loss, pollution, invasive species, and catching undersized grouper. The Nassau grouper was placed on the World Conservation Union's redlist of threatened species in 1996, and it was determined to be endangered because its population has declined by 60% in the past 30 years. Over a third of spawning aggregations have been estimated to have disappeared, and the grouper is considered to be commercially extinct in some areas. The current population is estimated to be more than 10,000 mature individuals, but is thought to be decreasing. Their suitable habitat is declining; they need quality coral reef habitats to survive. Their population outlook is not optimistic.

Nassau Grouper

Species & Distribution The family Scaridae includes over 90 species of fi sh known as parrotfi sh. Parrotfi sh have evolved bright colours and teeth fused into parrot-like beaks. Most species reach 30 to 50 cm in length. The largest species, the green humphead parrotfi sh, Bolbometopon muricatum, may grow to 1.3 m long, and weigh up to 46 kg. Parrotfi sh are found in relatively shallow tropical waters throughout the world and the largest number of species is found in the Indian and Pacifi c oceans. Habitats & Feeding Parrotfi sh are found on rocky coasts and in seagrass beds as well as on coral reefs. At night parrotfi sh sleep in crevices or holes after wrapping themselves in a transparent covering or cocoon of mucus. The mucus may repel parasites or hide the scent of the fi sh from night-time predators. The key habitats in the life cycle of parrotfi sh are coral reefs and, in many species, the areas where they gather to breed (the spawning aggregation sites), often on the outer reef slope or in channels. With their fused teeth, parrotfi sh scrape coral to feed on plant growth and some may feed on the very small plants (zooxanthellae) living within the coral. Some of the coral surface is eaten and this helps with the digestion of the plant material. They graze large quantities of coral to gain small amounts of food and continually release clouds of fi ne coral particles. As each adult parrotfi sh can produce about 90 kg of coral particles each year, their contribution to the sand of lagoons and tropical beaches is important. Their feeding activity also prevents coral becoming smothered by plants. The predators of parrotfi sh include moray eels, snappers and a wide range of larger reef fi sh. Darkcapped parrotfi sh (Scarus oviceps) Steephead parrotfi sh (Chlorurus mirorhinos) Daisy parrotfi sh (Chlorurus sordidus) Spotted parrotfi sh (Cetoscarus ocellatus) Green humphead parrotfi sh (Bolbometopon muricatum) h d fi h #04 Parrotfi sh (Scaridae) Reproduction & Life cycle Almost all species of parrotfi sh start life as females (~) and later in life change to the vivid green or blue coloured males (|). Some species have relatively fast growth rates, are able to reproduce within 2 to 3 years, and have an average lifespan of 5 to 6 years. However, larger species appear to grow more slowly and reach ages of more than 15 years. Some parrotfi sh species move to particular areas to reproduce in large spawning aggregations. In these aggregations, each female produces thousands of eggs which are fertilised by sperm released by the males. Within about 25 hours, the fertilised eggs hatch into small forms (the drifting larval stage) about 1 mm long. These drift in the sea for an unknown length of time before settling on coral reefs

Parrot Fish

What They Look Like At first glance, slate pencil urchins just look like a big ball of spines, but there's more to them than that. They usually reach a diameter of 5 to 6 inches. Their thick spines -- which offer them some protection from predators -- are attached to a globular center. They range in color from brown to red or tan, with dull white spines. It's on their undersides where it gets more interesting -- they have hundreds of transparent tube feet to move them around and a mouth with five horny, toothlike wedges. Where They Live As marine creatures, slate pencil urchins can only be found in the ocean. More specifically, they live in the Caribbean and the Atlantic Ocean, from Bermuda to Brazil. Their most common habitat is in turtle grass beds, but they're also often found in reefs and coral crevices. They can be found at a range of depths -- although they're quite common in shallower waters, at around 20 feet deep, they've been collected at depths of up to 2,300 feet. What They Eat Although primarily herbivorous, slate pencil urchins are opportunistic feeders and will scavenge for other types of food. They generally come out at night to feed, moving around and using their hard, horned teeth to scrape algae and other plant matter off rocks and corals. However, they'll also eat sponges, barnacles, mussels and dead fish or other sea creatures. How They Reproduce Despite males and females looking exactly alike, slate pencil urchins have distinct and separate sexes. They reproduce using external fertilization. Females release eggs and males release sperm into the water simultaneously, where they will join and become fertilized. Females can produce thousands, or even millions, of eggs in one go. Once hatched, these tiny urchins start out their lives as larvae and take roughly two years to reach their full adult size. Additional Information Slate pencil sea urchins belong to the taxonomic phylum Echinodermata, which includes sea stars, sand dollars and sea cucumbers. As with other members of their phylum, they have five-fold radial symmetry, although it isn't obvious until you look at their dried shells. These urchins are fairly numerous and aren't considered threatened or endangered at this time.

Pencil Urchin

Snappers are a family of perciform fish, Lutjanidae, mainly marine, but with some members inhabiting estuaries, feeding in fresh water. The family includes about 113 species. Some are important food fish. One of the best known is the red snapper. Snappers inhabit tropical and subtropical regions of all oceans. Some snappers grow up to about 1 m (3.3 ft) in length however one specific Snapper, the Cubera Snapper, grows up to 5 ft in length.[2] Most are active carnivores, feeding on crustaceans or other fish,[3] though a few are plankton-feeders. They can be kept in aquaria, but mostly grow too fast to be popular aquarium fish. Most species live at depths reaching 100 m (330 ft) near coral reefs, but some species are found up to 500 m (1,600 ft) deep.[3] Five-lined snapper (Lutjanus quinquelineatus), northeast coast of Taiwan As other fish, snappers harbour parasites. A detailed study conducted in New Caledonia has shown that coral reef-associated snappers harbour about 9 species of parasites per fish species.[4] Species & Distribution The family Lutjanidae contains more than 100 species of tropical and sub-tropical fi sh known as snappers. Most species of interest in the inshore fi sheries of Pacifi c Islands belong to the genus Lutjanus, which contains about 60 species. One of the most widely distributed of the snappers in the Pacifi c Ocean is the common bluestripe snapper, Lutjanus kasmira, which reaches lengths of about 30 cm. The species is found in many Pacifi c Islands and was introduced into Hawaii in the 1950s. Habitats & Feeding Although most snappers live near coral reefs, some species are found in areas of less salty water in the mouths of rivers. The young of some species school on seagrass beds and sandy areas, while larger fi sh may be more solitary and live on coral reefs. Many species gather in large feeding schools around coral formations during daylight hours. Snappers feed on smaller fi sh, crabs, shrimps, and sea snails. They are eaten by a number of larger fi sh. In some locations, species such as the two-spot red snapper, Lutjanus bohar, are responsible for ciguatera fi sh poisoning (see the glossary in the Guide to Information Sheets). Emperor red snapper (Lutjanus sebae) Blacktail snapper (Lutjanus fulvus) Humpback red snapper (Lutjanus gibbus) Two-spot red snapper (Lutjanus bohar) Common bluestripe snapper (Lutjanus kasmira) Mangrove red snapper (Lutjanus argentimaculatus) #05 Reef snappers (Lutjanidae) Reproduction & Life cycle Snappers have separate sexes. Smaller species have a maximum lifespan of about 4 years and larger species live for more than 15 years. Many common species grow to sizes of 25 to 35 cm and reach reproductive maturity at about 45 per cent of their maximum size (that is, 11 to 16 cm in the most common species). Snappers generally spawn throughout the year in warmer waters but during the warmer months in cooler waters. Many snappers travel long distances to particular areas along outer reefs and channels to breed (in spawning aggregations), often around the time of the new moon and full moon. During breeding, females (~) release eggs (often more than 1 million) and these are fertilised by sperm released by males (|). In most reefassociated snappers, fertilised eggs hatch within a day or two into small forms (larval stages) that drift with currents for about 1 month. Less than one in every thousand of these small fl oating forms survives to settle on a reef as a young fi sh (juvenile). And less than one in every hundred juveniles survives the period of 3 to 8 years that it takes to become a mature adult capable of reproducing. Fishing methods Snappers are most often taken by using baited hooks and handlines but are also caught by using spears, traps and gill nets. Many snappers are caught as they gather in large groups to breed (in spawning aggregations). Fishing in this way is destructive as these breeding fi sh are responsible for producing small fi sh, many of which will grow and be available to be caught in future years. Minimum size limits for snappers have been applied in some countries (e.g., 30 cm length from the tip of the mouth to the middle of the tail). However, the particular species of snapper is not usually stated. Taking into account the wide variation between snapper species, this size limit would be of little use in protecting larger species. Size limits should be applied to individual species. Some countries have restricted fi shing methods to the use of hook and line only. Catch (bag) limits have also been applied but such a measure is usually inappropriate in community-based fi sheries. Locally managed fi sh reserves (no-take areas) could be established but, for species that travel long distances to spawning sites, these will not protect reproducing fi sh. However, if spawning times and areas are known by local fi shers, the following management actions are possible: a ban on fi shing during the times that fi sh form spawning aggregations, which may require a number of short closures (say for 3 to 4 days) around the periods of new moon and full moon, depending on the particular species; a ban on fi shing at known spawning areas or sites; such sites may include particular areas along outer reefs and channels where snappers are known to gather to breed. Additional community actions could include: support for local national minimum size limits or (if not available) set communitybased minimum size limits at about 50 per cent of the maximum size of the species; a ban on the use of gear such as gill nets which catch too many fi sh; a restriction on small-mesh gill nets; enforcing a minimum mesh size may allow smaller fi sh to escape and grow to a size when they can reproduce.

Snapper

Overview The phylum Porifera contains predominantly marine sponges; it is only in the suborder Spongillina within the order Haplosclerida that the freshwater species are found. Freshwater sponges show a high diversity of colours, sizes, body shapes and textures and are found worldwide. The key character that is thought to have enabled the diversification of sponges into inland waters is the presence of gremmules. Gremmules are internal buds which form through asexual reproduction and are resistant to harsh conditions, allowing the sponge to resist hostile environments in a resting phase and re-establish when conditions are more suitable. The oldest fossil evidence of freshwater sponges is from the Cretaceous. Distribution and diversity The freshwater sponges have colonised a wide range of environments and substrates at all latitudes. There are approximately 220 species of freshwater sponge from 45 genera in six families worldwide. Two families (Spongillidae and Metaniidae) consisting of 11 genera and 27 species are reported from Australia. Life cycle A generalised life cycle of a freshwater sponge can consist of five stages that can be repeated several times a year. A vegetative growth phase is followed by gemmulation (asexual reproduction) or sexual reproduction, cryptobiosis (resting phase), the hatching of gemmules, and finally regeneration. If sexual reproduction is occurring, parenchymella larvae are produced and disperse before developing into the mature sponge. Most Australian species are thought to reproduce by asexual reproduction. Feeding Sponges feed by filtering bacteria and organic particles out of the water. Water-conducting canals throughout their tissue allow the water to flow through chambers where food particles are caught by flagellated cells (choanocytes) which are similar in operation to a kitchen strainer. Ecology Freshwater sponges can be found in a surprising range of depths and have been known to survive huge variations in chemical and physical conditions. They are found encrusting onto surfaces beneath the water. Substrates can include everything from rocks to roots and branches to man-made structures. Life Cycle The life of a sponge can start one of two ways; one way is by the parent sponge budding, that is to say, the parent releases cells which can, on their own, mature into individual sponges, similar to mitosis among single celled organisms. The other way is by the parent sponge "smoking," which is the process of the "male" sponge releasing thousands of sperm cells out into the sea in a thick cloud resembling smoke. Eventually, a "female" sponge catches a sperm and is fertalized as in any sexual reproduction involving meiosis. The sponge embryo is very basic, as the sponge is diploblastic. This means that a sponge only has two layers of tissue, separated by mesoglea. After fertilization, a larva is released. The sponge larva is free swimming and will be able to swim up to two days, at which point, it must find a suitable site to settle on. If the sponge is able to find a suitable site within that time, it will cling to it and begin to grow. As the sponge develops, it grows according to its environment, which can influence its shape and size, making no two sponges physically identical. After the sponge matures a bit more, it begins the reproductive process, and the life cycle begins again. Sponge Larva The average sponge has a lifespan of around 20 years, but in some extreme cases, due to asexual reproduction, sponges can last up to 200 years. There are certain species of sponge that, upon death, will wither up and desintigrate, leaving behind no skeleton of fossil. There are also, of course; the species of sponges who, when they die, lose their footing on their rock or whatever they happen to be planted to, and wash ashore, possibly to be used to wash a car in the near future

Sponge

Description and characteristics These fish have big, fleshy lips and tend to live on coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific in small groups or pairs. They will often associate with other fishes of similar species; several species of sweetlips sometimes swim together. They are usually seen in clusters in nooks and crannies or under overhangs. At nightfall, they venture from their shelters to seek out their bottom-dwelling invertebrate prey, such as bristleworms, shrimps, and small crabs. Sweetlips colouring and patterning changes throughout their lives. For example, Plectorhinchus polytaenia develops more stripes with age. Juvenile sweetlips generally look quite different from the adults, and often live solitary lives on shallower reef sections. Juveniles may be banded or spotted and are usually a completely different colour from the adults of their species. Small juveniles have an undulating swimming pattern, possibly mimicking poisonous flatworms as a means of predator avoidance.[2][3] Introduction As its common name implies, the Spotted Sweetlips can be recognised by its spotted pattern that alters with growth. Identification Juvenile Harlequin Sweetlips under 7-8cm in length, are brown with large dark-edged, white spots (see bottom image). They swim with the head pointing down and with exaggerated fin movements resulting in an undulating motion. At this size the Harlequin Sweetlips is believed to be a nudibranch or flatworm mimic (see video). As juveniles grow, the brown base colour disappears and dark brown spots develop. Adults are white with dark brown spots on the body and fins. Spotted Sweetlips, Plectorhinchus chaetodonoidesToggle Caption A Spotted Sweetlips at a depth of 27 m, off Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia, 22 October 2009. Image: Erik Schlögl © Erik Schlögl Habitat Juveniles live in lagoons, but adults live in deeper water and are often observed under ledges or in caves. Distribution This species is occurs in tropical marine waters of the Indo-West Pacific. In Australia it is known from north-western Western Australia and the Great Barrier Reef. The map below shows the Australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in Australian Museums. Source: Atlas of Living Australia.

Sweetlips

Charonia is a genus of very large sea snail, commonly known as Triton's trumpet or Triton snail. They are marine gastropod mollusks in the monotypic family Charoniidae. Etymology[edit] The common name "Triton's trumpet" is derived from the Greek god Triton, who was the son of Poseidon, god of the sea. The god Triton is often portrayed blowing a large seashell horn similar to this species. Fossil records[edit] This genus is known in the fossil records as far back as the Cretaceous period. Fossils are found in the marine strata throughout the world.[3] Description[edit] Species within the genus Charonia have large fusiform shells, usually whiteish with brown or yellow markings. The shell of the giant triton Charonia tritonis (Linnaeus, 1758), which lives in the Indo-Pacific, can grow to over half a metre (20 inches) in length. One slightly smaller (shell size 100-385 millimetres (3.9-15.2 in) but still very large species, Charonia variegata (Lamarck, 1816), lives in the western Atlantic, from North Carolina to Brazil.[4] Distribution[edit] Charonia species inhabit temperate and tropical waters worldwide. Life habits[edit] Unlike pulmonate and opistobranch gastropods, tritons are not hermaphrodites; they have separate sexes and undergo sexual reproduction with internal fertilization. The female deposits white capsules in clusters, each of which contains many developing larvae. The larvae emerge free-swimming and enter the plankton, where they drift in open water for up to three months. Feeding behavior[edit] Adult tritons are active predators and feed on other molluscs and starfish.[5] The giant triton has gained fame for its ability to capture and eat crown-of-thorns starfish, a large species (up to 1 m in diameter) covered in venomous spikes an inch long. The crown-of-thorns starfish has few other natural predators and has earned the enmity of humans in recent decades by proliferating and destroying large sections of coral reef. The struggle between a starfish and an Atlantic triton can last up to an hour before the seastar is subdued by the snail's paralyzing saliva. Tritons can be observed to turn and give chase when the scent of prey is detected. Some starfish (including the crown-of-thorns starfish) appear to be able to detect the approach of the mollusc by means which are not clearly understood, and they will attempt flight before any physical contact has taken place. Tritons, however, are faster than starfish, and only large starfish have a reasonable hope of escape, and then only by abandoning whichever limb the snail seizes first. The triton grips its prey with its muscular foot and uses its toothy radula (a serrated, scraping organ found in gastropods) to saw through the starfish's armoured skin. Once it has penetrated, a paralyzing saliva subdues the prey and the snail feeds at leisure, often beginning with the softest parts such as the gonads and gut. Tritons ingest smaller prey animals whole without troubling to paralyse them, and will spit out any poisonous spines, shells, or other unwanted parts later.

Triton (species Charonia)