Week6-9

Third World Liberation Front

Union of the Black Students Uion, Pilipino American Collegiate Endeavor, El Renacimiento, and the Latin American Students Organization that came together to call for campus reform. (Lectur 2/18)

Filial piety

Used frequently in All I asking for is my Body in context when the eldest son does not show respect to the parents. The term has Confucian roots and symbolises the important virtue and primary duty of respect, obedience, and care for one's parents and elderly family members.

"re-education camps"

Vietnam war vets were forced in re-education camps where they were inhumanely treated. Many Vietnamese died at the mercy of the Communists in 1985. (Niky Dang)

"Yellow Peril"

Was a phrase used to illustrate and exaggerate the threat and danger of Western Civilization by the eastern Asian groups. This term was used as a method of "nation-building" in order to get Americans to fear the invasion of Asian groups into Western civilization. This allowed for laws and regulations to pass based on the fear of damaging American culture and society. The front cover of a newspaper in 1942 read, "Yellow Peril" after the US suspected Japan had relied on Japanese-American traitors and spies to plan out the Pearl Harbor attacks. This newspaper perpetuated Japanese disloyalty and once again brought "Asian fear" back into the hearts of all Americans. This and other Japanese discourses led to severe racism for Japanese-Americans in the US during the time. (Lee 215

Internal Colonialism

(coined by sociologist Robert Blauner in 1969) it is the exercise of political and economic domination over other groups of people. To be more specific, it is not something that only happened in the past or beyong US borders but it is within the US such as places called the "slum" and "ghetto" as internal colonies. (Lecture 2/18 by Dr. Simon Man)

Third World Liberation Front (TWLF)

A coalition of an assortment of ethnic student organizations at San Francisco State University that called for the establishment of an "autonomous School of Ethnic Studies" among their list of demands. The coalition went on strike in an attempt to bring about a change to the school's Eurocentric curriculum as well as advocate the need for ethnic studies to reflect the needs of the local community. Though most of TWLF's demands were not met, their legacy includes the official establishment of the School of Ethnic Studies and a promise from the university to allocate unused special admissions to students of color(Dr. Simeon Man's Thursday lecture).

Hmong refugees

A group of people coming from southeast asia to the united states to escape their circumstances. The establishment of immigration programs for this area the united states saw its largest source of refugees in 20th century. It's been recorded that about 350,000 vietnamese entered the country as well as 35,000 Laotians, 30,000 Lao, and 20,00 cambodians. (Lee 279)

bachi

A motif throughout Milton Murayama's All I Asking for is My Body is superstition as can be seen in Part II "The Substitute" when Mama Oyama was believed to be dying from someone else's bachi (retribution). Bachi, a punishment you receive when commit a crime (no matter how minor) and get away with it, is essentially the Japanese version of karma with a twist since the consequences/ bad luck does not have to happen to the wrongdoer (can be distributed to any substitute). Mama's belief in superstition is just one of the many traditional values that she upholds along with filial piety (Murayama 20).

Honey Bucket

A play by Melvyn Escueta that argues the Vietnam war unjustly harmed fellow Asians. Narrated his own story of an Asian American vet as he reflects on his experience in Vietnam. Portrayed racializing and gendering and decries the war's warping effect on Asian Americans. (111, Maeda).

Rescission Acts (1946)

A series of laws that downgraded the status of Filipino servicepersons, placing them in a separate administrative classification from that of other U.S. soldiers. The legislation rescinded previous appropriations related to war spending, including the disbursements for veterans (Baldoz 231).

"Los Angeles Riots of 1992"

A series of riots, lootings, arsons, and civil disturbance that occurred in Los Angeles County, California that spurred from the use of excessive force in the videotaped arrest and beating of Rodney King. It was described to be a protest against Black and latino disenfranchisement; the events leading up to the riot was seemingly compared to with the Japanese-American internment during WWII (Japanese-American disenfranchisement) (Lee 346)

Ethnic Hierarchy-

According to Murayama and Villegas, a ethnic hierarchy had existed in the company town of Kiyo's. The character explained that it started with the whites (Mr. Nelson), then the spanish and portuguese, after them were the nisei lunas,then the japanese camp and last being the filipino camp. This kind of system was created by the HSPA. (Murayama pg.28, Lecture 02/02)

Alien Registration Act of 1940

All "aliens that were currently living in the United States would be required to be registered and fingerprinted in order to keep a tighter hold on those who were in the country.

Horace N. Allen

Allen played a key role in stimulating Koreans' interest in foreign goods, sometimes directly engaging in commerce. He was a medical missionary who arrived in Korea in 1884 and won King Kojong's confidence after saving the life of one of the queen's relatives. After establishing a friendship with the royal couple, Allen opened the way for dozens of American Protestants, mostly Methodists and Presbyterians, to come to Korea and work with relative freedom. From 1890 to 1897, he served as the secretary of the American legation in Seoul, and from 1897 to 1905 was the American minister to Korea. In these capacities, Allen was an intermediary between the US and Korean governments as well as between private American citizens and Korean authorities (Lee 46-47).

Magnuson Act (1943)

Americans that had advocated for the repeal of Oriental exclusion continued to build momentum, and in November 1943, this act was passed. The Magnuson Act, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943 repealed all or part of the fifteen statutes that were passed between 1882 to 1915. This permitted some Chinese to become naturalized and allowed for Chinese immigration to the United States (Lee 237).

Racial Hierarchy

Among different racial group in Hawaii's plantations, racial hierarchy was evident. The most powerful were the white planters, then the portuguese and Spanish, then Japanese Nisei lunas, who oversaw the plants and the workers, then the Japanese workers, and at the lowest end of the hierarchy pyramid were the Filipino workers. This hierarchy is significant because the top groups of the hierarchy were given advantages and privileges over the rest of the population. The Japanese Nisei lunas were given separate bathhouses and larger homes, whereas Japanese workers and the Filipino workers were separated in camps.

refugee sponsors

Any person, group, or organization that was willing to take responsibility for the refugees' housing, clothing, and various expenses until they were able to get back on their feet. These sponsors also aided refugees in seeking employment, learning English, and job training. Refugee sponsors were influential as they were often the first American that the refugees came in contact with and relied on (Lee 280).

"Letter of Digger in California"

Appearing in the China mail during the gold rush years was" Letter of diggers in California, which urged readers against imagining some romantic nonsense about finding the gold lying on the surface of the ground and that they have nothing to do but to pick it up. despite such warnings the perception of california as gold mountain endured (lee 35)

Bay Area Asian Coalition against the War (BAACW)

Asian American anti war movement. Consisted of different Asian nationalities and protested the Vietnam War. It mobilized hundreds of ASian Americans in antiwar activities including demonstrating, marching, study groups, educational efforts, and fundraising drives. (Maeda, 101)

HR 4229

Bill submitted by Harry Shepard to congress to amend Section 303 of the 1940 Nationality Act. It was approved over another bill submitted by McGee, and removed the Declaration-of-intention and Certificate-of-Arrival, or "first papers" that was required for FIlipinos to submit before they were granted the status of Nationals. (Baldoz 224-225)

1940 Alien Registration Act

Due to the anti-Japanese sentiment that arose during World War II, Asian-Americans tried to distance themselves from the Japanese. Koreans had a particularly difficult time doing so because Korea was a colony of Japan. This Act classified Koreans as "enemy aliens," leading to Korean discontent. However two years later, Koreans were no longer required to register as enemy aliens.

Japanese American Citizens League (JACL)

During WWII, when Japanese-Americans were under scrutiny, the JACL publicly encouraged Nisei to enlist in the American army and fight against the Japanese soldiers. They also encouraged denationalization of all ties to Japan and even proposed the prohibition of dual citizens from public employment. JACL pledged its loyalty to the U.S. to gain the American's trust back or at least to get rid of some suspicions for being spies. (Lee 210)

Second War Powers Act

During World War II, many Asian-Americans joined the armed forces in an attempt to display their loyalty to the United States. This Act expedited naturalization for these aliens and nationals, thus extending citizenship benefits to them.

The Lottery System (1970-1973)

During the Vietnam War, this system was used to draft men into the army based on birthdays for age between 20-26. This system affected 850,000 men and no college determent after 1971. (Lecture 2/18 by Dr. Simon Man)

Orderly Departure Program (ODP)

During the close of the 1970s, the exodus of refugees from Southeast Asian countries turned into a global crisis. Therefore, the United Nations would frequently meet to discuss this problem and thus created ODP (The Orderly Departure Program) in order to help facilitate the legal departure of refugees. Before, Southeast Asians were fleeing by boat and in turn it was deemed illegal. The legal departure of refugees was done so with the help of the ODP. Most processing centers were in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand. The US only allowed three types of Southeast Asians to enter under Orderly Departure Program. These three type were "close family members of Vietnamese and ethnic Chinese from Vietnam already in the US, former employees of US government agencies; and other individuals closely connected to US activities in Vietnam before 1975." (Lee 276)

Vietnamese Independence League

Established in May 1941 by the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), the Vietnamese Independence League was led by Ho Chi Minh to fight for anti-colonialism. After taking over many regions, the Vietnamese Independence League claimed Vietnam's independence and achieved the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). This achievement is significant, because when France re-attempted to colonize Indochina the DRV fought against and defeated the French.

1980 Refugee Act

First law to actually deal with refugees. It defines refugees as those who have a "well-founded fear of persecution from their own governments..." It also set out different priority levels of accepting refugees, depending on how dire the person's situation is. This act brought the United States up to the UN standard of accepting refugees, and placed the responsibility of admitting such large groups of refugees onto congress and senate rather than the president. (Lee 277)

Honolulu mercantile company

Formed by three New Englanders, it built the first commercial sugar plantation on Kauai, and thus transforming Hawaii from a subsistence based to single-commodity market economy in 1835. It firstly led to the replacement of natives by imported Chinese labor.

Han Vi Doan

Han Vi Doan - A high ranking government official in Vietnam in charge of security before the fall of Saigon in 1975. Spent 10 years in a re-education camp. Father of Brian Doan. (Photographer set off Little Saigon)

Queen Lili'oukalani

Hawaii's ruler during the late 1800s. During her rule, the Hawaiian Monarchy was recognized by the family of nations

Trinidad Rojo

He was a Filipino American leader who declared that Filipino Americans had a duty to be loyal to the United States and fight for the country when needed to. But for this to happen, he stated that it was necessary that they be given all the rights of any other American citizen and be naturalized. (Baldoz, 196)

Commodore Perry's expedition:

In 1853, American Commodore Matthew Perry reached Tokyo Bay to end Japan's isolation from the outside world. It disrupted a long period of relative segregation. Before that, Japan had Interaction with foreigners, but only limited to Chinese, some Dutch traders, Korean, and shipwrecked sailors. Leaving Japan was not allowed and even long-distance travel within Japan was rare. This expedition also caused a political crisis in Japan and the downfall of the Tokugawa shogunate. (Lee 38-39)

Overthrow of Hawaiian Monarchy

In 1893, U.S. marines supported the white plantation owners and conspirators alike in order to overthrow the Hawaiian monarchy.

Guerilla units (SGU)

In 1961, the CIA provided military aid to fight against spread of communism in Vietnam, including these guerilla units. The guerilla units consisted only of minorities and no American soldiers. By 1969, about forty thousand minority soldiers filled up the units and fought against the Vietnamese communism. Although, this "secret war" was directed by the U.S. embassy in Laos and the CIA, the American public were not informed of these act by the government. When publics knew of these units and enraged that no American soldiers were involved, the U.S. insisted that the involvement was purely out of humanitarian reasons.

First Filipino Infantry Battalion

In Jan. 1942, the U.S. War Department formed this unit which contained Filipino corps who were ordered to fight in the front-line. At the time of the unit's formation, Philippine was under Japanese control; thus, the Filipino soldiers were more motivated to fight against the Japanese to get their homeland back. With thousands of enlistees, more Filipino units were formed. (Baldoz, 211)

Second War Powers Act-

In early 1942, Congress passed this act which expedited naturalization of aliens or national serving in the U.S. military. The Second War Powers Act waived pre-requirements needed to become naturalized for servicepersons, such as five-year residency and English-language requirements. However, those who were dishonorably discharged were automatically disqualified from receiving the benefits as a serviceperson and only veterans who filed their petitions before Dec. 31, 1946 were qualified to receive the benefits, regardless of their service in the military. (Baldoz, 213)

"allegiance to the United States"

In order to get around the prominent Japanese peril at the time, many Japanese Americans demonstrated allegiance to the United States by showing how "American" they really were. They fulfilled this allegiance by volunteering for the military service, aiding in American war efforts, writing essays labeled as "I Am an American", and even enlisting into the military in separate forces. As Lee states, "the most powerful demonstration of one's allegiance to the United States was joining the Army" (Lee 226)

Luna system

In order to prevent worker autonomy, plantations established the luna system. Also known as the overseer, lunas generally belonged to a different ethnic class than the laborers they had power over. Lunas were in charge of the entire production and were allowed to punish laborers if they did not meet the standards. Lunas countered the negative response to this system by allowing laborers a certain degree of control over how they utilized their time. (Lee 69)

First Filipino Infantry Regiment

In response to the Filipino protests, Congress modified the Selective Service Act to allow them to register for military service. In February 1942, Secretary of War Henry Stimson announced the formation of the First Filipino Infantry Regiment, organized under the California National Guard. This unit is formed in recognition of the intense loyalty and patriotism of those Filipinos who are now residing in the US. In California, about 16,000 or about 40% of the state's Filipino population, registered for the draft. Ultimately, this regiment served in the Philippines to help liberate the country from Japanese forces

Orderly Departure Program (1979)

In response to the capacity limit declared by other countries and the unorderly arrival of "boat people" in small boats, this program was established by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) during the first United Nation meet at Geneva. The objective of the ODP was to provide a mechanism for Vietnamese to leave their homeland safely and in an orderly manner to be resettled abroad (Lee 276).

Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act (1975)

In response to the massive displaced Cambodian and Vietnamese population after all the chaos, the US established a program for "the domestic settlement of Vietnamese and Cambodian refugees." This paved the way for the first wave of refugees, most of whom tended to be educated, Westernized, urban, and had relations to American officials. Refugees were placed in one of four processing camps where they received medical attention and were assimilated into American culture (Lee 273-275).

"khmer illness"

In the light of Vietnam communism, and the traction of the domino theory; the influence of communism dispersed onto its surrounding countries. The formation of Khmer Rouge became Cambodia's' offshoot version of Vietnam's communist party. The Cambodian communist group terrorized and persecuted its population. This term was used by the Cambodian population to describe the mental disorder that stemmed from the traumatic experience under the communist group (Lee 280)

Interminority Racism

Interminority racism is prejudice or discrimination between social subordinate groups. It is controversial to call it racism because of theories of power in society. However, prejudiced thinking does occur between minority groups.There are examples on public and personal levels.This article strictly addresses interminority racism as it exists in the United States of America, even though it happens in many other countries. Also we see interminority racism throughout the novel southland. Asian Americans and African Americans living in small Los Angeles District allows many prejudice and discrimination between the two cultures (Revoyr 9-96).

INS:

International and Naturalization Service was an organization responsible for accepting immigrants into America. They generally prioritized people who had family in America or professionals. This is important because it only allowed a certain type of people to be accepted leading to a brain drain. Also it made people lie about relatives to accept people from the same race.(A Hole in the Heritage

Japanese American Claims Act of 1948

It acknowledged Japanese Americans had not been guilty of subversion and suffered financially during internment. It didn't apologize but provided up to 25 million to help recover losses. However it was slow and inefficient.

Gook Mentality

It meant if you looked asian you were a gook, a gook being less than human. During the vietnam war the army used asian americans as an example of what the enemy looked like and discriminated against all asians. This led asians to create their own anti war movement with the slogan stop killing our asian brothers and sisters. American discrimination lead to the unification of multiple asian races against the war, during this time period other issues would follow this example unifying those of different races for a single cause

Ted Ngoy

Known to be the first Cambodian American millionaire, first arrived in the united states in 1975. He got his first taste of doughnut when working as janitor and he decided to save up money to open up a doughnut shop of his own in 1977. He would expand his business to about 50 doughnut shops in California and even opened up other businesses in other food like tacos and hamburgers. (Lee 282)

McCarran-Walter Act (1952) and Hart-Cellar Act (1965)

Naturalization open to all, regardless of race, sex, or marriage. Law immigration quotas of 50-105 people per year. However, this was change in 1965 by the Hart-Callar Act which purposefully removed discriminating practices in immigration and preference for family reunification and "professionals." (Lecture 2/23)

442nd Regimental Combat Team

Known to be the most decorated unit comprised ofall Nisei. The team was able to be established with the joint agreement of the U.S. Army and President FDR who stated, "No loyal citizen of the United States should be denied the democratic right to exercise his citizenship, regardless of his ancestry..Americanism is a matter of mind and the heart; Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry". Their efforts caused the perception of japanese americans in WWII to change. They would be recognized and celebrated through media like for example a film release called Go for broke

Seafood industry

Many Southeast Asians were able to establish their role in the economy by means of the seafood industry. Many experienced limitations due to the riskiness of large loans as well as physical restrictions based on their refugee status. This led to the rise of Vietnamese and Cambodian secondary settlements along the Gulf Coast states. (Lee 283)

Organic Act of 1900

Many people entered Hawaii as a result of contract labor. As these contracts expired, employers were concerned about exerting their dominance over these laborers. The Organic Act of 1900 eliminated this contract system, thus creating more worry among the employers. (Lee 69)

Refugee Act of 1980

March 17, 1980, Congress passed the Refugee Act, the first law to explicitly deal with refugees apart from other immigration policies. The law brought the U.S. definition of refugee in line with the UN's from 1951, which defined them as people with a "well-founded fear of persecution from their own governments due to their political ideologies or activities, religious affiliation, or membership in certain groups that the government in question has chose to persecute." The law also removed the executive branch's parole authority to admit large groups of people, and place responsibility for determining ceilings in the executive and Congress. In addition, this law proved that foreign policy continued to dominate considerations of who was admitted (Lee 277).

Japanese-style manifest destiny

Meiki leaders said emigrants should obey the call of nation and support Japan's commercial, political, and territorial expansion. Such ideas, framed as Japanese style manifest destiney projected Japanese hegemony extending to the western United States and Latin American. Although all emigrants would play a rose, merchants would spearhead this mission by establishing footholds of international trade in the americas and elsewhere (lee 39)

Ex Parte Endo Court Case

Mitsuye Endo was a California state employee who challenged dismissal of state employees and detention of US citizens. It rules that government could not detain loyal citizens. Although the release of internees were underway, it made a mark against the principle of incarcerating US citizens.

Pearl Harbor

On December 7 Japanese navy bombed Pearl Harbor, the chief base of the U.S. navy's Pacific fleet and other military bases. Over 2,390 Americans were killed due to the bombing. As a result of this tragic event, the U.S. declared war against Japan. Despite some politicians suggestion to not harass the Japanese-Americans, anti-Japanese groups became stronger and bigger. (Lee 211)

McCarran-Walter Act of 1952-

One of the few acts that were actually passed on the behalf of Korean and Japanese reform. The aftermath of the korean war caused an urgency of expanding rights of koreans. This act established the fact citizenship would "not be abridged or denied on the basis of race, sex, or marriage".

Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association (HSPA)

Operated as the central authority of plantation operation and order. The organization of work on plantations not only aimed to maximize production, discipline workers, and keep down costs, but also shored up the racial and ethnic stratification of Hawaii society, which privileged whiteness and maintained planter elites' power. (Lee 68 and Lecture)

Khmer Rouge

Otherwise known as the Red Khmer, this was the communist party in Cambodia formed in 1968. They ruled Cambodia from 1975-1979 and sided with North Vietnam and the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War. They were responsible for the Cambodian Genocide and caused much suffering for the people in Cambodia.

The Second War Powers Act

Passed in the year 1942, the act gave aliens or nationals citizenship for the exchange of military service. Within the act, it waived the requirements of having to have 5 year residency, declaration of intention and an english requirement.

Citizens Committee to Repeal Chinese Exclusion (CCRCE)

Private committee established to lobby repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. It was established on May 25, 1943 and this committee was made up of a relatively small group of notable public figures. This organization successfully leveraged its influence to persuade other organizations and members to the public to lobby congress for the repeal of the Chinese exclusion Act of 1882. By urging larger groups to lobby Congress for support, it effectively leveraged its limited size. Congress eventually passed the Immigration Act of 1943, which repealed Chinese Exclusion Act (Lee 236

United States Army Forces Far East (USAFFE) -

Regiment established by Roosevelt in 1941 led by General Douglas MacArthur. They took command of part of the Philippine army, which allowed the Filipino soldiers to be qualified for US citizenship and have US veteran benefits. However, after a while, many Filipinos believed that the United States was not living up to it's pledge of helping the Filipino Citizens, who were eligible for mandatory conscription to pay back the United States because they owed "permanent allegiance" (Baldoz 218)

Rescission Acts

Set of laws that striped Filipino veterans of benefits leaving them only with the national life insurance act of 1940 and service related disability or death pensions by the government. However any previous money paid out was not expected to be repaid. This was seen as a stab in the back by the american government and upset many filipino veterans. It wasn't until recently the government agreed to pay some money to the veterans but most are dead or dying at this time. This betray and mistreatment of asians in general during the vietnam war made people resent the war even more. (Baldoz 229-230)

The Roberts Commission report:

The Commission was released on January 24 1942, composed of military officers and tasked with inquiring into the Pearl Harbor disaster. It claimed that Tokyo had relied on spies for information and used the Hawaii consulate as a recruitment center. No concrete evidence of specific recruits were mentioned, but anti-Japan militants took the statement as implicit proof of Japanese's plan of an attack. With other sensationalized articles fanning the flames, the report served as a turning point, making officials who initially defended Japanese Americans begin to support the State Personnel Board's suspension of Japanese civil servants.

Military draft of 1964First Supplemental Appropriation Rescission Act

The Vietnam War was considered the "working class war" because most of the men drafted came from the working class. Students received deferments, but these students had access to higher education because of their wealth. This led to an anti-war movement, and the deferments ended after 1971. (Simeon Man lecture, 2/18)

Domino Theory

The fear that if China was communist, the other smaller countries around this massive power would succumb to communism when freed from colonial rule and left to self govern. (lecture 2/18)

Japanese style manifest destiny

The idea that Japanese emigrants will support Japan's program of expansion by establishing footholds in international trade, generating demand for Japanese goods abroad. This belief that emigration leads to Japan's enrichment spurred Japanese migration to the US

Proletarianization

The shift of work ability towards unskilled labor and tedious tasks. This happened to most Chinese workers, who went from being merchants and businessmen to the predominant labor workforce of America. Many worked in gold mines and at one point represented up to one third of the Californian labor work force.

Pidgin

The slang language developed in Hawaii by mostly Japanese-Americans. It is a combination of multiple languages including since there was such a mix of nationalities and languages on the Hawaiian sugar plantations, including Japanese immigrants, second generation Japanese, native Hawaiians, fluent english speakers, Spanish, Portuguese, and FIlipinos. Pidging acted like a mixing pot and a common point for all the people living in the area.

World War II

The war provided a unique opportunity for Filipinos and other persons of Asian descent to demonstrate their commitment to the nation's democratic institutions and, in doing so, to challenge longstanding claims about their cultural unassimilability. (Baldoz 199)

Alamo Bay

This 1985 film was inspired by a controversial incident that occurred in Texas in 1979. The rise of Asian settlements along the fishing coast led to conflicts and misunderstandings between Asian Americans and locals. In one particular incident, Vietnamese men were accused of murdering a white man and locals destroyed property belonging to the Vietnamese. The film depicts an American veteran of Vietnam War who attacks the Vietnamese in a fishing town, illustrating the rampant racism that was present following the war. (Lee 283)

First Supplemental Appropriation Rescission Act

This act lowered the status of Filipinos in the military. They received benefits that were less than that of white Americans. In addition, Filipinos were banned from receiving other benefits that were enjoyed by other servicemen. (Baldoz, 231)

Philippine Refugee Processing Center

This center was located near Bataan, Philippines and was a stop for IndoChinese refugees as they were processed for relocation into new areas such as the United States. Opened in 1890, it essentially acted as a small city, complete with a hospital, churches/temples, schools, markets, and other parts of a community.

"Do the Right Thing" (1989 Spike Lee FIlm)

This film showcased the race relations in New York City between whites and blacks during the 1980s. Asian Americans were placed in the "white" category most of the time and were in frequent conflict with African Americans. This film along with Ice Cube's "Black Korea" illustrated the racial tensions between the Korean/Asian American communities and the African American communities. The showcase of these conflicts in the media also brought awareness. Many individuals worked on healing the rifts between the communities by establishing alliances such as the Black-Korean Alliance (BKA). (Lee 345

Go for Broke (1951 Film)

This hollywood film signifies the turning point in the perception and discourse of race relations of Japanese-Americans. The film portrayed the Japanese-American soldiers' sacrifices, commitment, and courage in World War II. The positive media coverage made a strong impression on U.S. officials and the general public (Lee 234).

Arizona's HB 2281

This law exerted restrictions on ethnic courses. It prohibited courses that were designed only for pupils of a particular ethnic group, that encouraged solidarity instead of taking every pupil as individual, that provoke resentment towards the U.S, or called for the overthrow of the United States government. (Dr. Simeon Man's Thursday lecture)

Second War Powers Act (1942)

This statute was activated to help bolster enlistment, it offered American Citizenship for aliens and nationals in exchange for military service. This act marked the partial victory for the political recognition of one segment of the Filipino population, allowing for the entitlement of citizenships for the military personnel (Baldoz 213).

Divide-and-control strategy

This strategy refers to a strategy developed in the twentieth century in Hawaii, which involved employment of different nationalities by planters to obtain better control and discipline over the workers. For example, aware of the anti-Japanese feelings of Koreans, planter brought in Korean workers to break Japanese strikers. By hiring different nationalities, the planters in Hawaii were able to keep their workers in check.

Vietnam War

This war occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, from 1964 to 1973. The official United States justification of this war back to then was it is a war against Communism, considering its spreading effect supported by Domino Theory. Among the enlisted men, eighty percent of them came from impoverished and working-class background, while student deferment existed for middle and upper class.

First Indochina war of 1945-1954

Took place after WW2 when France tried to recolonize Vietnam. After 9 years, France surrenders to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam led by Ho Chi Minh (backed by China and Soviet Union). The country wa divided at the 17th parallel with the DRV of the north and a new Republic of Vietnam controlling the South.

Executive Order 9066

Was a presidential executive order that was signed on February 19, 1942 by Franklin D. Roosevelt. This executive order gave the Secretary of War the authority to designate military zones "from which any or all persons may be excluded" and for which the rights of any person to "enter, remain in, or leave" was left to the discretion of the military authorities. Basically this executive order was established in order to clear the way for Japanese mass removal. The west coast was made a defense zone and all Japanese were removed at will. The US believed it was moral to violate the rights of a few Japanese Americans in order to win the war between Japan. Voluntary evacuation was first established but once it was over, all residents in the West Coast areas of Arizona, and half of the states of Washington, Oregon, and California were forcibly removed at the will of the US military. The orders had to be followed and the orders were backed up by Public Law 503, which was passed by Congress on March 21, which made it a federal offense to disobey military exclusion. This was following the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941, and was also backed up by the fear of the American people against Japanese and Japanese Americans. Racism was at an all-time high for the innocent Japanese Americans living in the US at the time. (Lee 215)

"hui"

a Hawaiian term used to describe the voluntary long and short term contracts of groups. Normally catered for workers' that had the desire to stay together. Most huis had the freedom to select their own overseer or headman. Sometimes long-established huis could gain enough intimate knowledge about the land, which can result in an almost complete control over the areas they farmed at (Lee 70).

Syngman Rhee

a Korean statesmen the first president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, and the first president of the Republic of Korea (commonly referred to as South Korea). His three-term presidency of South Korea (August 1948 to April 1960) was strongly affected by Cold War tensions on the Korean Peninsula. He is of Vietnamese descent. Rhee was regarded as an anti-Communist and a strongman, and he led South Korea through the Korean War. His presidency ended in resignation following popular protests against a disputed election. He died in exile in Honolulu, Hawaii. ( Lee 212-213)

"compassion fatigue"

a term that a scholar used to refer to the onset of terminated refugee programs that reflected thawing relations between the United States and Southeast Asia. By the late 1980's and early 1990's, the refugee flow to the United States had largely ended as refugee admission programs were terminated. After settling about 500,000 Vietnamese in the United States, the Orderly Departure Program ended in 1989, and other U.S. refugee programs for Vietnamese were ended in 1997. The Cambodian refugee resettlement program, which since 1975 had helped settle nearly 160,000 people, ended in 1994. The Laotian program also ended in 1994. Despite this, Southeast Asian migration continues, but through channels such as family reunification provisions in the general immigration system or humanitarian parolee status (Lee 279)

Haole

a word used to describe someone of European descent. It is frequently used in the book All I asking For is my Body. It's used frequently in Hawaii and has evolved into a word that is used in contempt. (Murayama, 36)

Neutrality Acts

consisting of alien registration, neutrality, and selective service acts these acts choose biasly when to call Filipinos aliens or nationals. Making them aliens so they could lose rights, be registered and watched but nationals so they could fight for the U.S. in WWII. This is important because it shows how the U.S. only wanted the Filipinos for war aid and how they did not truly accept them. This small opening into the army did allow Filipinos to feel slightly accepted into American culture.

Jose Calugas

first Filipino man, who served in the war, to receive the first Congressional Medal of Honor, which is the U.S. military's highest decoration. Calugas had served as a mass sergeant with the Philippine Scouts and received the award for "conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty" for his actions during the battle of Bataan. According to official reports, he had run one thousand yards across a battlefield under heavy Japanese artillery fire to commandeer a field-gun position after all the other members of his squad had been killed. Calugas then organized a volunteer unit to man the artillery battery and hold off advancing Japanese forces. Essentially, Calugas had been recognized by U.S. newspapers for his courage as a Filipino fighter (Baldoz 219

Anti-muslim Hysteria

following 911 many people have called for the deportation and/or attack on all muslims in America. There are already surveillance programs on Muslims in place to protect the country. This mirrors how the Japanese were treated after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Many historians point out how the Japanese were unjustly accused and treated saying that attacking the Muslims in America would only be a repeat of history. (Donald Trump fails history) Hurst

Black-Korean Alliance (BKA)

in 1986, in the wake of a rash of killings of Korean merchants, community leaders with the help of the Los Angeles County Human Relations Commission established the BKA, whose objective was to maintain an ongoing dialogue between the two communities. It encountered problems from the start because merchant groups were fearful of drawing publicity about the killings and African Americans were reticent about rallying around this issue. However, the BKA did draw support from representatives from the NAACP, SCLC, merchants and shopkeepers from both communities. With regards to the Harlins killing, the BKA and the Human Relations Commission in Los Angeles tried to keep the issue from getting out of hand, but a released videotape of the altercation and Du's suspended sentence led to an outrage for the black leaders. Under the siege and called "race traitors," the BKA eventually disintegrated, exposing some of the problems of pan-Asian unity and the inadequacies of an "old style multiracial coalition" to solve the problems of black-Korean relations (Lee 345

Deindustrialization

is a process of social and economic change caused by the removal or reduction of industrial capacity or activity in a country or region, especially heavy industry or manufacturing industry. It is the opposite of industrialization.A straightforward decline in the output of manufactured goods or in employment in the manufacturing sector. This, however, can be misleading because short-run or cyclical downturns may be misinterpreted as long-run deindustrialization. Also it is shift from manufacturing to the service sectors, so that manufacturing has a lower share of total output or employment. This may also be misleading, however, as such a shift may occur even if manufacturing is growing in absolute terms

"brain drain"

is term means that the person is educated in their homeland but left to the U.S. after their education. For example, the people in Philippines were educated in their homeland before coming to the U.S. and becoming citizens. (Lecture 2/23)

Executive order 8022

order signed by FDR on June 25, 1941 that prohibited racial discrimination in the defense industry employment. It allowed Asian-Americans to contribute to their country and prove their loyalty. However, that resulted in the shift of employment away from restaurants, laundromats and other services usually employed by asians, causing a shortage in labor workers. (Lee 228)

Farrington bill

product of economic anxiety about labor shortages on Hawaii's plantations and in the defense sector. Officials believed that rewarding citizenship might induce Filipinos to stay in the islands after the war instead of returning to the homeland.

"operation babylift"

program started in Vietnam that airlifted two thousand orphaned vietnameses babies to the United States to be adopted by American families. That operation generated interest in helping the refugees in vietnam, and made the United States look like a global savior. (Lee 278)

Latasha Harlins

she was a black teenage female who was shot by a middle-aged Korean immigrant, Soon Ja Du, at the Empire Liquor Market on South Figueroa in March of 1991. Du accused Harlins of stealing from the shop, and an altercation between the two led to Harlins punching Du and knocking her down, after which Du shot Harlins in the back of the head, and killed her. Harlins was later found to have had juice from the store in her backpack and money in her hands. The altercation between a black customer and a Korean proprietor contributed to the mounting tensions between African Americans and Koreans, fed in large measure by the mainstream media and intensified until they eventually reached a breaking point. This included a yearlong boycott of the Family Red Apple Market in New York City's Flatbush after the explosive encounter in South Central Los Angeles

442nd Regimental Combat League

successor to the 100th infantry battalion that contained all Nisei soldiers. It ended up being the most decorated regiment of it's size, but suffered six time the casualty rates of other battalions. It inspired many films and movies which helped change the public's opinions about the Japanese in America.

Nihon Yoshisa Emigration Company

the first private emigration company that had its headquarters in Tokyo. Though still regulated by the government these companies were very popular in the export of Japanese labor to Hawaii, Brazil, Fiji, Mexico, etc. This company and the many like it that were created after helped increase Japanese populations around the worst especially in Hawaii and America. The U.S. did not like the idea of contract labor and enlisted the help of the Japanese government to screen emigrants, still some were able to sneak by.

Luce-Celler Act

this act was passed by Congress on July 2, 1946. The new law amended the Nationality Act of 1940, making "persons of races indigenous to India, and . . . the Philippine Islands" racially eligible for citizenship in the United States. Eligibility for naturalization under this act was limited to those persons who had a "preponderance of blood" of the prescribed races, a requirement aimed at disqualifying mixed-race persons with more than 50 percent "ineligible" blood. This blood-quantum provision was designed to prevent persons of more than 50 percent Japanese ancestry from gaining admission to American citizenship through the quotas allotted to the Philippines or China. The law established an austere quota cap of one hundred immigrants per year for Indians but did not address the situation of Filipinos, whose previous quota of fifty per annum had expired as stipulated in the Tydings-McDuffie Act (Baldoz 227)

Gam Saan

this is was also known as "gold mountain"; In the 1840's, news circled that there was gold in California and fortunes could be made by anyone who seized this opportunity. Word of the "gold mountain" quickly spread throughout Chinese provinces, and labor brokers who advertised in Chinese port cities depicted America as a wealthy land that welcomed the Chinese. Gam Saan promised not just gold but also employment

"Indochinese & Southeast Asian"

were both terms that were most often employed to describe people who fled Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Indochinese is a relic of French colonialism and Southeast Asian encompasses Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, Indonesia, and Brunei. Many of these countries represent centuries of intermixture, conquest, and exchange. Lee uses these terms to refer to people from Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos who fled their countries due to war and political conflicts stemming from the United States involvement in the region. (Lee 270)

Neutrality Acts of the 1930s

were intended to keep the United States out of the various military clashes erupting around the globe. A majority of Americans were reluctant to get involved in these conflicts, and isolationists in the U.S. Congress effectively blocked efforts by interventionists to directly confront Axis aggression.The court ruled in favor of Compania Transatlantica, declaring that Filipinos were American citizens for the purposes of the Neutrality Act. The judgment was also a victory for the federal officials who had issued the original order demanding that the Filipino crewmembers quit the vessel before it could clear port. (Baldoz 198)