Week 6: (Ch. 8, 9, 10)

Bullying in the workplace

- can involve a single bully targeting others or involve multiple bullies ganging up on one or more individuals - both high and low performers can be the targets of workplace aggression, but the type of aggression differed for each ---> low performers are more likely to experience direct, 'in your face' aggression (yelling, swearing) ---> excellent performers are more likely to experience subtle 'behind your back' aggression (sabotage, avoidance)

Team Building as OD

- increasing importance of teams within workplaces - include helping teams learn to set goals and priorities, deter-mine how to allocate work and define roles for team members, and examine processes important for efficient and effective teamwork. - ongoing process

decision making in teams

--> In teams, information is often distributed unequally among members and must be integrated. --> Choosing among alternatives is made more complicated by having to integrate the often differing perspectives and opinions of team members. --> The integration process usually includes dealing with uncertainty, with the effects of status differences among members, and with the failure of one member to appreciate the significance of the information he or she holds. -->Ambiguity, time pressures, heavy workloads, and other factors may become sources of stress that affect the group's ability to perform its task

Leadership Development as OD

-Developing leaders is a critical concern for organizations - efforts are aimed at expanding the capacity of individuals to perform well in leadership roles within organizations.

types of teams

-problem-resolution -creative -tactical -ad hoc -virtual

Allen and Meyer's three components of commitment (1990)

1) Affective: the employee's emotional attachment to, and identification with, the target 2) Continuance: commitment based on the costs that the employee associates with leaving the target 3) Normative: the employee's feelings of obligation to remain with the target

Competing Values Framework: Four types of organizations

1) Competition culture: assumes business environment is hostile, their leaders are tough and demanding, and use aggressive strategies to achieve productivity - Ex. automobile industry 2) Controlling culture: assumes business environment is stable, their leaders emphasize the following of company policies and procedures, and effectiveness is achieved by standardization and control. - Ex. fast food industry 3) Collaborative culture: managed through teamwork and by regarding customers as partners, their leaders emphasize developing relations, and effectiveness is achieved through loyalty and internal cohesiveness. - Ex. organizations that generally operate in smaller, niche markets (like a family-owned business) 4) Creative culture: assumes business environment is turbulent and dynamic. Leaders emphasize innovation and creativity, and effectiveness is achieved by designing new products and services. - Ex. high-tech electronics industry Check Figure 8-4 - internal vs external focus - flexibility vs stability

TRIAD model of role behavior in groups (Driskell)

1) Dominance (how dominant, active, and control-seeking an individual is) 2) Sociability (how sociable, friendly, and agreeable a person is) 3) Task Orientation (how focused a person is on solving a task). ***Individuals can fall anywhere from high to low on any of these dimensions, and their role based on where they fall on those dimensions can be mapped onto the three-dimensional space. --> individuals who have high task orientation, average sociability, and high dominance as characterize team leaders

Four key dimensions that most affect the global organization (Marquardt)

1) Leadership roles and expectations: Western managers adopts a democratic style while non western managers are more authoritarian 2) Individualism and groups: US is the most individualistic, valuing individualism and task completion over relationships. Non-western cultures are more group-oriented/collectivistic 3) Communications: Latin American, Middle Eastern, and southern European cultures value expressive communication styles. Western style places more emphasis on the factual accuracy of what is said. 4) Decision making and handling conflict: Western culture are action oriented preferring frankness and candor over dealing with conflict. Non-western cultures are more indirect with more emphasis on avoiding conflict than on finding ways to resolve it.

Four major dimensions that are useful in understanding cross-cultural differences (Hofstede)

1) Power distance: the extent to which less powerful members of an organization expect and accept that power is distributed unequally (Malaysia is highest) 2) Individualism-collectivism: individualism the belief that people in a society primarily look after themselves and their family members. Collectivism is the belief that people in a society are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout their lifetime protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty (The United States scores highest on individualism) 3) Masculinity-femininity: Masculinity stands for a society in which social gender roles generally tend to be distinct. Men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material resources; women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles overlap; both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. (Japan scores highest on masculinity.) 4) Uncertainty avoidance: the extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations. (Greece scores highest on uncertainty avoidance.)

What is the typical employee response to violations of the psychological contract? --> Sequential pattern of five employee responses to violations

1) Voice: employees voice their concerns over the violations and seek to reinstate the contract. 2) Unsuccessful? --> Silence: compliance with the organization, but a loss of commitment. 3) Retreat: passivity, negligence, and shirking of responsibility 4) Destruction: employees retaliate against the employer through theft, threats, sabotage, and in extreme cases, homicide 5) Exit stage: employees quit the organization or provoke the organization to dismiss them

Three steps to enacting deliberate change within organizations (Lewin)

1) unfreezing the status quo: communicate the need for change and make employees understand how the change will affect them --> decrease resistance and gain support 2) change or movement to the desired end state: the step where the actual change takes place 3) refreezing: entails making the change the new norm. Kotter (1995) built on Lewin's earlier work. - proposed an eight-stage model that essentially broke down Lewin's three steps into sub-components based on common mistakes he saw organizations make when trying to change The implementation process can be messy: "Things don't proceed exactly as planned; people do things their own way, not always according to the plan; some people resist or even sabotage the process, and some people who would be predicted to support or resist the plan actually behave in just the opposite way"

5 social skills are particularly critical for an individual to enhance the performance of the group:

1. Gain the group acceptance, 2. Increase group solidarity, 3. Be aware of the group consciousness, 4. Share the group identification, and 5. Manage others' impressions of him or her.

The Seven Basic Parts of an Organization (Mintzberg, 2008)

1. Operating core - consists of those employees who are responsible for conducting the basic work duties that give the organization its defining purpose. - manufacturing organization --> employees who transform raw goods (e.g., cloth) into a sellable product (e.g., apparel) - service organization --> employees who perform vital work functions 2. Strategic apex - responsible for the overall success of the entire organization (executive leadership, the "brain") - these employees have the responsibility and authority to ensure that the larger goals of the organization are being met 3. Middle line - employees who have the day-to-day authority for ensuring that the overall goals set by the strategic apex are being carried out by the operating core. - Ex. mid-level bosses, senior managers, first-level supervisors. The chain of command: strategic apex --> middle line --> operating core 4. Technostructure - employees who possess specific technical expertise that facilitates the overall operation of the organization. - specialists in areas of business that influence the organization, but these people do not perform the mainstream work of the organization (the operating core) nor are they members of top management (the strategic apex). - Ex. Accounting, human resources, information technology, and law. 5. Support staff - provides services that aid the basic mission of the organization and typically includes the mailroom, security, and janitorial services. Sometimes the members of the support staff and the technostructure are collectively regarded as meeting the "staff" function of an organization (vis-à-vis the line/staff distinction). However, there is a major distinction between the technostructure and the support staff. The members of the technostructure give advice to the organization, while the support staff performs services. 6. Ideology - produces internal cohesion and provides a singular purpose to the organization - "missionary" structure --> an organization that is singularly devoted to a particular mission, and all its actions are in pursuit of that mission (Ex. an organization that is directed to providing disaster relief for victims) - Strong ideology can produce high internal cohesion (less need for formal rules and regulations) - Weak ideologies have weaker effects on individual behavior 7. Politics - has the opposite effect of ideology --> politics cause divisiveness and conflict - basis for politics is the use of power that is neither formally authorized (as by a company president) or widely accepted within the organization - use of political power pits individuals and groups against each other for the purpose of destabilizing the legitimate power base within the organization --> creates opportunities for individuals to gain illegitimate power

principles of teamwork

1. Teamwork implies that members provide feedback to and accept it from one another 2. Teamwork implies the willingness, preparedness, and proclivity to back fellow members up during operations 3. Teamwork involves group members collectively viewing themselves as a group whose success depends on their interaction 4. Teamwork means fostering within-team interdependence 5. Teams have leaders who serve as models for the others

team structure

3 dimensions: skill differentiation --> dictates who will perform various tasks --> high skill differentiation = a lot of specialization authority differentiation --> dictates who has the power to make decisions --> high authority differentiation = a single main leader --> low = collective group decisions temporal stability --> refers to whether the team members are together for a short or long duration --> high temporal stability = long time and likely to continue to be a team

Counterproductive work behavior

A broad range of employee behaviors that are harmful to other employees or the organization. - volitional in nature (intended to cause harm) Categories - Verbal behaviors: rudeness, ostracism, spreading rumors, and sarcasm - Physical behaviors: bullying and overt violence such as being kicked, beaten, or spat upon - Sabotage: damage to a company's property, products, or reputation - Work-directed behaviors: lateness, excessive absence, theft, and working slowly - Workplace (or occupational) homicide

affect

A broad range of feelings that encompass moods and emotions, typically described along a positive-negative continuum. - trait or a transient state

Emotional intelligence

A construct that reflects a person's capacity to manage emotional responses in social situations. Meta-analyses about emotional intelligence - positively related to job performance - predicts job performance above and beyond cognitive ability and the Big 5 personality dimensions - most predictive of performance in jobs that required emotional labor - when assessed during college EI was significantly positively related to salary levels over a decade later ---> WHY? Explained by the tendency for individuals higher on emotional intelligence to enter into and/or maintain valuable mentoring relationships that help them succeed in their careers.

Organization

A coordinated group of people who perform tasks to produce goods or services, colloquially referred to as a company. - exist as vehicles for accomplishing goals and objectives - has both structural (how work processes are arranged) and social (the pattern of interactions among employees) components There are various schools of thought or theories about organizations. We focus on Classical Theory and Structural Theory

Organization development

A field of study involving organization wide, data driven efforts to systematically increase organization effectiveness and well being. (1) planned: purpose of aiding the survival and development of the organization --> Revolutionary change: occurs rapidly in giant, radical spurts --> Evolutionary change: occurs gradually over time, with incremental attempts to improve an organization (2) organization-wide: focus is not only on improving the effectiveness of the organization, but also improving employee well-being (3) managed from the top (4) increase organization effectiveness and health (5) use planned interventions in the organization's 'processes,' using behavioral science knowledge: interventions must be based on data rather than intuition.

team

A social aggregation in which a limited number of individuals interact on a regular basis to accomplish a set of shared objectives for which they have mutual responsibility --> A work team has identifiable memberships (that is, members and nonmembers alike clearly know who is a member and who is not) and an identifiable task or set of tasks to perform. INTERDEPENDENCE!

Classical theory

A theory developed in the early 20th century that described the form and structure of organizations (structural relationships). - credited with providing the structural anatomy of organizations - the first major attempt to articulate the form and substance of organizations in a comprehensive fashion (further theory developed as organizations became more complex) --> begins with a statement of the basic components of any organization and then addresses how the organization should best be structured to accomplish its objectives Four basic components of an organization: 1) A system of differentiated activities: All organizations are composed of the activities and functions performed in them and the relationships among these activities and functions. A formal organization emerges when these activities are linked together. 2) People: Although organizations are composed of activities and functions, people perform tasks and exercise authority. 3) Cooperation toward a goal: Cooperation must exist among the people performing their various activities to achieve a unity of purpose in pursuit of their common goals. 4) Authority: Authority is established through superior-subordinate relationships, and such authority is needed to ensure cooperation among people pursuing their goals.

Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions

A theory that positive emotions prompt individuals to expand their thinking and action repertoires in ways that result in increased resources and enhanced functioning (thinking and acting in more diverse ways) - negative emotions narrow one's thinking and actions in order to lead to a specific outcome (the fight or flight response) --> positive emotions expand one's views. Resources available through positive emotion - cognitive (increased intellectual complexity) - social (more high-quality friendships) - psychological (greater resilience) - physical (heightened functioning of the immune system As individuals experience positive emotions, and good things result, they will experience even more positive emotions that will lead to even better results in an ongoing upward spiral (see figure)

creative team

A type of team created for the purpose of developing innovative possibilities or solutions. --> For a creative team to function, it needs to have autonomy from systems and procedures as well as an atmosphere in which ideas are not prematurely quashed.

tactical team

A type of team created for the purpose of executing a well-defined plan or objective. --> there must be high task clarity and unambiguous role definition. ex: police SWAT team or a cardiac surgical team.

problem-resolution team

A type of team created for the purpose of focusing on solving ongoing problems or issues --> each member of the team expects that interactions among members will be truthful and embody a high degree of integrity. ex: Centers for Disease Control

virtual team

A type of team in which the members, often geographically dispersed, interact through electronic communication and may never meet face-to-face. --> virtual team members may interact synchronously or asynchronously. --> Earley and Gibson stated that the most important and difficult issue in implementing a virtual team is managing the distances without losing the "humanity" and "personality" of the team itself ex: #MeToo team :)

action processes

Action processes include behaviors and actions that facilitate goal accomplishment. These include activities that keep things running smoothly and efficiently. Coordination --> Coordination behaviors involve the sharing of information to accomplish tasks. --> Key to coordination is communication. monitoring --> includes tracking and interpreting information to see how well a team is doing in terms of using its resources and reaching its objectives, and then sharing that information with all team members backup behaviors --> actions that are supportive in nature. --> ex: helping a teammate complete a task, coaching him or her to do the task, or actually doing the task for the teammate

Job satisfaction

An internal evaluation of the favorability of one's job. Why are some people satisfied with their jobs and others are not? --> The answer lies in individual differences in expectations and, in particular, the degree to which a job meets one's expectations. - feelings of job satisfaction can change with time and circumstances. Two levels of feelings: 1) Global job satisfaction: overall feelings about their jobs 2) Job facet satisfaction: feelings about their supervisor, coworkers, promotional opportunities, pay, and so on How satisfied a person feels about his or her job is related to affect as much as to objective job conditions (e.g., level of pay, hours of work, and physical working conditions) (see figure) Feelings of job satisfaction are related both to the objective conditions of work (that are under the control of the organization) and to the personality of the worker.

Organizational politics

Behavior exhibited within organizations by employees that is driven by self-interest. - seeks to explain behavior within organizations that accounts for (among other things) how and why decisions get made - the capacity and willingness of individuals within organizations to use power for the purpose of furthering their own interests Three aspects of organizational politics: 1) There are various forms - Budgeting game: awarding of a valued resource (money) to a department or unit in exchange for support or compliance. - Expertise game: the flaunting or feigning of specialized technical knowledge for the purpose of influencing decision outcomes - Rival camps game: typically played between two groups within an organization, such as production and sales where alliances are formed 2) Understanding political skill (four components) --> 1. Social astuteness (ability to observe social cues and to intuit the motives and values) --> 2. Interpersonal influence (capacity to take control of social encounters) --> 3. Building networks and forming coalitions --> 4. Projected virtue (displays are disingenuous) 3) Understanding how people respond to the tactics of organizational politics - can undermine the principles of organizational justice and a sense of fair play - can produce feelings of cynicism and apathy among employees - Perceived politics correlated .43 with the desire to leave the organization, -.57 with job satisfaction, and -.54 with affective organizational commitment.

Emotions

Discrete, target-specific feelings that are of relatively short duration. - emotional events are elicited by something, are reactions to something, and are generally about something Five categories of emotions 1. Positive: Happiness Love Pride 2. Negative: Sadness Hopelessness Despair 3. Existential: Anxiety Guilt Shame 4. "Nasty": Anger Envy Jealousy 5. Empathetic: Gratitude Compassion Sympathy Emotions also play a large role in decision making - People typically make some of the most consequential choices of their lives while in emotional states (Love --> marriage; anger --> strike someone; fear --> abandon one's home in disaster) - impact how we appraise situations (who we blame vs. assign credit when bad and good events occur) - influence how confident we are with our decisions - color how we view risks

Organizational citizenship behavior

Employee behavior that transcends job performance and is directed to the overall welfare of the organization. Five dimensions of citizenship behavior have been supported by empirical re-search (LePine et al., 2002): 1. Altruism (also called helping behavior) reflects willfully helping specific people with an organizationally-relevant task or problem. 2. Conscientiousness refers to being punctual, having attendance better than the group norm, and judiciously following company rules, regulations, and procedures. 3. Courtesy is being mindful and respectful of other people's rights. 4. Sportsmanship refers to avoiding complaints, petty grievances, gossiping, and falsely magnifying problems. 5. Civic virtue is responsible participation in the political life of the organization. - reflects keeping abreast of not only current organizational issues but also more mundane issues, such as attending meetings, attending to in-house communications, and speaking up on issues. - most admirable Grant and Mayer (2009) proposed two motives for employees to engage in citizenship behaviors: - Do good, "good soldier" - Look good, "good actor" Individuals were less likely to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors when they were experiencing role conflict or role ambiguity. Organizations and supervisors can influence citizenship behavior - equitable and recognize desirable behavior in employees ---> employees engage in more citizenship behavior

The relationship between job satisfaction and important job-related criteria

Extensive research on this topic for more than 50 years. Three criteria will be presented: 1) Performance: found that job satisfaction is more likely to lead to job performance than job performance leading to job satisfaction. - satisfaction-performance correlation of .30. Withdrawal behaviors... 2) Turnover: research shows that the more people dislike their job, the more likely they are to quit - satisfaction-turnover correlation of -.40 - this relationship is influenced by several factors, including the availability of other work 3) Absence: if you like your job, you are more likely to make the extra effort needed to get to work - satisfaction-absence correlation of -.25 (mild but consistent) - can be caused by many factors that have nothing to do with how much you like your job, including transportation problems and family responsibilities.

Mood

General and long-lasting feelings not directed at a particular target. - may exist without a person knowing its specific cause - organizations may be successful in elevating employees' moods

Global Organizations

Have all the properties of any organization (in terms of structural and social components) with the added feature that their physical locations and employees are distributed throughout the world. - started emerging in the 1990s as a response to advances in computer technology, new trade agreements among nations, and the end of the Cold War - evolution of organizations doing business overseas: international to multinational to global KEY CHALLENGE: build an organization in which there are core values that transcend specific cultures, uniform policies that are regarded as fair and reasonable, and consistent business practices that can be implemented globally but are respectful of local cultural customs

cyberaggression

Hostile or aggressive behavior at the workplace that occurs through electronic media. Common form of cyberaggression is flaming, or the intentional use of insulting language through electronic means (email, blogs) designed to inflict harm Cyberaggression is a form of cyberdeviancy, which involves the misuse of technology to cause harm to the organization or its stakeholders.

Andersson and Pearson (1999): Spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace

Incivility can escalate into intense aggressive behavior --> repeated mild aggression can create considerable distress and oppression itself, such as that seen after periods of prolonged provocation or threat Spiral of incivility 1) Begins with a thoughtless act or a rude comment. 2) Maligning insult, which prompts a counterinsult Continues? 3) Threats of physical attack, leading to violence.

Structural Theory

Mintzberg (2008) added to classical theory by proposing an explanation of how organizations evolve to reach a certain form and shape (structure/formal component) Structure: The arrangement of work functions within an organization designed to achieve efficiency and control --> adaptive mechanism that permits the organization to function in its surroundings.

socialization

Socialization is the process of mutual adjustment that produces changes over time in the relationship between a person and a team. --> It is the process a person goes through in joining a team, being on a team, and eventually leaving a team. --> Likewise, the team itself is affected by the arrival, presence, and departure of a team member.

The "thermodynamics of revenge" (Bies et al., 1997)

Sparking event 1) Violation of rules, norms, or promises by the organization 2) Status or power derogation (destructive criticism or public ridicule intended to embarrass the employee) The employee then "heats up" - experiences anger and bitterness - desire for revenge "Cooling down" phase 1) Venting: employee talks heatedly and animatedly to friend ("blows off steam") 2) Dissipation: employee gives the harm-doer the benefit of the doubt and searches for plausible explanations for the harm-doer's behavior 3) Fatigue: employees maintain their negative feelings for long periods of time - ruminate and express regret about not getting even 4) Explosion: employee working harder to prove the critic wrong, mobilizing opposition to the harm-doer, or engaging in physical violence.

Survey Feedback as OD

Surveys are of paramount importance within OD ---> The questions themselves can serve as a way to draw attention to the organization's goals with regard to the intervention as well as the behaviors that will be expected of employees going forward. ---> The results of surveys help to focus attention and energy on the areas that need the most attention during the intervention ---> essential as a way of tracking progress over time Linkage research: an approach that links employee and customer data to measures of business performance. - greatly relies on surveying

Multiteam Systems (MTS)

Teams of teams that function interdependently to achieve overarching system-level goal. --> pretty much the norm --> interdependency among teams ex: emergency phone call reporting the accident is made to the police. The police department contacts the dispatch center of the fire department to send a crew to the scene. The police arrive at the scene to control the flow of traffic around the accident. The firefighters have the responsibility to extinguish any car fire that may have started or to apply retardant chemicals to leaking gasoline. Emergency medical technicians (EMTs), another team, work to extricate the victim from the crash.

Organizational climate

The "shared meaning organizational members attach to the events, policies, practices, and procedures they experience and the behaviors they see being rewarded, supported, and expected" - describes what and how things are done within an organization - Ex. Service climate, justice climate, diversity climate and safety climate (which includes safety importance, presence of safety officers, and influence of safe behavior in promotions)

emotion regulation

The attempts to control one's emotions or mood.

shared mental model

The cognitive processes held in common by members of a team regarding how they acquire information, analyze it, and respond to it. --> "on the same page" in terms of knowing what tasks to do and how to do them (effective team performance) --> the team members are more likely to anticipate each other's actions and proactively share the workload and help one another. 4 broad categories of shared mental models: task-specific information, task-related knowledge, knowledge of teammates, and shared attitudes and beliefs

Line/staff principle

The concept of differentiating organizational work into primary (line) and support (staff) functions. Line functions: Organizational work that directly meets the major goals of an organization - Ex. the production department in a manufacturing organization Staff functions: Organizational work that supports line activities. - subsidiary in overall importance compared to line functions - Ex. human resources and quality control (important but company was not created to provide people with jobs or inspect product)

Scalar Principle

The concept that organizations are structured by a chain of command that grows with increasing levels of authority. --> relates to the vertical growth of the organization Unity of command: each subordinate should be accountable to only one superior/supervisor Classical theorists: "the best way to overcome organizational fragmentation caused by division of labor was through a well-designed chain of command"

Functional principle

The concept that organizations should be divided into units that perform similar functions (division of labor) - work is broken down into areas of specialization - Ex. production, sales, engineering, finance --> relates to the horizontal growth of the organization—that is, the formation of new functional units along the horizontal dimension.

Employee engagement

The degree to which a person feels invigorated, dedicated, and absorbed in his or her work. - an interaction of individuals and work Three dimensions 1) Vigor: sense of personal energy for work - continuum of vigor ---> emotional exhaustion 2) Dedication: experiencing a sense of pride in one's work and challenge from it 3) Absorption: reflecting the capacity to be engrossed in work and experiencing a sense of flow Burnout: emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and feelings of reduced personal accomplishment Employee engagement predicts employee effectiveness beyond what is predicted by job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job involvement

Work commitment

The extent to which an employee feels a sense of allegiance to his or her work. - "a volitional psychological bond reflecting dedication to and responsibility for a particular target" - targets can include one's occupation or profession, the employing organization, a work team, or a particular component of one's job (e.g., being a good leader) Commitment is one of several types of bonds that may exist between a person and a target: 1) Acquiescence bonds: characterized by a perceived lack of alternatives - bonds are more about compliance and resignation than volitional commitments to their organizations 2) Instrumental bonds: primarily transactional in nature, with a focus on what might be lost if the target weren't in the picture. - based on a calculated examination of the costs and benefits of remaining versus leaving his or her particular occupation. 3) Commitment bonds: reflect a choice to be dedicated to and responsible for a particular target. - makes the conscious decision to be loyal to his or her supervisor is indicating a commitment to that individual. 4) Identification bonds: the merging of an individual with a target - employee who considers the organization's values to be the same as his or hers may identify with the organization There is a dilemma of how to inspire employee commitment in a work world of instability --> "buy the vision" or "We're going to teach you stuff you couldn't learn anywhere else"

Procedural justice

The fairness of the means used to achieve results in an organization. - perceived fairness of the policies and procedures used to make decisions. Posthuma and Campion (2005): Three dimensions to conceptualize procedural justice. 1) The desire for advance notice regarding decisions --> fairer when affected individuals have an opportunity to either influence the decision process or offer input 2) The right to appeal decisions --> fairer to be able to address impactful decisions and dispute perceived discrepancies 3) Adequate explanations for decisions Leventhal (1980): Six criteria by which procedures can be judged as fair (1) consistent (2) bias free (3) accurate (4) correctable in case of an error (5) representative of all concerned (6) based on prevailing ethical standards Cohen-Charash and Spector (2001) reported that of the three major types of justice, procedural justice was most closely related to organizational attitudes and behaviors.

interactional justice

The fairness with how people are treated within an organization and the timeliness, completeness, and accuracy of the information received in an organization. Two components 1) Interpersonal justice: showing concern for individuals and respecting them as people who have dignity. 2) Informational justice: providing knowledge about procedures that demonstrate regard for people's concerns. - People are given adequate accounts and explanations of the procedures used to determine desired outcomes. - must be genuine in intent (without any ulterior motives) and based on sound reasoning.

Distributive justice

The fairness with which the outcomes or results are distributed among members of an organization.

Social system

The human components of a work organization that influence the behavior of individuals and groups. - When a social system stops functioning, no identifiable structure remains (components are not concrete) 3 informal/abstract components of an organization - roles - norms - organizational climate and culture

Psychological contract

The implied exchange relationship that exists between an employee and the organization (not formal) - belief that some form of a promise has been made and accepted by both parties Contract is founded on two principles: 1) mutuality (the extent to which workers and employees share beliefs about specific terms of the exchange) 2) reciprocity (their commitments to each) The element of power in contracts - Power can be distributed either equally (i.e., symmetrically) between the two parties or unequally (i.e., asymmetrically) - Asymmetrical power is most common in employment relationships - the employer can dictate terms of the contract to the less powerful employee, who must either accept them or exit the relationship.

Organizational merger

The joining or combining of two organizations of approximately equal status and power (mutually decided) Three phases in the merger process 1) precombination: emphasis on financial issues, such as what a target company is worth, tax implications, and expected returns on the investment. - importance of integrating the two cultures becomes acute 2) combination: individuals jockey for power and cultures clash as people focus on differences between the partners and which side won which battles 3) postcombination

Organizational change

The methods by which organizations evolve to become more adaptive to pressing economic and social conditions. - "The rate of change internally has to be greater than the rate of change externally or else you're pedaling backward" What is different now than 35 years ago is: (1) the greater strength of environmental pressures prompting change (2) the speed at which change must occur (3) the acceptance that responsiveness to change is a continuous organizational process (4) the pervasiveness of organizations caught up and affected by changing environmental conditions. Change agents: individuals who are responsible for managing change efforts - many change agents fail due to resistance of organizational members toward change. - Why resist? fear of the unknown, a difficulty in breaking old habits, or an unwilling-ness to go against group norms that may exist in terms of how things are and have always been done.

Span-of-control principle

The number of subordinates a manager is responsible for supervising. - Large spans of control produce flat organizations (that is, few levels between the top and bottom of the organization) - small spans of control produce tall organizations (that is, many levels)

Person-organization fit

The perception by both job candidates and the organization of the match between their respective values and goals. - ascertained by comparing the assessment of the candidate against the organization's values, expectations, and culture. - Strong match? organization will extend offer --> if match is also perceived to be strong by the candidate they will accept There is a strong link between organizational culture and person-organization fit. - Attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) cycle: people with similar personalities and values are drawn to (attraction) certain organizations and hired into these organizations (selection), and people who don't fit into the pattern of shared values eventually leave the organization (attrition)

Downsizing

The process by which an organization reduces its number of employees to achieve greater overall efficiency. - wages and salaries are a large portion of expenses, downsizing reduces costs Determining job cuts - greatest losses usually occur in the middle line, technostructure, and support staff - job cuts can occur horizontally or vertically ---> horizontal: the loss of jobs within a department that stays ---> vertical: the elimination of all jobs in the department

Acquisition

The process by which one organization acquires or subsumes the resources of a second organization (only one party agrees to the new relationship) - hostile takeover: dominant organization acquires an unwilling partner (parent and target)

Outsourcing

The process of eliminating jobs within the organization by having those work functions contracted to other organizations - less costly to the organization than hiring its own employees to perform these services

Offshoring

The process of eliminating jobs within the organization by having those work functions performed in cheaper labor markets overseas (offshore). - average wage rate for U.S. production workers is $24 per hour, compared to 67¢ per hour for Chinese production workers

Violations of the Psychological Contract

The psychological contract is violated (that is, breached) when one party in a relationship perceives that another has failed to fulfill the promised obligations. - weakens the bond between the organization and employee - associated with higher mistrust, lower job satisfaction, lower organizational commitment, lower pro-social behavior, and lower job performance Types of violations: - Training/development: Absence of training or training experience not as promised - Compensation: Discrepancies in promised and realized pay, benefits, and bonuses - Promotion: Promotion or advancement schedule not as promised - Job security: Promises not met regarding the degree of job security one could expect - Feedback: Feedback and reviews inadequate compared with what was promised - People: Employer perceived as having misrepresented the type of people at the firm, in terms of things such as their expertise, work style, or reputation

emotional labor

The requirement in some jobs that employees express emotions to customers or clients that are associated with enhanced performance in the job. - Surface acting: alter their outward emotional expression without actually changing how they truly feel - Deep acting: change their internal emotions to correspond to what is required of them ---> Surface acting is particularly harmful to one's well-being, attitudes toward work, and job performance, whereas deep acting does not appear to have the same negative consequences.

Emotional contagion

The tendency for individuals to synchronize their emotions with others in their environment, experiencing and expressing another's emotions whether consciously or unconsciously. - happens for both positive and negative emotions - positive emotions may be more contagious than negative emotions (based on Westman researchers with soldiers and confederates)

Organizational justice

The theoretical concept pertaining to the fair treatment of people in organizations. The three types of organizational justice are distributive, procedural, and interactional.

level of analysis

The unit or level (individuals, teams, organizations, nations, etc.) that is the object of the researchers' interest and about which conclusions are drawn from the research micro vs macro The term micro is often used to describe research at the individual level of analysis, while macro is used to describe research at the organizational level of analysis --> Research at the team level of analysis is positioned somewhere between the micro and the macro. ("meso")

team processes

These operations within a team that permit it to function smoothly and efficiently are generally termed team processes. 1) transition processes 2) action processes 3) interpersonal processes

training for teams

Training team members on other team members' roles assumes that exposure to and practice on other teammates' tasks should result in better team member knowledge about task responsibilities and coordination requirements. --> begin with work analysis specific to the tasks of the team (knowledge from SMEs) --> results of a team task analysis provide information about the knowledge, skills, and attitudes the team members must possess to be successful.

Relationship between the psychological contract and the range of social behaviors

Transactional/Alienation - Antisocial behaviors ---> Violence ---> Threats ---> Negligence ---> Negativism - Indifferent social behaviors ---> Compliance Relational/Commitment - Prosocial behaviors ---> Conscientiousness ---> Sportsmanship ---> Courtesy ---> Civic virtue ---> Altruism Transactional contracts: short time frames and specific obligations, financial resources are the primary vehicle of exchange Relational contracts: long-term relationships with diffuse obligations, implicitly acknowledges the value of the relationship itself - obligations are ambiguous and constantly evolving - exchange socioemotional resources such as loyalty and affiliation (see figure 10-6, pg 336)

transition processes

Transition processes include behaviors and actions that focus on planning and evaluation. --> mission analysis (look at what worked & didn't in the past, see if anything will impede progress) --> goal specification (set timelines, prioritize goals) --> Strategy formulation and planning (anticipate potential problems and actions they will take if those problems occur)

ad hoc team

a type of team created for a limited duration that is designed to address one particular problem --> basically a hybrid cross between a problem-resolution and a tactical team. --> the team members are selected from existing employees in an organization, and after the team has completed its work, the team disbands.

Personnel Selection for Teams

choosing team members on the basis of individual-task KSAOs alone is not enough to ensure optimal team effectiveness. evaluate: --> taskwork skills --> teamwork skills

Team Life Cycle

forming - getting to know each other - avoid conflict - act more as individuals storming -interpersonal conflict -jockeying for position and status within the group norming -team members understand their roles and have an agreed-upon goal and plan for accomplishing the goal. -Members now understand their roles in the group and accept their positions. performing -team members coordinate their actions and behave as a cohesive, fully functioning unit. -optimal performance adjourning -tasks complete -group disband -reflection note: doesn't necessarily apply to ALL teams

interpersonal processes

interpersonal processes include behaviors and actions that concern managing team member affect/emotions. conflict management (pg 299 for specific types of conflict) --> behaviors that prevent conflict from occurring as well as those that help members deal with conflict once it does occur. motivation & confidence building --> includes such things as encouraging each other and creating a feeling of safety among members. --> team becomes a "safe harbor" for the expression of ideas and opinions that will not be treated with rebuke. affect management. --> include behaviors directed at calming members who may be stressed and helping increase morale and cohesion. --> related: building trust

5 phases of team membership

investigation (prospective members) socialization (new members) maintenance (full members) resocialization (marginal members) remembrance (ex-members) PAGE 294 --> more info

Role overload

occurs when an individual feels over-whelmed from having too many responsibilities -too many demands within one particular role or from having too many roles in one's life

Job Attitudes

relatively enduring evaluations that individuals have of various aspects of employment, including their employer, their boss, and the job they hold - vary in both intensity and favorability - influence individual behavior Four important attitudes employees hold about their work: 1) Job satisfaction (most widely researched) 2) Work commitment 3) Employee engagement 4) How fair they view their work

Norms

shared group expectations about appropriate behavior. - define acceptable group behavior Descriptive norms: develop through a process of observation Injunctive norms/prescriptive develop through a process of conforming to gain social approval Important properties 1) there is "oughtness" or "shouldness;" that is, prescriptions for behavior 2) norms are usually more obvious for behavior judged to be important for the group (Ex. the time employees stop work before lunch) 3) norms are enforced by the group (group members regulate behavior) 4) Finally, norms are not always contrary to formal organizational rules or independent of them. Three-step process for developing and communicating norms: FIRST --> norm defined and communicated (explicit or implicit) SECOND --> group must be able to monitor and judge whether the norm is being followed THIRD --> the group must be able to reward conformity and punish nonconformity (conformity promotes feelings of group cohesion) - use positive reinforcement and punishment

Hollenbeck's multilevel theory of team decision making

team informity --> he general level of how well informed the team is on the issues they must address staff validity --> is the average of the individual team members' abilities to make accurate decisions dyadic sensitivity --> The relationship between the leader and each team member is a dyad. The leader must be sensitive to weighing each team member's recommendation in reaching an overall decision.

Roles

the expectations of others about appropriate behavior in a specific position. Five important aspects of roles 1) they are impersonal; the position itself determines the expectations, not the individual 2) roles are related to task behavior, the expected behaviors for a particular job 3) roles can be difficult to pin down (How we see our role, how others see our role, and what we actually do may differ) 4) roles are learned quickly and can produce major behavior changes. 5) roles and jobs are not the same; a person in one job might play several roles.

role differentiation

the extent to which different roles are performed by employees in the same subgroup

Organizational culture

the languages, values, attitudes, beliefs, and customs of an organization. - explains why such things are done - exists beyond any one individual, and is transmitted to others through stories, rituals, and experiences of newcomers. Three layers of organizational culture 1) Observable artifacts: symbols (e.g., physical objects or locations); language (e.g., jargon, slang, gestures, humor, gossip, and rumors); narratives (e.g., stories, legends, and myths about the organization); and practices (e.g., rituals, taboos, and ceremonies). 2) Espoused values: beliefs or concepts that are specifically endorsed by management or the organization at large (values may not translate to actual behavior --> these are called enacted values) 3) Basic assumptions: start out as values but over time become so deeply ingrained that they are taken for granted (unobservable and at the core of the organization) The culture of an organization serves to shape how the organization does what it does, and in so doing becomes a determinant of its success.

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives A phenomenon associated with team decision-making in which members feel threatened by forces external to the team, resulting in deterioration in the cognitive processing of information. --> defects in decision making include incomplete consideration of options and alternatives, poor informa-tion search, and selective information processing.

Role conflict

the product of perceptual differences regarding the content of a person's role or the relative importance of its elements. - individual may feel like they are being pulled in different directions and unable to easily meet all of the demands placed on them

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable A phenomenon identified in teams in which certain individuals withhold effort or contributions to the collective outcome. three ways in which a lack of individual incentives can contribute to social loafing (pg. 309) 1) free riding 2) the "sucker" effect 3) felt dispensability

Role ambiguity

uncertainty about the behaviors to be exhibited in a role, or the boundaries that define a role. - Ex. an employee who is asked to represent many other employees who hold a wide range of opinions or attitudes