Wellness
Begging the Claim
The conclusion that the writer should prove is validated within the claim. Example: Filthy and polluting coal should be banned. Arguing that coal pollutes the earth and thus should be banned would be logical. But the very conclusion that should be proved, that coal causes enough pollution to warrant banning its use, is already assumed in the claim by referring to it as "filthy and polluting."
INTRODUCTION AND STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES
The top skill/personal quality employers are seeking is communication skills both written and verbal. Well, congratulations! By the end of this course you will have acquired just those skills making you more attractive to potential employers. According to Marcel M. Robles in the 2012 article "Executive Perceptions of the Top 10 Soft Skills Needed in Today's Workplace," communication is an important interpersonal skill in today's global business environment. Robles states that it "is often assumed that communication is a fundamental skill that everyone knows and does well. Unfortunately, that assumption is usually not a reality. Communication, or the lack thereof, has been the reason for many tragedies and disasters that have taken place within the financial industry, health care, and the wider environment in recent years."1 Robles found that out of a list of ten skills necessary for the work force, employers ranked communication as second most important, behind integrity. What is the big deal about public speaking? Public speaking holds with it great power because you have the opportunity to educate others, convince them of change, or at least make them laugh. There should never be a time in your life that you have no voice. Through this module and subsequent course activities you will develop a voice that allows you to be heard and taken seriously.
Open-mindedness
This is a central and important element of Critical Thinking. Open-mindedness means having a willingness to take relevant evidence and argument into account in forming or revising our beliefs and values. This is especially important, especially when there is some reason why we might not like the evidence and arguments, so that you can arrive at true and defensible conclusions. You have to be critically receptive to all possibilities, being willing to think and rethink positions despite having formed an opinion. You also must avoid conditions and factors that interrupt your ability to reflect properly - to think deeply about and review - the information that you've gathered and what it means.i
Hasty Generalization
This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other words, you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts. Example: Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course. In this example, the author is basing his evaluation of the entire course on only the first day, which is notoriously boring and full of housekeeping tasks for most courses. To make a fair and reasonable evaluation the author must attend not one but several classes, and possibly even examine the textbook, talk to the professor, or talk to others who have previously finished the course in order to have sufficient evidence to base a conclusion on.
Slippery Slope
This is a conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually through a series of small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically equating A and Z. So, if we don't want Z to occur, A must not be allowed to occur either. Example: If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment eventually the government will ban all cars, so we should not ban Hummers. In this example, the author is equating banning Hummers with banning all cars, which is not the same thing.
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
This is a conclusion that assumes that if 'A' occurred after 'B' then 'B' must have caused 'A.' Example: I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water must have made me sick. In this example, the author assumes that if one event chronologically follows another the first event must have caused the second. But the illness could have been caused by the burrito the night before, a flu bug that had been working on the body for days, or a chemical spill across campus. There is no reason, without more evidence, to assume the water caused the person to be sick.
Either/or
This is a conclusion that oversimplifies the argument by reducing it to only two sides or choices. Example: We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth. In this example, the two choices are presented as the only options, yet the author ignores a range of choices in between such as developing cleaner technology, car-sharing systems for necessities and emergencies, or better community planning to discourage daily driving.
Red Herring
This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding opposing arguments rather than addressing them. Example: The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families? In this example, the author switches the discussion away from the safety of the food and talks instead about an economic issue, the livelihood of those catching fish. While one issue may affect the other it does not mean we should ignore possible safety issues because of possible economic consequences to a few individuals.
Ad hominem
This is an attack on the character of a person rather than his or her opinions or arguments. Example: Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are all dirty, lazy hippies. In this example, the author doesn't even name particular strategies Green Peace has suggested, much less evaluate those strategies on their merits. Instead, the author attacks the characters of the individuals in the group.
Circular Argument
This restates the argument rather than actually proving it. Example: George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively. In this example, the conclusion that Bush is a "good communicator" and the evidence used to prove it "he speaks effectively" are basically the same idea. Specific evidence such as using everyday language, breaking down complex problems, or illustrating his points with humorous stories would be needed to prove either half of the sentence.
NEGATING A COMPOUND STATEMENT
We know that the negation of a true statement will be false, and the negation of a false statement will be true. But what happens when we try to negate a compound statement? Negating a Conjunction (and) and a Disjunction (or): A compound sentence is formed when two or more thoughts are connected in one sentence. The following are examples of compound sentences: 1. "21 is divisible by 3 and 21 is not prime." 2. "45 is a multiple of 9 or 13 - 20 = 7." 3. "If 4 + 6 = 10 and 3 + 3 = 9, then all rectangles are squares." When attempting to determine the truth value of a compound sentence, first determine the truth value of each of the components of the sentence. Let's examine the examples listed above. 1. Determine the truth value of: "21 is divisible by 3and 21 is not prime." "21 is divisible by 3" (true) "21 is not prime" (true) Substitute the truth values for the facts: T and T Simplify the conjunction (and): T Answer: the compound sentence (statement) is true.
PRESENTING YOURSELF ELECTRONICALLY: NETIQUETTE
When you email a faculty member, you have a direct connection, so you must make the most of it. Below are the basic guidelines to keep in mind to email a professor. Do: use your school email to contact your professors. Personal email addresses, such as [email protected] are not appropriate. use e-mail subject lines. They should convey the main point of your e-mail or the idea that you want your professor to take away from your e-mail. Therefore, be as specific as possible. One word subjects such as "Hi," "Question," or "FYI" are not informative. use proper spelling, grammar & punctuation. This is not only important because improper spelling, grammar and punctuation give a bad impression of your education, it is also important for conveying the message properly. And, if your program has a spell checking option, why not use it? treat your faculty (and fellow students) with respect, even in email. Your professors are dedicated to your education. Always use your professors' proper title: Dr. or Prof. and unless specifically invited, doesn't refer to them by first name. sign off with your name at the end of your e-mail. Closing salutations should be used and options include: Thank You, Sincerely, Best, etc. Don't: email your professor and tell them you won't be in class. Bringing unnecessary attention to your absence only wastes your and your professor's time. Unless your absence impacts a grade component, just miss the class. email your professor asking for their notes. Your professors work hard to prepare and deliver their lectures. If you fail to take notes, miss class, or lose your notes, contact your peers first. Odds are there are 10-20 other students in that class that have notes. email your professor asking (or complaining) about your grades. Unless you have been specifically told to use email for specific grading topics or issues, don't do it. Any time you want to discuss graded assignments, go talk to your professor face-to-face. email your professor and copy the Department Chair, Program Director or Dean. Unless you are emailing a glowing thank you, or congratulations message, any message you would need to copy a professor's supervisors on should be delivered in person. Emailing and copying their supervisor will only make your position tougher to defend, whatever it is. expect an immediate response to your email. Emailing your professors at 2am is fine. But don't expect an answer by 8am. Each professor has a different work schedule, and probably has a personal life as well. Email is a great way to get your question to your professor, but realize they may not be able to answer until they have time. In some cases, they may not have access to information about your question, unless they are in the office. 24 hours is a standard window for an email response, during the business week. write in CAPITALS. IF YOU WRITE IN CAPITALS IT SEEMS AS IF YOU ARE SHOUTING. This can be highly annoying and might trigger an unwanted response in the form of a flame mail. use abbreviations and emoticons. In business emails, try not to use abbreviations such as BTW (by the way) and LOL (laugh out loud). The recipient might not be aware of the meanings of the abbreviations and in business emails these are generally not appropriate. The same goes for emoticons, such as the smiley :-). If you are not sure whether your recipient knows what it means, it is better not to use it.
SUPPORTING MATERIAL
While the previous example gives you a look at one speech's introduction and conclusion, let's take the content discussion a bit further. First and foremost, students always ask, "Can I be my own source?" The answer is NO! You may be an expert something, but you do not serve as a source. You are the teacher or persuader; you are to add more credibility to your speech with credible and quality sources along with your experience. In other words, you do not count as a source. For example, I teach Public Speaking, but in my speech I cannot say: "According to me, most people experience stage fright." I need to find sources for this claim. Like this one.2 As I said before, writing a speech is just like writing a paper, but citing sources is a little different. In a speech you are saying the words, so you have to orally cite the sources. You have to say them in the speech to count. Remember, your sources are there to provide proof of your claims/points. Many times supporting material research is overlooked, but it is so much more than information to fill the time requirement. Supporting your speech is basically allowing your listeners to know that you know what you're talking about. Supporting your speech is about more than gathering the appropriate number of sources and plugging them into your speech. It is about determining what information would most benefit the purpose of your speech. It is being about the answer those questions audience members have spinning around in their head, "What do you mean?" "Why should I believe you?" You have to find sharp, specific, clear, and credible information that will answer your audience's questions. A few types of support for your speech include *examples, statistics, and testimonies.* 1. Examples • Brief - specific • Hypothetical - imaginary situation • Extended - true story to pull the audience in 2. Statistics - These are used to show the magnitude or seriousness of a topic. Be sure that you ask yourself these three questions to fully understand how to use statistics in a speech. • Are they representative? • Are they used more correctly • Are they from a reliable source? 3. Testimonies • Peer - someone who experienced the event • Expert - someone with documented expertise on the topic. This is the best to use.
CONCLUSIONSII
Your conclusion is your last chance to persuade your readers (or listeners) to your point of view, to impress yourself upon them as a writer and thinker. And the impression you create in your conclusion will shape the impression that stays with your readers after they've finished the essay. To establish a sense of closure, you might do one or more of the following: Conclude by linking the last paragraph to the first, perhaps by reusing a word or phrase you used at the beginning. Conclude with a sentence composed mainly of one-syllable words. Simple language can help create an effect of understated drama. Conclude with a complex sentence that's compound or parallel in structure; such sentences can establish a sense of balance or order that may feel just right at the end of a complex discussion. Conclude with a quotation from or reference to a primary or secondary source, one that amplifies your main point or puts it in a different perspective. A quotation from, say, the novel or poem you're writing about can add texture and specificity to your discussion; a critic or scholar can help confirm or complicate your final point. Conclude by setting your discussion into a different, perhaps larger, context. For example, you might end an essay on nineteenth-century muckraking journalism by linking it to a current newsmagazine program like 60 Minutes. Conclude by redefining one of the key terms of your argument. Conclude by considering the implications of your argument (or analysis or discussion).
Biconditionals are true when
both statements (facts) have the exact same truth value.
BICONDITIONAL
is a compound statement formed by combining two conditionals under "and."
Logic
is a correct reasoning or the study of correct reasoning and its foundations. Logic is also the study of relationships between propositions and those supports, assumptions, implications, contradictions, relevancies, principles, or disciplinary practice. By extension, logic is also a set of rational considerations that bear upon the truth or justification of any belief or set of beliefs. It is also the set of rational considerations that bear upon the settlement of any question or set of questions."
Articulating
is a fancy word that means "explaining clearly." An "implication" is a fancy way of saying "outcome" or "what happens next." Often when people are describing a rule or law that they want or don't want, they will make the argument that the rule or law will have specific outcomes that their audience may or may not have thought about. People will often argue for or against these outcomes. Often when people are describing a rule or law that they want or don't want, they will make the argument that the rule or law will have specific outcomes that their audience may or may not have thought about. People will often argue for or against these outcomes.
closed sentence/statement
is a mathematical sentence which can be judged to be true or false. A closed sentence, or statement, has no variables. • "7 + 2 = 9" is a true closed sentence or statement. • "Garfield is a cartoon character." is a true closed sentence, or statement. • "7 + 5 = 9"is a false closed sentence or statement because it is not true: 7 + 5 = 12. • "A pentagon has exactly 4 sides." is a false closed sentence, or statement, because a pentagon has exactly 5 sides.
open sentence
is a sentence which contains a variable - something that is unexplained yet. • "x + 2 = 8" is an open sentence -- the variable is "x." We know that if we take 2 from 8, we get six, so x = 6. When we write the statement, we haven't yet figured out what x is supposed to equal. • "It is my favorite color." is an open sentence-- the variable is "It." We still don't know which "favorite color" = "it". • The truth value of thesis sentences depends upon the value replacing the variable. For instance, "We should not use certain pesticides when growing food" is a thesis sentence, but we're not yet sure what "certain pesticides" means.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
is formed when two or more thoughts are connected in one sentence. The following are examples of compound sentences: 1. "21 is divisible by 3 and 21 is not prime." 2. "45 is a multiple of 9 or 13 - 20 = 7." 3. "If 4 + 6 = 10 and 3 + 3 = 9, then all rectangles are squares."
Clarity
is one of the universal standards of critical thinking 1) Do I understand the language of this article? Have I looked up unfamiliar terms? 2) Do I understand how the author is using terms like "fair," "right," "legal," or "moral?" 3) If the author is taking a side in a controversy, do I understand the whole controversy from both sides? 4) Has the author made clear why he or she supports an argument? 5) Have you been clear about the facts and issues? 6) Have you been clear about your own opinions and arguments and why you think the way that you do about a topic or issue?
The study of critical thinking, or reasoning, is called
logic
When communication goes awry is it because
one of the communicators failed to construct (encode) the correct message? Maybe the receiver interpreted (decoded) the speaker's message or intentions differently than the speaker intended.
The "if and only if" portion of the definition tells you
that the statement is true when either sentence (or fact) is the hypothesis. This means that both of the statements below are true • If a triangle is isosceles, then the triangle has two equal sides. (true) • If a triangle has two equal sides, then the triangle is isosceles. (true)
Knowledge
the act of having a clear and justifiable grasp of what is so or of how to do something. Remember that knowledge is not to be confused with belief nor with symbolic representation of belief. Humans easily and frequently believe things that are false or believe things to be true without knowing them to be so. In evaluating arguments, one has to evaluate what knowledge a speaker or writer has brought to bear on their topic and what conclusions they have drawn from it. One must be careful that opinions have not been presented as knowledge. Sometimes we mistake belief or opinion for knowledge.
Justification
the act of showing a belief, opinion, action, or policy to be in accord with reason and evidence, to be ethically acceptable, or both. Education should foster reasonability in students. This requires that both teachers and students develop the disposition to ask for and give justifications for beliefs, opinions, actions, and policies. Asking for a justification should not, then, be viewed as an insult or attack, but rather as a normal act of a rational person.
Student Unit 7 - Student Learning Outcomes
• Employ strategies to handle and overcome communication apprehension. • Identify techniques to choose appropriate topics for a speech. • Understand the guidelines for a thesis. • Understand and use the four types of connectives. • Identify and use all parts of an introduction and conclusion. • Utilize the three ways to evaluate internet sources. • Identify and use all types of examples. • Discuss how to use statistics effectively in a speech. • Distinguish between and use peer and expert testimonies. • Cite sources properly in a speech. • Prepare a preparation outline.
TO EXPLAIN, EXPOUND, EXPLICATE...
• Explain implies the process of making clear and intelligible something not understood or known. • Expound implies a systematic and thorough explanation, often by an expert. • Explicate implies a scholarly analysis developed in detail. • Elucidate implies a shedding of light upon by clear and specific illustration or explanation. • Interpret implies the bringing out of meanings not immediately apparent. • Construe implies a particular interpretation of something whose meaning is ambiguous .
3 Places to Find Sources
• First, our campus offers a service by the University System of Georgia called GIL express. Basically it allows you to do a catalog search through all the libraries in the University System. So, through this search you may find a book that would benefit you a great deal, but it is a Valdosta State. No problem. If you make the request, Valdosta's library will pull the book express mail it to our library and you can pick it up at MGC Library's circulation desk. When you get done bring it back to our library and they will ship it back to Valdosta with no charge to you! • Another service is NetLibrary which is an online library. You must set up an account at the college and then you can log on away from campus. NetLibray lets you check out book electronically. The books on in PDF format and you can electronically flip though the pages as you would an old-fashioned book. • Lastly, GALILEO is a useful tool that many people overlook. This service provides databases which search academic journals, magazines, newspapers, government documents, scientific reports, and a plethora of others. Many times people don't take the time to truly utilize this service. It may require you to search for things in several ways using different wording, etc. If you are trying to remotely access this database, you will need the password. It can be found on the D2L homepage.
Reading a poem
• How is the poem laid out? • Does this serve to emphasize certain words or images? A particular rhythm? • Who is speaking in the poem? The answer to this question is often not "the poet," and you should beware of confusing the poet's voice with the speaker's • Do any specific images strike your attention? • How do language and imagery work together? Sometimes even the smallest of details work together to create a singular impression of an idea, event or person. • What happens in the poem? Simply put, does it have a plot?
How to read a paragraph
• find idea or question that is the driving force • paragraphs that focus on significant ideas or questions • Connect those ideas, when possible, to situations and experiences that are meaningful in your life
After topic sentence, present
• specific facts that support claims in topic sentence • explain how each fact supports claims
LOGIC AND SENTENCES
"An isosceles triangle has two congruent sides." is a true mathematical sentence. "10 + 4 = 15" is a false mathematical sentence. "Did you get that one right?" is NOT a mathematical sentence. It is a question. "All triangles" is NOT a mathematical sentence. It is a phrase.
He states that students who are
"critical thinkers are clear, ordered, and specific in language as expression of thought".2 In order to become an accomplished critical thinker a student first has to become a critical listener.
QUESTIONS TO ASK
1) Where did I get this information? Is the source a good reliable source for information? 2) Who wrote this and what are the credentials or experience that make this author an authority on this topic? 3) Is this author representing one side or another of a controversial issue? 4) What might inform this author's opinions or arguments outside of basic facts? 5) If basic facts are being interpreted into knowledge, what criteria is the author using to establish that their interpretation is accurate, or at least possible? 6) Are these arguments relevant to the topic I need to research? 7) Has the author committed any logical fallacies?
UNIT REVIEW
1. Faculty choose texts for general introductions for their early courses. This general introduction to many of these subjects, though, does not mean that your faculty doesn't want you to look into more specific topics or dig more deeply into topics that contain issues or controversies. This is what research skills are for. 2. Wikipedia About.com, AskJeeves, 123HelpMe, or other online sources for information are not always reliable, and should never be used for college-level work. 3. The quickest way to find good research information is through the library. The Subject Guides that your librarians have built for you contain a number of full-text articles at: http://guides.mga.edu/index.php. 4. Keywords may not work the first time you attempt to use them, and you may need to try a couple of different combinations to get to the kind of resources you need both in Gil and databases for journals and articles. 5. Evidence, as refers to the forming of arguments, is the supporting facts and knowledge that students use to make arguments. 6. Open-mindedness means having a willingness to take relevant evidence and argument into account in forming or revising our beliefs and values. 7. Perhaps the most important part of thinking critically is being capable of changing position if new information requires that you rethink your original opinion. A topic outline, broken down into the categories that your research shows are important, will help you organize your research material. When creating a topic outline, you should use visual cues to indicate different sections of your research and set off different groupings of material. 8. Every argument - paragraph or full essay -- requires a claim or thesis. You must also support that claim with at least three pieces of evidence, and draw your conclusions from that evidence. 9. Often when people are describing a rule or law that they want or don't want, they will make the argument that the rule or law will have specific outcomes that their audience may or may not have thought about. People will often argue for or against these outcomes. These are called "calls to action." 10. When concluding an argument, don't simply summarize your points. Also, avoid phrases like "in conclusion," "to conclude," "in summary," and "to sum up." These phrases can be useful even welcome -- in oral presentations. But readers can see, by the tell-tale compression of the pages, when an essay is about to end. You'll irritate your audience if you belabor the obvious. Most importantly, resist the urge to apologize.
Conclusion Sample Effective
1. In conclusion [SIGNAL THE ENDING], we have taken a look at one of China's most time-honored traditions, feng shui. [REVIEW OF THESIS] We've seen what feng shui is and then put this ancient art into practice in your room and improved the flow of chi. Although we looked at how feng shui works in a typical dorm room, you can apply the principles of feng shui to your home, office, or apartment.[REINFORCE THE MAIN POINTS WITH A BANG TO END.] 2. Now as I walk into my dorm room, I no longer cringe at those wind chimes' loud clanging or avoid touching them at all costs. Instead, I swing the door right into them and smile. It may be noisy, but it sure is good chi.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
1. It is inevitable (you cannot not communicate), irreversible (you take it back), and unrepeatable (there is no do over). Everything you do creates a message. Therefore, your clothes, glasses, smile - EVERYTHING says something about you. You must pay attention to the messages you send. 2. Communication is a package of signals that work together to communicate meaning. Verbal and nonverbal behaviors reinforce or support each other. How do you know someone is lying to you? The verbal does not match the nonverbal. For the message to be "sound" the verbal and nonverbal must agree. 3. It is a process of adjustment. You must understand each other's signals to understand the message. If this does not happen, you go over it again and again until each person understands.
Effective Introduction Sample
1. It's move-in day. While most everyone is rushing about carrying boxes, computers, TVs, and stereos to make their dorm rooms feel a little more like home, my mom is carrying—wind chimes. Don't wind chimes belong outside? In a garden? On a patio? Anywhere but a dorm room? My mom had strategically placed them so that each time I opened the door, it would swing into them. It was all because of feng shui. [ATTENTION GETTER: She used a combination of a series of questions and a fact from Simon Brown. She also REVEALED THE TOPIC.] 2. According to Simon Brown, author of the 1998 book Practical Feng Shui, feng shui, which literally means wind and water, "is the art of designing your home to promote success in life, health, wealth and happiness." Feng shui originated in China over 4,000 years ago and is still practiced throughout the world today. 3. While it may seem like only ancient Chinese philosophers can master this art, even college students like us can learn simple techniques for improving the flow of energy in our dorm rooms, homes, or apartments. With my mom's enthusiasm behind me, I decided to research this topic some more on my own and what I have learned about feng shui is what I want to talk to you about today. [CREDIBILITY STATEMENT/THESIS] First I'll explain a bit more about what feng shui is and then give you some tips on putting this ancient art into practice in your room and ways to improve chi. [PREVIEW OF MAIN POINTS]
UNIT REVIEW
1. Logic is a correct reasoning or the study of correct reasoning and its foundations. Logic is also the study of relationships between propositions and those supports, assumptions, implications, contradictions, relevancies, principles, or disciplinary practice. By extension, logic is also a set of rational considerations that bear upon the truth or justification of any belief or set of beliefs. It is also the set of rational considerations that bear upon the settlement of any question or set of questions." 2. Know what each of the following words implies: Explain implies the process of making clear and intelligible something not understood or known. Expound implies a systematic and thorough explanation, often by an expert. Explicate implies a scholarly analysis developed in detail. Elucidate implies a shedding of light upon by clear and specific illustration or explanation. Interpret implies the bringing out of meanings not immediately apparent. Construe implies a particular interpretation of something whose meaning is ambiguous. 3. A mathematical sentence is one in which a fact or complete idea is expressed. Because a mathematical sentence states a fact, many of them can be judged to be "true" or "false". Questions and phrases are not mathematical sentences since they cannot be judged to be true or false. 4. There are two types of mathematical sentences: A closed sentence, or statement, is a mathematical sentence which can be judged to be true or false. A closed sentence, or statement, has no variables. 5. An open sentence is a sentence which contains a variable - something that is unexplained yet. 6. A compound sentence is formed when two or more thoughts are connected in one sentence. Words such as and, or, if...then and if and only if are words that we use to form compound sentences, or statements. 7. In logic, a negation of a simple statement (one logical value) can usually be formed by placing the word "not" into the original statement. The negation will always have the opposite truth value of the original statement. 8. Conjunctions are words or terms that are used to combine two sentences. 9. Deductive reasoning has you starting with information or an idea that is called a premise (or a hypothesis or thesis). Eventually you come up with conclusions that are based on your original premise. 10. Inductive reasoning works in the opposite direction. You start by having a number of observations. "I see that." "That happens here." "I believe that this will happen just like the others because the circumstance is similar." You organize data into categories and say, "What do these have in common?"
Here is the basic breakdown to "content" of a speech. These are the elements to fulfill the requirements of writing a quality speech. This is an outline of the chapters and the basic outline of the process to writing a speech.
1. To start the speech writing process you must have a purpose. What is your goal? What does your teacher expect from your speech? What does your speech assignment say you should accomplish in the time you have in front of your classmates? Thinking about this carefully is the first step to creating a speech that will allow you to meet the expectations your instructor has set forth. Without a goal in mind you cannot begin writing. 2. Create a central idea/thesis - a one-sentence statement that sums up the main point or argument of the speech. This is just like a thesis that you might write for an English or history paper. The writing center at Texas A&M University tells us that a thesis "is the main claim you are making in an argument, similar to the hypothesis in a scientific experiment. It is what you are trying to prove or persuade your audience to believe or do. It's helpful to develop a working thesis to guide your composition process."1 Everything that follows should relate back to your thesis, it should support your thesis. If you have information contained in your presentation that is not related to your thesis then you should reconsider including it. 3. The Introduction is the first part of your speech and your thesis will be included in it. The introduction needs to be clear and direct to bring your audience on board. • The first thing you want to do is create an opening statement that will get your audience's attention, in a good way. No matter the number of times I tell students to GET THE AUDIENCE'S ATTENTION first, they still come to the podium and say, "Hey, I am ____________ and I am going to talk about _________." Can you say BORING! The introduction is what pulls your audience into your speech - it is the reason they will listen to the rest of it, if you lose them first off there is really no reason to keep talking. - Some opening statement options - Ask a question -It can be a question linked to the main points or rhetorical question. - Start with a quote - State the person, info about it, then quote - Tell a story - Statistic - always site your sources - Joke/humor - must be appropriate and connected to your topic - THE WORST WAY TO START IS...I am going to talk to you about. • As discussed above, give your thesis - Clearly tell us what you are talking about. • Build credibility - Explains why we should believe you. Do not state your sources here. Tell me why you are the right person to discuss this topic. • Give a brief preview of main points - Clearly outline the main points so the audience can follow you easily. 4. Body must be organized and clear. • Break your topic down into "chunks" to clearly state your message and to support your argument. What points will you make to shore up your claim? You should have at least 2 to 5 main points. • Make sure the main points make sense and flow together. • Connectives - creates a clear flow of information in your speech - Internal preview - what you are about to say - Internal summary - what you just said - Transition - what you just said and what you are about to say - This is the best connective to use. • •Make sure the main points are equally weighted. If main point two has three minutes of material and one has six minutes, you need to reorganize your main points. 5. Conclusion - completes the speech by bringing it together. • Signal the ending (say in conclusion or something like that) • Reinforce the central idea/thesis with a bang • Review your main points again so your audience as another chance to reflect on what you have said. • Give a final thought that wraps up the presentation and gives your audience a reason to clap - Refer back to the introduction - End with a dramatic statement - End with a quote
3 Questions to Read Structurally:
1. What does the title tell me about this book? 2. What is the main idea in the book? (You should be able to figure this out from skimming the introduction, preface, and first chapter.) 3. What are the parts of the whole, and how does the book deal with those parts? (Again, this may be found in an overview in the introduction, preface, first chapter, and/or table of contents.)
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION LAW
1. You cannot not communicate. Communication is inevitable, irreversible (you can't take it back), and unrepeatable (there is no do over). Everything you do says something about you from the clothes you wear to what you write in emails. Even if you did not intend to send the message receivers are still interpreting your actions. 2. Communication is a package of signals that work together to communicate meaning. Verbal and nonverbal behaviors reinforce or support each other. For the message to be "sound" the verbal and nonverbal must agree. Everything you do creates a message for others to interpret. Think of a fight you have had recently. When you were stating your point, were you angry? Did your body language convey anger? Did your verbal message match your nonverbal communication? If so, your receiver probably understood your message and reacted appropriately. If not, your inability to communicate would likely lead to outcomes which you did not desire. 3. It is a process of adjustment. You must understand each other's signals to understand the message. This is nice but how does it apply to business communication? When I say "you cannot not communicate" it means everything you do says something about you. For instance, look at someone around you. Answer the following questions for that person, just by looking at them. Am I a Republican or Democrat or independent? Do I believe marijuana should be legal? Am I married or single? Do I make GREAT grades? Do I have a job in an office? Do I come from the city or the country? Could you answer the questions? The basic principles of communication constantly govern how you represent yourself because you are always communicating something about yourself. What you say should always match what you do, and you are always adjusting what you say or do for an accurate message to your audience. Audience members quickly form impressions of speakers, it is a good idea to plan ahead for the kind of impression you would like to make on your audience. Write a response to the following questions: What is your self-image? What image of yourself would you like to project? Exactly what impression would you like to make on your audience during your presentation? Identify nonverbal strategies that you can use to send the messages listed above. What nonverbal behaviors, clothing, or symbols would you use to accomplish these impressions? Identify verbal strategies you could use to initiate these impressions during your presentation.
Lincoln-Douglas debates
1AC (first Affirmative Constructive) - 7 minutes A good introduction that attracts the audience's attention and interest in the topic Clearly state the resolution Clearly state each of your contentions Support with reason and evidence Conclude effectively Cross Ex of the Aff by the Neg - 3 minutes You ask questions - have a strategy or at the very least a direction to your questioning Be courteous Face the audience 1NC (first Negative Constructive) - 8 minutes A good introduction that attracts the audiences attention and interest in the topic Clearly state the Negative's position on the topic Clearly state the Negative's Observations Support with reason and evidence Attack and question the Affirmative's Contentions/evidence Conclude effectively Cross Ex of the Neg by the Aff - 3 minutes You ask questions - have a strategy or at the very least a direction to your questioning Be courteous Face the audience Rebuttal Speeches - No new arguments are allowed - new evidence, analysis is ok 1AR (first Affirmative Rebuttal) - 4 minutes Respond to the Neg Observations - show how they are not as strong/relevant as the Aff Contentions Rebuild the Aff case NR (Negative Rebuttal) - 7 minutes Respond to latest Affirmative arguments Make your final case to the audience that the Neg position is superior to the Aff Try and convince the audience the Aff has failed to carry the burden of proof Summarize the debate and conclude effectively and ask for the audience to agree with the Neg position 2AR (second Affirmative Rebuttal) - 4 minutes Respond to final Negative arguments Summarize the debate and show the audience how the Aff position is superior - and the Aff has carried the burden of proof Conclude effectively.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
A compound sentence is formed when two or more thoughts are connected in one sentence. Words such as and, or, if...then and if and only if are words that we use to form compound sentences, or statements. Notice that more than one truth value is involved in working with a compound sentence. For instance, take a look at the following: "Today is a vacation day and I sleep late." "You can call me at 10 o'clock or you can call me at 2 o'clock." "If you are going to the beach, then you should take your sunscreen." "A triangle is isosceles if and only if it has two congruent sides." Sentences, or statements, that have the same truth value are said to be logically equivalent ("equivalent" means "equal").
Egocentricity
A tendency to view everything in relationship to oneself; to confuse immediate perception (how things seem) with reality. One's desires, values, and beliefs (seeming to be self-evidently correct or superior to those of others) are often uncritically used as the norm of all judgment and experience. Egocentricity is one of the fundamental impediments to critical thinking.
USING LANGUAGE
As a great speaker, you have a fundamental responsibility to choose words your audience and you both understand. We will discuss writing for the ear, not for reading. Keep your words simple, use transitions and personal pronouns. To use language effectively, keep these guidelines in mind: 1. Use concrete words are used to help your audience see and feel what you want them to feel. Use specific, tangible, and definite words to describe terms and topics. Look at the difference between these two sentences: • While I was at the park a cat came running towards me. • While I was at the park a tiger came running towards me. 2. Choose language that builds your credibility by choosing the best words for the right time. In other words, so do not use slang or profanity, and use words correctly. If you use a lot of words that your audience does not understand or if you speak to them as you would a child your audience will get the same impression: that you are speaking down to them. Speak to them in ways that are appropriate for the situation and their education level. 3. Eliminate clutter by using contractions. In formal writing you might have been told not to use contractions. Speaking is different from formal writing in that you should feel free to use contractions. Not using them will make you sound like a robot. In the same vein, feel free to use personal pronouns. You are speaking with your audience; you are part of the message. 4. Choose words that convey confidence and conviction. If you are truly passionate about a particular topic - TALK ABOUT IT! However, if your passion cannot be controlled such as if it is too painful for you or you get angry when you discuss it - DO NOT TALK about it. If you start crying (not on purpose), you look incompetent. Also, avoid making statements like "I'm really nervous". If you don't tell your audience this they will likely never guess.
EVALUATING INTERNET SOURCES
As you read these pages you will notice there are three parts to evaluating an internet source: • Authorship - Who wrote the website? • Sponsorship - What organization is the website associate with? Most .gov, .edu, or. org have quality information. • Recency - How recent is the material found? Regardless if you get your information from a Google search or a library search you want to be able to answer these questions. If you don't know who wrote it how do you know if it's credible or not? If you don't know who is sponsoring the material how do you know it's not biased? If you can't find a date on your source you should be leery about using it. Older material, especially statistics, is often not appropriate for contemporary topics.
PRESENTING YOURSELF IN A CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
Authors Brookfield and Preskill argue that discussions in the classroom help students explore different perspectives, recognize their assumptions, gives them opportunities for collaborative learning, and is considered a valuable strategy to respect students' voices and experiences.2 Professors have classroom discussions because it's a valuable learning tool for you as a student. However, in order for discussions to work students have to do their part. During a classroom discussion you probably follow what you learned in grade school, such as, always raise your hand, do not interrupt, and take turns speaking. But many of us forget these polite behaviors as we grow older and our opinions grow stronger. To fully and effectively participate in a classroom, you apply the basic principles of managing a discussion: 1. Principle of Cooperation - on-going effort to understand and engage each member in the classroom. You want to come to a consensus or agree to disagree. Sometimes in discussions members may argue or consent through passive agreement. Everyone in the class must participate. Even if you do not feel confident all the time with your comment, withholding from the activity minimizes the cooperation. 2. The Principle of Turn Taking - that is how the discussion moves from the speaker to listener(s) and vice versa: Speaker cues enables you to regulate the conversation by: turn maintaining (you keep control by continue talking on topic) turn yielding (relinquishes control to the listener(s)) Listener Cues regulate the conversation through: turn requesting (raising your hand) turn denying (reluctance to respond) back channeling (interruptions) In a classroom discussion, do you interrupt or have off-topic outbursts? Do you monopolize the conversation without giving others a chance to speak? These behaviors violate turn-taking expectations and therefore interrupt the process of classroom discussion and should be minimized. As noted at the beginning of this section, classroom discussion is an important part of your college education and has been found to have a profound effect on student learning. You must strive to effectively participate in classroom discussions.
All research is expressed through, and shaped by,
CONCEPTS and ideas.
COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
Do you have a confident image of yourself that you would like to project? To enhance your business communication skills, you need to have COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE. This is the ability to communicate in various situations and apply the appropriate skill set for maximum results. If you have communication competence, you learn two important skills: a) Learn to self-monitor which is the process of paying close attention to your behavior and use the appropriate behavior and/or language to clearly communicate; b) Learn to be versatile in diverse situations. Take the Self Monitoring Quiz below to see how well you use these skills. Is your number low? How can you improve your number?
COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION
Don't worry if you are a little nervous about public speaking. Many people are; in fact, they are TERRIFIED of speaking in public. Ask yourself, WHY ARE YOU SO AFRAID? Really think about it. Jerry Seinfeld tells a joke: "According to most studies, people's number one fear is public speaking. Number two is death...Death is number two. Does that sound right? This means to the average person, if you go to a funeral, you're better off in the casket than doing the eulogy." How do we overcome this fear? What can we do to alleviate the stress associated with speaking in front of a group or our peers and someday feel confident about giving speeches in front of our coworkers or strangers? The best advice I can give you on becoming a more confident and relaxed speaker is to take every opportunity to speak up in a crowd. If you are sitting in class, answer that question the teacher asks (even if you have a lump in your throat and your heart is racing and your face is turning red). If you are in a meeting at work present the group with your ideas, if you are at lunch with a large group volunteer to say the blessing ...ANYTHING that gets you talking in front of people. The next thing I can tell you that will make the most difference is two fold: Prepare, Prepare, Prepare - then - Practice, Practice, Practice...as lame as it sounds get in front of a mirror, or your mom or your significant other, and have at it. Being prepared is the enemy of nervousness. Waiting till the last minute to prepare your presentation is the opposite. Do not wait till the last minute. Also, don't worry if you feel nervous when you are in front of a group - they can't see the butterflies in your stomach! They can't see your sweaty palms, they can't see your pulse rate go up, and they can't see your mouth go dry. To them you are going to look like a calm and collected individual. You have learned the basic principles of communication, how to overcome nervousness, and how to become a better listener. These skills are fundamental to understand how to become an informed, prepared, and confident speaker. As a speaker you must have a clear direction of your speech, being nervous begins to fade because you are in control of your message. Never forget this,
THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE
For a language to exist and be learnable by persons from a variety of cultures, it is necessary that words have definite uses and defined concepts that transcend particular cultures. The English language, for example, is learned by many peoples of the world unfamiliar with English or North American cultures. There is a significant relationship between precision in language usage and precision in thought. • It's important to define terms and be thoughtful and precise with language. If students speak and write in vague sentences, it is because they have not yet developed the clarity in their understanding of what certain terms of the language might mean.
ANOTHER STRANGE WAY NEGATION WORKS
Here's another way in which negation works in strange ways. Disjunction: "I will paint the room blue or green." "It is not the case that I will paint the room blue or green." If I am not painting the room blue or green, then I am not painting EITHER color. So it can be said that "I am not painting the room blue" and "I am not painting the room green". Negating a Conditional (if ... then) Remember: When working with a conditional, the statement is only FALSE when the hypothesis ("if") is TRUE and the conclusion ("then") is FALSE. "If 9 + 3 = 12, then 9 is a prime number" is a FALSE statement. "It is not the case that if 9 + 3 = 12, then 9 is a prime number" is TRUE. "9 + 3 = 12 and 9 is not a prime number" is a TRUE statement. Remember, that if any part of the sentence is untrue, the whole sentence is untrue. You may then have to - when writing out your claims and facts - make a distinction between what you know to be true, and what you may be arguing is true.
Introduction and Student Learning Outcomes
How many of you have a Facebook or MySpace page? Do you have ring-back tones on your cell phone? What would happen if a potential employer or professor reviewed your profile or called your phone? Would their opinion of you change? The college environment provides a place for you to practice "real world" skills. A very important skill to learn in college is effective ways to present yourself. This unit will examine how we communicate in professional settings by exploring communication competence and electronic etiquette. Student Unit 6 - Student Learning Outcomes: Understand the basic principles of professional communication etiquette Understand the basic principle of communication competence. Be able to recognize effective electronic communication etiquette.
DELIVERY TIPS
How you say your words is just as important as the word you choose. Each speaker has a different presence at the podium that can range from reserved confident to entertaining confident. Think of your favorite teacher of all time. What did you like about this teacher? Is it how she/he looks at you, the sound of their voice, the way they stood in front of you, how they talk to you? What is it? What you find appealing in others is what you should project when you give your speeches. A good delivery is hard to put your finger on, but it basically includes: 1. Strong connection to the audience. 2. Interesting voice and facial expressiveness. 3. Animation in body movements. 4. Control of the speech and oneself. So how do we enhance your delivery style? Your fear of public speaking will encourage you to use a manuscript (speech in written form right in front of you) or your overly confident ego will encourage you to do an impromptu speech (little to no preparation). I would suggest not doing either of these for a speech class or presentation for work. Your professor will likely have you present an EXTEMPORANEOUS speech. This is when you prepare and practice the speech, then present from notes or a speaking outline. Parts you might want to memorize include the introduction, transitions, and conclusion in order to establish a pattern of good eye contact throughout the speech. Trying to memorize the entire speech takes too much time and the outcome is not worth the effort. Chris Anderson, a writer and speaker who puts together TED conferences states in a 2013 article in the Harvard Business Review that you should not read your speech because "it's usually just too distancing--people will know you're reading. And as soon as they sense it, the way they receive your talk will shift. Suddenly your intimate connection evaporates, and everything feels a lot more formal."1 To be a good speaker you must practice many times beforehand but have notes with you that you can refer to throughout the presentation.
Call into action
If you are going to talk about rules or laws, either to claim a "call to action" (something that you want people to do), or to suggest that it's a bad rule and should be reversed, you want to be able to talk about the results of making that rule or law. • This means that we are arguing to have other people do something specific and giving them a very good set of reasons why. We see a lot of these around election time when the campaigns will make several arguments as to why a voter should choose one candidate over another.
PROFESSIONAL SPEAKING ETIQUETTE
In the 2010 article "From business dining to public speaking: Tips for acquiring professional presence and its role in the business curricula" author Anna Nicholson Bass gives good advice about presenting a professional image in business situations. Some of the tips that are applicable to your situation as a student who has to give a public presentation include: Express confidence through nonverbal communication. Bass states that studies show that people place more importance on an individual's nonverbal communication than on the actual words spoken. UCLA psychology professor Albert Mehrabian, a nonverbal communication expert, found that visual components and the way a speaker's voice sounds account for 93 percent of the person's believability, while the words used account for only 7 percent. Posture is an integral part of nonverbal communication, so if parents or teachers ever told you to watch your posture, they were giving you good advice. The next time you walk down a hallway or a city street, observe people who are walking towards you. Notice your first impression of each individual. Consider the impact each person's posture had on your first impression of that individual. Was it positive or negative? More than likely, the person's posture impacted their presence and your perceptions.1 When you are presenting yourself to your classmates, what message are you sending them with your nonverbal communication? During your presentation nonverbal communication is a key component of coming across to your audience as a confident, prepared and professional individual. This includes standing up straight, making eye contact with your audience and the clothing that you wear. What kind of message are you sending with your clothing choice? With your posture? With your sense of presence? Which one of these presenters would you take more seriously?
CONCLUSION
In this module, you started to develop the foundation of how to communicate effectively. As you have seen, communication is inevitable, irreversible, and unrepeatable. More importantly, communication is a package of signals that must be adjusted to be effective. These basic principles are fundamental in becoming competent communicators. This unit taught you that the purpose of your oral component, the context in which it's given, the audience it's being given to, the channel(s) you will be using, etc, all affect your message and its presentation in order to create a message that meets the needs of the situation. We often forget how important listening is in the fundamentals of communication. On your quest to be a competent communicator, take a few moments to identify your poor listening habits, as well as ways to improve.
ANOTHER EVERYDAY EXAMPLE
Open sentence: She did her homework. Variable: She Domain: {Sue, Melissa, Jennifer, Sandy, Joanne} (girls' names you can choose from) Solution Set: {Sue, Sandy} (the answers which makes the open sentence true; you would have to know which girls DID their homework. In this case, Sue and Sandy did their homework.) Remember: Open sentences require that you have additional information to determine whether they are true or false.
OUTLINING
Outlines are so very important in speech writing as well as any other type of writing. It is important that you understand how to organize your speech around a specific purpose. The outline helps you do just that. You have main points that need to be explained using subpoints and subsubpoints. Remember to think through your organization allowing your information to find its proper place...don't just plug info into numbers or letters just to "do" an outline. This outline is your organizational key. This is what you will need to know for this course. The outline has these elements: Identify the central idea/thesis at the top. Label the introduction, body, transitions, and conclusion. Use consistent patterns of symbolization and indention. State main points and subpoints in full sentences. Attach work cited in MLA or APA formatting.
PRESENTATION AIDS
Presentation aids can be a wonderful thing. They can bring life to a speech but a poorly prepared presentation aid can make a speaker lose credibility with his/her audience. There are several types of visual aids, but in our technological advanced society, we immediately think PowerPoint. PowerPoint is overused and many times all people do in their presentation is READ off the screen...many times I want to say, "Hey, I can read thank you very much!" If you do a PowerPoint think through what you put on your screen and how you will present it—NEVER, NEVER, NEVER—read off the screen! Presentation aids should be something that enhances your speech, not an afterthought nor are they an exact repeat of what you have to say orally. If you can get through your entire speech without your aid then it must not be that much of an enhancement. If you accidentally left your presentation aid at home and you are terrified because a large chunk of your argument was supported by it, then that's a good visual aid. Besides being an integral part of your speech, what are some other guidelines for a good presentation aid? 1. You only need a visual aid in one part of your speech. You do not need a title slide with you posing, music in the background, or flashy fonts. Choose information that is clear to the point you want to make. KEEP IT SIMPLE. 2. Your presentation aid should be PART of your speech, you should practice with it - use it! Don't think you can just show the visual, visual aids are not simply decoration. You must explain what point you are trying to make with this aid. Don't assume your audience knows why you selected this chart or that picture or this particular video clip...tell them why you are using it. 3. Amount - are you putting several different ideas onto one visual? Is this necessary? Do not get a display board and pack it full of "stuff" that has no meaning. Use separate slides for each idea, chart, picture, etc that you plan to use! 4. Size - can everyone in the room see it with no trouble? Whether it is the font on a slide or an object you are holding up make sure what you are using is suited for the size of your audience and/or space! 5. Time - how long are you displaying it? Will the video be minimized when you are not using it? Will there be a blank slide ready when you are finished talking about the slide before? Remember this aid is part of your speech it is not decoration for speech. So, a presentation aid should only be displayed while the speaker is using it. 6. Eyes - keep your eyes on your audience members not your visual you know what it is and looks like, so you don't have to focus on it.
Sentences that lack information are called Open Sentences! An open sentence is a sentence which contains a variable.
"She did her homework." is an open sentence -- the variable is "She." "x + 5 = 25" is an open sentence -- the variable is "x." "It's the best movie this year." is an open sentence-- the variable is "It."
Argument
A reason or reasons offered for or against something, the offering of such reasons. This term refers to a discussion in which there is disagreement and suggests the use of logic and the bringing forth of facts to support or refute a point. See argue.
All research contains
INFERENCES or interpretations by which conclusions are drawn.
Student Unit 5 - Student Learning Outcomes:
Identify the basic principles of communication. Be able to identify all parts of the Speech Communication Process. Recognize the different types of listening. Identify and develop the strategies for becoming a better listener.
When attempting to determine the truth value of a compound sentence, first determine the truth value of each of the components of the sentence.
Let's examine the examples listed above. 1. Determine the truth value of: "21 is divisible by 3and 21 is not prime." "21 is divisible by 3" (true) "21 is not prime" (true) Substitute the truth values for the facts: T and T Simplify the conjunction (and): T Answer: the compound sentence (statement) is true.
Questions and phrases are ___ mathematical sentences since they cannot be judged to be true or false.
NOT
to "use appropriate language in speech" means
NOT "avoiding language that is too informal"
All research is conducted from a
POINT OF VIEW or frame of reference
CONCLUSION
Public speaking is often avoided because of fear. This unit provided information for you to overcome nervousness. Each tip is important, but the most important is practice, practice, practice. The unit also broke down the content of a speech for you to become an informed, prepared, and confident speaker. A basic speech includes an introduction, body, connectives, and a conclusion. Within the speech, supporting material is gathered and cited orally to share information to substantiate your message. Finally, a well-formed outline enables you to understand how to organize your speech around a specific purpose to better communicate with your audience.
CITING SOURCES ORALLY
Remember that in the introduction to this unit I said, "You have to list your sources to make what you say count." When citing from your source, in addition to stating your material, you must do three things: 1. State the source/location 2. State the author 3. State the date of publication or access
CONCLUSION
The basic principles of communication constantly govern how you represent yourself because you are always communicating something about yourself. More importantly, if you can master ways to manage first impressions, you are on your way to being a competent communicator. Remember: a competent communicator is knowledgeable on how to self-monitor and be versatile in diverse situations. This skill is essential in professional and collegiate settings.
Speech Communication Process
The speaker, receiver, message, feedback, noise, channel, and situation all must work together for each person to communicate successfully.
evidence
We usually think of evidence as something that a lawyer puts together for a trial. Often, though, evidence is also the supporting facts and knowledge that students use to make arguments. Some sources are better than others.
FINDING SUPPORTING MATERIAL
Where do you find these precious sources, which is another name for supporting material? You can find them primarily at the library, but the probability of you going to the library is slim. You will most likely get them off the internet. However, we are not talking about generic Google or Yahoo searches. Why? If you type in "breast cancer", you will get 14,000,000 hits. Many of these include hits include site like eHow or Ezine or Wikipedia. Are these credible sources? Not necessarily. The library's online resources are your best bet for reliable information. You can find information and tutorials at http://www.mga.edu/library/default.aspx.
WHERE NOT TO LOOK
Wikipedia
YOUR BODY
Your body language is very important because if your body language says "I am in control", you will come off to the audience as being in control. Effective speakers learn to use their body to enhance the impact of their speech. A. Physical actions can play a major role in the outcome of a speech. 1. Researchers estimate that hundreds of thousands of messages are conveyed through physical actions. 2. Studies show that in some situations these actions account for much of the meaning communicated by a speaker with less than 10 percent being conveyed through words.2 B. Four aspects of physical action are especially important for public speakers. 1. The first aspect is personal appearance. a. Listeners always see a speaker before they hear the speaker. b. Just as speakers adapt to the audience and occasion in other respects, so should they take care to dress and groom appropriately. 2. The second aspect is movement. a. Effective speakers avoid distracting movements such as fidgeting with notes, leaning on the lectern, and shifting weight from one foot to the other. b. Effective speakers are also aware of their movements before and after the speech as well as during it. 1) Before the speech, they walk confidently to the lectern, establish eye contact with the audience, and look poised and confident regardless of how nervous they may be. 2) After the speech, they give their closing line a few moments to sink in, calmly gather up their notes, and maintain their confident demeanor while returning to their seat. 3. The third aspect is gestures. a. Some accomplished speakers gesture a great deal; others hardly at all. b. The cardinal rule is that whatever gestures a speaker does make should not draw attention to themselves or distract from the message of the speech c. Gestures should appear natural and spontaneous, clarify or reinforce the speaker's ideas, and be appropriate to the audience and occasion. 4. The fourth aspect is eye contact. a. Audiences often look at a speaker's eyes for clues about the speaker's truthfulness, intelligence, and feelings. b. Although customs of eye contact in interpersonal communication vary from culture to culture, there is fairly wide agreement across cultures on the importance of eye contact in public speaking. c. Research shows that in the United States speakers who fail to establish eye contact are perceived as ill at ease and often as insincere or dishonest.3 d. Establishing eye contact is one of the quickest ways to establish a communicative bond with an audience. 1) Eye contact helps capture an audience's attention. 2) Eye contact helps establish the speaker's credibility. 3) Eye contact allows speakers to see and respond to feedback. e. Anderson tells us that "perhaps the most important physical act onstage is making eye contact. Find five or six friendly-looking people in different parts of the audience and look them in the eye as you speak. Think of them as friends you haven't seen in a year, whom you're bringing up to date on your work. That eye contact is incredibly powerful, and it will do more than anything else to help your talk land."1
YOUR VOICE
Your voice is a great weapon against a boring speech. This is the most important of all the terms discussed in this section. If you vary your rate, pitch, use pauses for effect, etc., it adds interest and excitement to your speech. No one wants to hear a speaker who never varies their tone, quality, volume, pitch, cadence, speed, voice inflection (word emphasis), rhythm, emotion, etc. All of these things draw us in as listeners and are tools that help the speaker make their argument. It's not just what you say, but how you say it. One element that you can work on at home in terms of vocal delivery is your ability to pronounce and articulate words correctly. What is the difference between articulation and pronunciation? Articulation is the crispness of the work and pronunciation is how you say the word phonetically. Find a friend and practice articulation and pronunciation by saying the tongue twisters slowly and firmly, so that each sound is clearly formed. Take turns doing each tongue twister until it sounds correct and then gradually increase to a normal rate of speech. Yes, you will laugh, it is expected. - Pure food for four pure mules. - Which wily wizard wished wicked wishes for Willy? - The sixth sick Sheik's sheep is sick. - Fetch me the finest French-fried freshest fish that Finney fries. - Shy Sarah saw six Swiss wristwatches. - One year we had a Christmas brunch with Merry Christmas mush to munch. But I don't think you'd care for such. We didn't like to munch mush much. - The view from the veranda gave forth a fine vista of waves and leafy foliage. - She sells seashells on the seashore. - While we waited for the whistle on the wharf, we whittled vigorously on the white weatherboards. - Grass grew green on the graves in Grace Gray's grandfather's graveyard. - Pete Briggs pats pigs. Briggs pats pink pigs. Briggs pats big pigs. Pete Briggs is a pink pig, big pig patter. - Amidst the mists and coldest frosts, With stoutest wrists and loudest boasts, He thrusts his fists against the posts, And still insists he sees the ghosts.
Opinion
a belief; typically one open to dispute. Sheer unreasoned opinion should be distinguished from reasoned judgment — beliefs formed on the basis of careful reasoning.
Structural Reading
a form of close reading applied to the overall structure of an extended text where we focus on what we can learn about the book from its title, preface, introduction, and table of contents
LOGICAL FALLACIES
are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument. Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim. Avoid these common fallacies in your own arguments and watch for them in the arguments of others.
One of the cornerstones of critical thinking is
argument
how to ANTICIPATING CONTRADICTIONS
counter-arguments ex.Often sales pitches will use this technique:
a good argument contains
evidence, and moves to a conclusion
Accuracy
free from errors, mistakes, or distortion. Accuracy is an important goal in critical thinking, though it is almost always a matter of degree. It is also important to recognize that making mistakes is an essential part of learning and that it is far better that you make your own mistakes, than parrot the thinking of the text or teacher.
All research has a
fundamental PURPOSE and a goal.
All research addresses a
fundamental QUESTION, problem or issue.
Reading an Essay
identifying the argument or message made in the essay as well as how that argument or message is structured. • What happens in the course of the essay? • What tone or voice does the author use? • What relationship is assumed between the writer and reader? • What is the Essay's purpose?
Transitional sentence
shows how main idea in this paragraph is logically linked to main idea in next paragraph
If you are the speaker or writer, you must:
1) Use reliable information from proper sources - not Wikipedia, 123Helpme, or About.com. 2) Use evidence obtained by your research. 3) Connect your statements and the evidence on which they are based to show how you come to your opinions, ideas, and conclusions. 4) Avoid logical fallacies. 5) Establish your arguments using evidence, not just opinion or belief.
ESTABLISHING AUTHORITY
1) What are this person's credentials? Is he or she an expert in this field? 2) How does this person establish his or her authority? 3) Where does he or she get his or her information? Is it a tested/reliable source or repeated experiment? 4) Is the conclusion reached with the right logical process?
TWO TYPES OF MATHEMATICAL SENTENCES
1) closed sentences 2) open sentences
Critical Thinking Unit 4 - Student Learning Outcomes
1. Students will learn to do basic research; 2. Students will learn to organize their research; 3. Students will learn to make and support arguments with their research.
Student Learning Outcomes
1. Students will learn to do basic research; 2. Students will learn to organize their research; 3. Students will learn to make and support arguments with their research.
Emotion
A feeling aroused to the point of awareness, often a strong feeling or state of excitement. When our egocentric emotions or feelings get involved, when we are excited by infantile anger, fear, jealousy, etc., our objectivity often decreases. . . Emotions and feelings themselves are not irrational; however, it is common for people to feel strongly when their ego is stimulated. One way to understand the goal of strong sense critical thinking is as the attempt to develop rational feelings and emotions at the expense of irrational, egocentric ones.
VARIABLES
A variable is simply a spot waiting for a value. The values we put into the variable are called the domain, or replacement set (because they "replace" the variable.) The set of values which make the sentence TRUE is called the solution set, or truth set. • ex: Open sentence: x + 5 = 25 Variable: x Domain: {10, 20, 22, 24} (numbers you can choose from) Solution Set: {20} (the answer which makes the open sentence true)
All research is based on
ASSUMPTIONS
BICONDITIONAL CONTINUED
As we said on the previous page, sometimes it is difficult to determine the truth value of a sentence. Even though the sentence conveys a complete thought, the sentence may be true for some people and false for others. • "Broccoli tastes awful." "The Beatles were an awesome group." "Football is the most exciting sport to watch."
HOW NOT TO END AN ESSAY
Don't simply summarize your essay. A brief summary of your argument may be useful, especially if your essay is long -- more than ten pages or so. But shorter essays tend not to require a restatement of your main ideas. Find a way of telling the reader or listener what he or she should think or know after reading the essay. Avoid phrases like "in conclusion," "to conclude," "in summary," and "to sum up." These phrases can be useful even welcome -- in oral presentations. But readers can see, by the tell-tale compression of the pages, when an essay is about to end. You'll irritate your audience if you belabor the obvious. Resist the urge to apologize. If you've immersed yourself in your subject, you now know a good deal more about it than you can possibly include in a five- or ten- or 20-page essay. As a result, by the time you've finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you've produced. (And if you haven't immersed yourself in your subject, you may be feeling even more doubtful about your essay as you approach the conclusion.) Repress those doubts. Don't undercut your authority by saying things like, "this is just one approach to the subject; there may be other, better approaches..."
THE LOGIC OF A DISCIPLINE
Every discipline that you may study either at a college, in a trade, or in a profession has refined a set of ideas that bear a logical relationships with technical terms. While some terms are logically more basic than others, every discipline relies on concepts, assumptions, theories, claims, reasons and evidence. Each attempts to avoid contradictions and inconsistencies, has implications and consequences, and a refined set of practices (or controversies and issues based on these decisions) that may be based on a logic inherent to the discipline. It is important to understand the logic in each discipline. Some are logics of language - like in English or Foreign Language classes. Some use the logic of mathematics, like in math, science, and engineering classes. Some disciplines use the logics of history, sociology, psychology, policy or the law. Social Sciences often use elements of all three.
Sometimes it is difficult to determine the truth value of a sentence. Even though the sentence conveys a complete thought, the sentence may be true for some people and false for others.
For example: "Broccoli tastes awful." "The Beatles were an awesome group." "Football is the most exciting sport to watch." An even worse situation is the case where it is impossible to determine the truth value of a sentence due to a lack of information. For example: "She did her homework." "x + 5 = 25" "It's the best movie this year."
The most important point of communication is
GETTING YOUR POINT ACROSS CLEARLY.
THE LOGIC OF QUESTIONS
The range of rational considerations that bear upon the settlement of a given question or group of questions is an important part of forming the right questions. A critical thinker is adept at analyzing questions to determine what, precisely, a question asks and how to go about rationally settling it. A critical thinker recognizes that different kinds of questions often call for different modes of thinking, different kinds of considerations, and different procedures and techniques. Uncritical thinkers often confuse distinct questions and use considerations irrelevant to an issue while ignoring relevant ones.
Argue
There are two meanings of this word that need to be distinguished: 1) to argue in the sense of to fight or to emotionally disagree; and 2) to give reasons for or against a proposal or proposition. In critical thinking, we continually try to move from the first sense of the word to the second; that is, we know the importance of giving reasons to support one's views without getting our egos involved in what we are saying. To argue in the critical thinking sense is to use logic and reason, and to bring forth facts to support or refute a point. It is done in a spirit of cooperation and good will.
LISTENING
There is more to listening than you may think - have you ever considered that there are different types of listening? Like when you listening in class to your professors versus listening to your best friend vent about his/her recent break-up. Or when you are at a concert versus if you were on a jury.
Genetic Fallacy
This conclusion is based on an argument that the origins of a person, idea, institute, or theory determine its character, nature, or worth. Example: The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally designed by Hitler's army. In this example the author is equating the character of a car with the character of the people who built the car. However, the two are not inherently related.
Moral Equivalence
This fallacy compares minor misdeeds with major atrocities. Example: That parking attendant who gave me a ticket is as bad as Hitler. In this example, the author is comparing the relatively harmless actions of a person doing their job with the horrific actions of Hitler. This comparison is unfair and inaccurate.
Ad populum
This is an emotional appeal that speaks to positive (such as patriotism, religion, democracy) or negative (such as terrorism or fascism) concepts rather than the real issue at hand. Example: If you were a true American you would support the rights of people to choose whatever vehicle they want. In this example, the author equates being a "true American," a concept that people want to be associated with, particularly in a time of war, with allowing people to buy any vehicle they want even though there is no inherent connection between the two.
Straw Man
This move oversimplifies an opponent's viewpoint and then attacks that hollow argument. Example: People who don't support the proposed state minimum wage increase hate the poor. In this example, the author attributes the worst possible motive to an opponent's position. In reality, however, the opposition probably has more complex and sympathetic arguments to support their point. By not addressing those arguments, the author is not treating the opposition with respect or refuting their position.
CONCLUSION
This unit explored how you can prepare yourself with a powerful delivery to connect and send the most effective message to your audience. An effective delivery is based on two aspects of using language effectively, as well as the use of calculated delivery techniques. Along with a sound delivery, presentation aids help clarify and solidify your concepts to the audience.
Analysis
To break up a whole into its parts, to examine in detail so as to determine the nature of, to look more deeply into an issue or situation. All learning presupposes some analysis of what we are learning, if only by categorizing or labeling things in one way rather than another. Students should continually analyze their ideas, claims, experiences, interpretations, judgments, and theories and those they hear and read.
Conclusion
To decide by reasoning, to infer, to deduce; the last step in a reasoning process; a judgment, decision, or belief formed after investigation or reasoning. All beliefs, decisions, or actions are based on human thought, but rarely as the result of conscious reasoning or deliberation. All that we believe is, one way or another, based on conclusions that we have come to during our lifetime. Don't confuse their conclusions with evidence, and thus not be able to assess the reasoning that takes an author or speaker from evidence to conclusion.
INTRODUCTION AND STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES
To this point, you have learned the basics of communication and writing the speech. The content of the speech is very important but a speech is useless without supporting material and visual aids. This unit will be dedicated to application of everything you have learned up to this point. You can write an amazing speech, but if your presentation style is poor, all of your hard work goes out the window. On the following pages, we'll explore the core elements of delivery. So, what makes a great speech presentation? Is it confidence? Is it direct eye contact? Is it plenty of practice? It is all of these things. As I have said before: A great speaker is a prepared speaker. You must prepare yourself to have a powerful delivery to connect and send the most effective message to your audience. So delivery is based on two aspects that include: (1) The words you say. (2) How you express these words. Think about it. You can read a manuscript of a speech, but when you hear the speech, it can take on a totally different meaning or feeling. Words are only a part of a great speech, the other part is you. You have the skill to deliver a powerful or influential message. Student Unit 8 - Student Learning Outcomes: • Identify three methods public speakers can use to help ensure that their language will be clear to listeners. • Identify the methods of delivering a speech. • Discuss the four aspects of physical action that are most important to a public speaker. • Explain the five-step method presented in the chapter for practicing extemporaneous speech delivery. • Identify effective ways to use presentation aids.
THE CONTENT OF THE SPEECH
Writing a speech is much like writing a paper. You have an introduction, body, and conclusion. Your priority as a speaker is to: • Tell us what you are going to tell us → The Introduction • Tell us → The Body • Tell us what you told us → The Conclusion
Prejudice
a judgment, belief, opinion, point of view — favorable or unfavorable — formed before the facts are known, resistant to evidence and reason, or in disregard of facts which contradict it. Self-announced prejudice is rare. Prejudice almost always exists in obscured, rationalized, socially validated, functional forms. It enables people to sleep peacefully at night even while flagrantly abusing the rights of others. It enables people to get more of what they want, or to get it more easily. It is often sanctioned with a superabundance of pomp and self-righteousness.
Reasoned Judgment
any belief or conclusion reached on the basis of careful thought and reflection, distinguished from mere or unreasoned opinion on the one hand, and from sheer fact on the other. Few people have a clear sense of which of their beliefs are based on reasoned judgment and which on mere opinion. Moral or ethical questions, for example, are questions requiring reasoned judgment. One way of conceiving of subject-matter education is as developing students' ability to engage in reasoned judgment in accordance with the standards of each subject.
words such as "dint" and "wanna" are
articulation
All research identifies
data INFORMATION, and evidence relevant to its fundamental question and purpose.
EVALUATING ORAL ARGUMENTS are different from Lincoln-Douglas debates how?
less formal, or less strictly timed
Topic Sentence of Paragraph
present claims you will support or develop below
All research leads
somewhere (i.e. have IMPLICATIONS and consequences).
selective attention basically means
taking pieces of information from the message that already confirms or denies an existing thought.
The "if and only if" portion of the definition tells you
that the statement is true when either sentence (or fact) is the hypothesis.
Often when we talk about reading and reading closely, what we're looking for is
the "message"
Evidence
the data on which a judgment or conclusion might be based or by which proof or probability might be established. Critical thinkers distinguish the evidence or raw data upon which they base their interpretations or conclusions from the inferences and assumptions that connect data to conclusions. Uncritical thinkers treat their conclusions as something given to them in experience, as something they directly observe in the world. As a result, they find it difficult to see why anyone might disagree with their conclusions. Evidence is often used most obviously in court proceedings. However, all, all, ALL arguments, even on as simple as one with your roommate bout whose turn it is to take out the garbage, requires evidence to be successful.
Keywords
the terms that you put into the search space in a database or online program before you hit "search." ex: Gil
Research
to go seeking information and data about a particular topic to learn about it and often to form an idea about the material, a thesis, or an argument
Here are some examples from the Feng Shui speech to help you see how to cite sources orally.
• According to Simon Brown, author of the 1998 book Practical Feng Shui, feng shui, which literally means wind and water, "is the art of designing your home to promote success in life, health, wealth and happiness." • Pam Kai Tollefson, director of Feng Shui Design Institute, believes that feng shui changes and harmonizes the environment. There are many components of feng shui, the most important of which is chi. • In the 2000 book Feng Shui: The Chinese Art of Placement, Sarah Rossbach states that "chi is defined as the energy flow that connects all things, and it has a profound impact on our lives". • Nancilee Wydra, author of the 1996 book Feng Shui: 150 Simple Solutions for Health and Happiness in Your Home or Office, believes that feng shui is beneficial in the workplace as well. Balanced chi creates a good start to a new career and a growing business, while evenly circulated chi throughout the body can help you become more assertive in the workplace. • Winifred Gallagher, in her 1993 book The Power of Place, says that soft materials slow chi energy and create a relaxing atmosphere. • Lurrae Lupone, author of the 1999 book Feng Shui: Therapy for the New Millennium, says that wind chimes cleanse and purify the chi energy already in your room.
If you are reading an essay for information, you want to make sure that you do the following:
• Consider the purpose of the reading • Read reflectively • Engage the text while reading
Reading a Painting or Photograph
• Is the painting or photograph meant for a particular context? • How are color choice and linear composition used to convey emotion or symbolism? • Is the photographer trying to convey a sense of truth, simplicity, or nostalgia? • Is the subject matter abstract or representational? • With respect to photography, why might an abstract treatment be chosen? • With respect to painting, why might a realistic perspective be chosen? • What is the scale of the work?
Remember these few tips:
• Never say: "According to www.whatever.com...." Use the name of the website, author or sponsor. • These three parts of citing sources can be in any order. • Always, always, always...when in doubt cite the source to avoid plagiarism.
Traditionally, poor listening can be broken down in four areas:
• Not concentrating - We can speak 120 to 150 words a minutes, but can mentally process 400 to 800 words a minute. See the gap? There is ample amount of "free" space to get distracted. • Listening too hard - If you try to remember every little detail, you can miss the main point. Think of a time you tried to catch someone in a lie. You were so focused on the inconsistencies; you might have missed the overall issue. • Jumping to conclusions - When you put words into the speaker's mouth without giving the person the opportunity to explain. • Focusing on Delivery or Personal Appearance - We judge person on being "different" that we discount what is said. Due to "pre-judgments" we miss valuable information.
EVALUATING ORAL ARGUMENTS
• What happens in the course of the argument? What stance is adopted at the beginning and how does that stance change by the argument's end? • What tone or voice does the speaker use? What do word choice and figurative language suggest about the argument's overall message? • What relationship is assumed between the speaker and listener? Is the audience already in league with the speaker or must listeners be convinced to accept the author's position? • What is the speaker's purpose? To inform, persuade, or entertain? A combination of these purposes? • Often a good oral argument will contain elements of logic, sympathy or empathy for the people involved in a situation, and a clear statement of or moral or virtuous stance. Many speeches and presentations contain inherent oral arguments. These can be as varied as "Eat this food" or "go see this movie" to "vote for this candidate or law."
Reading an AD
• What is actually being sold in the ad? • Does the ad appeal to your emotions, your sense of logic, or your respect for the company's reputation? • What is the most important element of the ad? Text? Graphic?
Reading a Website
• What is the ratio of pictures, sounds, movies, animations, or other media? What does your answer suggest about the site's purpose? • What level of interactivity is built into the site? Are you meant to simply sit and read or are you encouraged to point and click, leaving the boundaries of the site, download video clips, and so on? • What types of hyperlinks are included on the site? Are you urged to click through to Amazon.com and buy a book, or are you sent to a political activist site to find out more information on a topic? • How big is the site, and how is the content divided up among pages? Is the structure hierarchical (suggesting that certain information is more important) or parallel (suggesting equal status)? • What navigation cues are you given? Does the design offer clear, directive signposts, buttons, or menu options?
