WWS 351 Final Review

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Interesting Things to Note about Evolution of Social Media

1. There are many alternatives 2. Evolved out of different systems 3. Over time, people figured out what consumers want. NB: Model for friending/following has to be initiated, someone has to respond. You can plausibly deny seeing request on Facebook. Early etiquette built into the system.

Question

Do any of these potential problems require a public policy intervention?

What is a Community?

A kind of structure? 1. Face-to-face group 2. Bound by shared identity thru a. Kinship b. Ethnicity c. Neighborhood d. Occupation A set of functions? 1. Intimacy 2. Support 3. Assistance 4. Information 5. Sociability 6. Constraint

Patent claim for ham sandwich

An edible foodstuff comprising 1. Two pieces of bread 2. A quantity of ham 3. Situated between said pieces of bread

Instruction set

An instruction set is a group of commands for a CPU in machine language. The term can refer to all possible instructions for a CPU or a subset of instructions to enhance its performance in certain situations.

Industry: Making Policy through Network Management

Three kinds of network management (Ed Felten) 1. Minimal discrimination - against packets (based on a tiering system) only when load too heavy for all packets to make it 2. Non-minimal discrimination -- Certain classes of packets restricted to some share of the system (e.g. 20% for BitTorrent) even if the system is free 3. Minimal delay discrimination (Van Schewick's "quality of service" (QoS) - Tiering to delay some packets in favor of "high-priority" packets vulnerable to delay (e.g. VoIP telephony, which is vulnerable to "jitter"; or massively multi-player games).

Network Neutrality Values

Van Schewick's Framework: •Positive Values -User choice -Innovation without permission -Application-blindness -Low cost of innovation •Constraints -Minimal constraint on evolution of network -Transparency to companies affected by policy -Low cost of regulation

Growth of Copyright Coverage (Expanding Copyright)

Year Max. Term 1790 28 1831 42 1909 56 1976 Life + 50 1998 Life + 70

Is Privacy Desirable (Government)?

• Accurate information persons makes it easier for law enforcement and security agencies to prevent crime or terrorism. 1. But can we trust government not to use irrelevant information for political purposes? 2. And where data-mining is used, do we have the right proxies? Guilt by association? e.g. McCarthy

The Protective Principle

• States may enforce laws against foreign nationals operating outside its territory if their actions threaten their sovereignty (security or control over borders [immigration, counterfeiting, customs law violations]).

Sealand's demise...and revival

• The data operation fell victim to mismanagement, DoS attacks, the end of the .com boom, a German invasion, and friction between the cyberpunks (Ryan Lackey, right) and Sealand's royal family. • Julian Assange considered moving Wikileaks to Sealand in 2012. That year HavenCo was revived, using secure network storage, Least-Authority File Systems, VPNs, and web proxying, all with strong encryption. An on-line casino was said to be in the works.

Justifiable Disparate Impact

• The pressing challenge does not lie with ensuring procedural fairness through a more thorough stamping out of prejudice and bias, but rather with developing ways of reasoning that can help adjudicate when and what amount of disparate impact is tolerable

The "Art" of Data Mining

• The proper specification of the target variable is frequently not obvious, and it is the data miner's task to define it • The definition of the target variable and its associated class labels will determine what data mining happens to find

"Why Nerds Rule: Luis Von Ahn and ReCAPTCHA"

The brief video about Louis Von Ahn, inventor of ReCAPTCHA, reminds us of the power of online collective action to accomplish good things.

Policy Rationale for Patents

Theory 1. Inventor gets: exclusive right to use invention ($$) (incentive) 2. Public gets: A) invention happens, B) invention is disclosed This follows the same logic as copyright in that both exist for utilitarian reasons

The Film Industry

Weathering the storm

The Arenas of Net Neutrality

•Congress •FCC •Courts •Private companies •Code (router manufacturers; programmers in ISPs and middle-mile firms; Broadband Internet Technical Advisory Group)

II. Inequality On-Line -- Beyond the Digital Divide

1. As penetration increases, users become less distinctive, and more differentiated. 2. It's not just what you have. It's what you do with it.

Product Rating Systems

1. Rating systems: Products, services and sellers A. Why would someone contribute? B. Can you believe them? e.g. Amazon: Reviews; and Reviews of Reviews (human collaborative filtering)

Part I: Sovereignty and Jurisdiction

Sovereignty

Chris Anderson's Strategies

The Long Tail

Why has net neutrality been such a thorny issue?

The Politics of Elite Division

Internet Access Diffused Widely and Quickly Throughout the U.S. Adult Population

CPS data show that Intent access skyrocketed between 1994 and 2004 before growing more slowly, essentially leveling off

Data Mining (Barocas Lecture)

Data mining is a commercial use of machine learning

Policy Issues and Policy Arenas

Different policy issues tend to live in different combinations of policy arenas.

Prior art

In general, "prior art" consists of disclosures or events that occur before a person conceives of an invention, or in some cases before a person files a patent application.

New Adopters

Less Upscale than Old Adopters, More Upscale than At-Risk Pool

Pay for priority

Paid prioritization is a financial arrangement in which a content owner pays a broadband provider to "cut to the front of the line" at congested nodes, or where a broadband provider engages in "vertical prioritization" by favoring its own content.

What is Privacy? (continued)

Alan Westin, 1967: "...the claim of individuals, groups or institutions to determine for themselves when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others."

Ratio Male:Female Odds of Using Internet at Home 1997-2009

Declined between 1997 and 2009

Let the Network Produce Your Content

e.g. Facebook, Youtube

Creative Destruction: Who is Next?

Cable TV and universities

Newspapers

Hit by a tsunami

North American Admissions

Down Slightly

Encryption

Encryption is the conversion of electronic data into another form, called ciphertext, which cannot be easily understood by anyone except authorized parties.

III. How can the Law be Enforced?

Four Kinds of Enforcement

Routing

Given a destination IP address, how to get a packet there? 1. Part of answer: one hop at a time. Get closer each time by moving packet to device that is closer. 2. How to learn good path? Answer: gossip Routers speak with each other e.g. I know how to get to one place in one hop, another in six hops, and yet another in nine hops. Neighbors speak about their capabilities, and information floods through routers. 3. What happens if network goes away? Implications will spread through gossip network. But in meantime, incoming packet will meet gossip. Network can adjust, but that will not always work e.g. if a bridge collapses under a car, the car will not get to its destination.

IP mapping services

Greater regulation has entailed a movement from anonymity and freedom to identity and accountability. 1. IP Mapping software enables states to locate activity in space (essential for identifying violation of state or national laws; useful for retail)

Social networks

History and mechanisms they use

Scaling to Critical Mass: Adobe

How can you take over an emerging software market? 1.Give away your reader. 2.Charge for the software (which has more value because everyone can read it on the free reader). (See Freemium strategy.) 3.Bundle features that make more specialized products obsolete (scanner drivers, OCR capability for forms). 4.Enjoy your near monopoly.

What percentage of people in U.S. can be identified by 5-digit zip, gender and birth date (Sweeney)?

In 1990: 87% of the population in the United States had reported characteristics that likely made them unique based only on {5-digit ZIP2, gender, date of birth}.

Key problem: how to agree on block chain

Key move: "mining" 1. Create a mathematical equation that is very difficult to solve 2. Only approach: guess and see if it works 3. If you find solution first: A) you announce solution, B) you add one block to blockchain (includes transactions), C) you get 25 new Bitcoins (about $8k), then new solution is created. Not obvious why this is better. This is like a voting system. System has not proven to be incentive compatible. It could be possible to game this system. Thus far this mechanism has induced people to behave in a cooperative way. Stability of Bitcoin has yet to be explained.

Targetting Eyeballs: Winning Formula

More targeted ads: 1. selling keywords for immediate response; 2. using aggregated data on user behavior (not demographics) History 2003: Yahoo acquires overture.com; 2007, Yahoo acquires yieldmanager.com, adrevolver.com 2005: Google starts Google Analytics, 2007: Google acquires Doubleclick.net, feedburner.com and admobs.com 2007: Microsoft acquires aquantive.com 2004: AOL acquires advertising.com; 2007, AOL acquires tacoda.net, adsonar.com

The .com Boom

NASDAQ has continued to grow, even after boom: it's higher than it was before the boom.

Big Data

Neologism is still useful

Behavioral Advertising

Online behavioral advertising (aka "OBA") describes a broad set of activities companies engage in to collect information about your online activity (like webpages you visit) and use it to show you ads or content they believe to be more relevant to you.

Open Internet Advisory Committee

Open Internet Advisory Committee (2012) - Track effects of the Open Internet Order - Provide recommendations to the FCC Mobile broadband working group - Mobile broadband is crucial to the Internet - Yet, the technology is immature Special treatment in Open Internet Order - Transparency - No blocking of competing applications - No discrimination except for management practice

FCC and Open Internet

Openness: "the absence of any gatekeeper blocking lawful uses of the network or picking winners and losers online" 1. Open Internet Order (2010) A. Transparency B. No blocking C. No unreasonable discrimination 2. Verizon vs. FCC (2014) A. FCC has no authority to enforce these rules B. since providers are not common carriers

Introduction to Computers

Path-dependence 1. Technology reflects long history of contingent choices 2. Although there's a big menu of steps forward, menu is limited: there are some things that are easier to do than others. The menu is also the result of past choices. 3. Aspects of the menu are written in part by nature. We need to understand the technical details.

Peace of Westphalia

Peace of Westphalia, the European settlements of 1648, which brought to an end the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch and the German phase of the Thirty Years' War. • Europe divided among sovereign states • States recognize one another's borders • Within borders each state has a monopoly of control • States have the right to regulate passage of people and things across borders • Each national community has a right to its distinctive culture, language and form of government.

Electronic money

Start with regular money, online transactions: simple, easy, no innovation required. Why isn't this good enough?

Network density

The density of a binary network is simply the proportion of all possible ties that are actually present.

Desire to defend as a matter of policy

What's the perimeter to defend? 1. Critical United States government (USG) systems 2. All USG systems 3. All critical "infrastructures" e.g. water, power, telecom, finance. Fight over who gets to be considered critical. 4. All US systems 5. All systems worldwide: interdependence, common infrastructure. Not easy to decide what USG should protect. USG could, for example, regulate Apple software. That'd be an intrusive approach. Nearly all infrastructure critical for cybersecurity is operated by private companies. If computers overseas were compromised, then we'd be at risk. Analogous to public health concerns: don't want Ebola here, so fight it in West Africa.

Surveillance

Why are surveillance and cybersecurity linked? If systems operated by private companies, you can watch those systems

Electronic Currency

i.e. Bitcoin

Possible Solutions

1) If you believe the shakedown scenario, then you think that fewer patents should be issued i.e. more vetting 2) You can also try to change the calculus of litigation. Court doesn't grant injunction, but instead you get granted a litigation fee 3) Let's make software non-patentable, but it's tough to tell where software ends and begins e.g. online shopping cart debates 4) Shortening the term of life for software. How long should the right of the inventor last? Constitution gives Congress option to give inventors rights for a limited time. We want to give inventors an incentive, but not tax the public. If useful life of a software patent is 5 years, then we should give only 5 years.

Privacy defined (Westin definition)

"...the claim of individuals, groups or institutions to determine for themselves when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others."

Values III: Privacy

-Democracy also requires privacy, so citizens could organize and communicate without fear -Privacy of U.S. mails -Prohibition on access to Census information (except in aggregate form) -In Europe, the opposite: Government not transparent, Citizens were...

Flash cookies

1. A Flash cookie, also known as a local shared object, is a text file that is sent by a Web server to a client when the browser requests content supported by Adobe Flash, a popular browser plug-in. 2. Flash cookies are commonly used in website advertisements and videos.

Internet Addiction

1. A big deal in Korea A. Concerns focused on gaming communities B. Recognized by government as problem in 2003 and defined: "the state in which Internet users suffer serious physical, psychological and social problems in their everyday lives as the intensity of their psychological dependency on Internet use increases" 2. Coming to the U.S. soon? A. Has received much less attention B. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) 2013 defined it as "condition warranting further study"

False positives/False negatives in data mining

1. A false positive, or Type I error, is when a test wrongly reports the presence of disease. 2. A false negative, or Type II error, is when a test wrongly reports the absence of disease. 3. there is the danger of false positives. Data analysis can lead to an innocent person being placed on a watch list, investigated, or detained.

Opinion #1: App Developers

1. Bad to single out one (popular) app A. May lead to blocking other lawful apps B. Requires upgrade to expensive plans C. Discourages investment in mobile apps 2. App-agnostic management is better A. Rate limit customers during peak hours B. Vary pricing based on congestion C. regardless of the application

The Rules Were Contested from the Start

1. Big ISPs (led by Verizon) challenged proposed rules in court, but case rejected as moot. 2. Free Press suit demanded stronger rules - opposes easier regulation of cellular companies (went nowhere).

Foresight is limited by insufficient vision

1. Castells: DOD offered to give AT&T Arpanet in 1972: They weren't interested. 2. Post Office had e-mail service and got rid of it in 1983

These trends are likely to be exacerbated by the rise of cloud computing and the substitution of app-centric wireless devices for web-centric PCs.

1. Eli Noam: More and more functions will move to a few powerful cloud providers, threatening interoperability and innovation. 2. A few companies will potentially have immense control and information over the Internet and how we use it, unless regulations protect competition. 3. Why? High fixed costs + low marginal costs + high network externalities = pressures toward industrial concentration

What made e-commerce work?

1. Establishing trust through reputation and collaborative filtering 2. Targetting eyeballs: The advertising model 3. Producing and exploiting network externalities (with an excursus on networks and network analysis) 4. Long tails: Keeping costs low and selections high 5. The Freemium model 6. Disintermediation (more on Wednesday)

Communities of propinquity vs. communities of shared interests

1. From communities of propinquity: the local community. The community defined by place and nearness. 2. To communities of shared interest: The virtual community. The community unconstrained by physical space.

Glocalization

1. Glocalization refers to the combination of global connectivity and local activity. 2. No tradeoff between local vs. long-distance connections - Internet (e-mail and social media) associated with more of both

The Big Intellectual Leap

1. Going from a special purpose to general-purpose computer 2. This leap is due to Alan Turing in 1935/1936. Turing is 22 in Cambridge, UK. He's teaching and he has the idea of a general-purpose computer. His advisers are excited and tell him to go work with Alonzo Church at Princeton. Turing at Princeton from 1936-1938. Turing's idea is to build a circuit that emulates circuits, a so-called "universal circuit."

Patent Process

1. Inventor submits invention to USPTO, which is part of Department of Commerce. 2. Inventor goes back and forth with patent examiner.

Congress and Open Internet Rules

1. Republicans in Congress tried to obstruct rulse: A. House defunded FCC rule-making in this area (Senate killed bill). B. Republicans demanded delay for cost-benefit analysis. C. Rep. Issa investigated improper White House influence. (Didn't find it.) D. House held FCC broadband spectrum auction hostage. (The House blinked.) E. Efforts to limit or amend the rules will likely continue, with new legislation introduced in every session. 2. Some Democrats (Markey, Cantwell, Wyden) favor legislative enactment of Open Internet rules, also without success.

Technology does not develop along a single path - there are many false starts (2)

1. Technologies are "path dependent" 2. I.e. Early "constitutive decisions" (Starr) may shape later development in unanticipated ways

Examples of Network Goods

1. Telephone 2. Fax 3. Adobe PDF 4. eBay

"Lessons from the History of the Internet" by Manuel Castells

1. The Castells reading focuses on the origins of the Internet 2. Castells provides a historical overview about the development of the Internet, starting from its birth as ARPANET and its subsequent transformation by various social and political forces at the time. In 1958, during the time of the Cold War, the US government set up ARPA in the Department of Defense as a way of enhancing its technological superiority by connecting universities and sharing resources. Since computers were expensive equipment at the time, networks helped share time between computers. A standard protocol (TCP) had to be developed to allow computers to communicate with one another. 3. Castells argues that this early history was the result of the convergence between military science and a counterculture movement. He dispels the myth that the Internet was developed for military purposes; although the initial vision was of a decentralized network was presented to the military, initially the Pentagon rejected the idea, and later separated its own military network from the research network. Further, Castells indicates that the scale innovation of the development would not have been possible for the private sector. With ARPA and other public funding, the Internet developed squarely in an open, academic rather than military or business environment. Many of the early developers of the Internet were hackers who were interested in creating free and open software. Interestingly, Castells never clarifies that the word "hacker" has multiple connotations. Although it is commonly associated with a negative meaning that refers to those who pirate or sabotage networks, its original meaning referred to the open software movement that began in the early history of the Internet. These hackers were happy to create and share their innovations, leading to tools such as Linux, early browsers, messaging systems, and other Internet programs. This open movement was key to the development of the Internet because it allowed early users, who were mostly graduate students, to freely discuss topics. Castells argues that this uncensored medium aligned with some of the counterculture principles of that generation. 4. In this telling of Internet history, Castells describes the impact of a relatively small number of key figures. For example, Tim Berners-Lee, working at CERN, helped build the world wide web by creating a browser/editor program. This program was later released to the public and expanded into Mosaic, the basis of what became Netscape. Linus Torvalds, a student at the University of Helsinki, created a UNIX-based operating system, called Linux, and freely released it to the public. Richard Stallman, working at MIT, established a "copyleft" clause that encouraged anyone who improved on an open software to share their version with the public. These, and other individuals, helped shape this early history of the Internet and transform it into a more autonomous, distributed, and open network.

"slowest ship in the convoy"

1. The potential application of every sovereign's law to Internet activity might force such activity to conform to the most restrictive sets of law, or become entangled in hopelessly conflicting or even outright contradictory demands. 2. Internationally, there is nothing equivalent to the "dormant commerce clause" of the US Constitution to limit conflict between laws of different territories.

Network Neutrality

1. Treat all data on the internet equally A. Not block, discriminate, or charge differently B. by user, content, site, platform, app, etc. 2. Proponents A. Openness is the hallmark of the internet B. Net neutrality preserves competition C. Service providers have a near monopoly 3. Opponents A. Good to have a variety of services prices/plans B. Broadband space is sufficiently competitive C. Broadband industry is young and evolving

Four Kinds of Trust

1. Trust in competence 2. Trust in good will (you are honorable) 3. Secured trust (I have a hostage - R. Hardin etc.) 4. Phenomenological trust (A. Schutz: trust as the default position)

Stakeholders

1. Who represents the public interest? 2. Who defines the public interest?

Mobile phone replaces older devices

1. alarm clock 2. watch 3. landline phone

Pets.com

1. b. 1998; d. 1999 2. Slogan:"Because pets can't drive" 2. High point: Well received Superbowl ad. 3. Low point: Marketing budget exhausted after well-received Superbowl ad. Lessons learned: If you sell kitty litter, don't offer free shipping.

Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998

1. the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act retroactively extended copyright protection. As a result, the great creative output of the 20th century, from Superman to "Gone With the Wind" to Gershwin's "Rhapsody in Blue," were locked down for an extra 20 years. Growth of Copyright Coverage (Expanding Copyright) Year Max. Term 1790 28 1831 42 1909 56 1976 Life + 50 1998 Life + 70

Privacy (Felten lecture)

2 case studies 1. Browser cookies: story of unintended consequences. Then a demo that shows cookies in action. 2. Browser fingerprinting. End with Big Data and privacy

Communities as structures vs. Communities as set of services or functions

Kinetic attacks

A kinetic attack is one using weapons that rely on energy -- blast, heat and fragmentation, for example -- to cause their damage.

Network Externalities (explained)

A network has positive externalities if the value of that network increases as a function of the number of persons (or nodes of any kind) that it includes.

Issue Domain

A set of policies that 1. are linked by common values, interests and stakeholders; and 2. choices about each have implications for choices about the others

For Americans with Internet Service at Home, Broadband has Replaced Dial-Up

According to Pew

With shifts from PCs to portable devices, Zittrain fears the substitution of "appliances" for the generative web.

Appliances: 1. offer fewer affordances 2. are less programmable 3. are less interoperable 4. less generative

Cyber-espionage

Cyber espionage describes the stealing of secrets stored in digital formats or on computers and IT networks

Technical background

Digital signatures, linked pair of keys (i.e. numbers) 1. Secret signing key 2. Public verification key You use public signing key to sign a message. Anyone can use the verification key to verify the signature.

"The Problems with Software Patents" by Eric Goldman

Explains how innovation in the software industry differs from other industries and some of the resulting problems associated with software patents 1. What's unique about software? Three main differences: A) Software Has Short Innovation Cycles, B) Software Will Be Produced Without Any Patent Incentive, C) Software Gets Patented at Too High a Level of Abstraction.

Will the Internet Reduce Inequality? The Price Model

Internet lowers the cost of information. Cheaper information means that low-income people consume more of it, thus leveling the playing field.

Recorded Music

The Internet: Terrible for big integrated record companies, maybe not so bad for music

Structure of Industry

Type of businesses 1. Carriers (mobile networking) 2. Device makers 3. Platform makers (Apple - iOS, Google - Android). NB: Apple bundles device and platform. 4. app makers

Why digital divide has persisted in U.S.

Ultimately, neither race nor gender are themselves part of the story of digital differences in its current form. Instead, age (being 65 or older), a lack of a high school education, and having a low household income (less than $20,000 per year) are the strongest negative predictors for internet use.

We'll Use the Policy-Analysis Framework from the Lecture Two Weeks Ago

•Problems •Values •Arenas •Options •Stakeholders

Film Industry: Benefits

•Reduction in cost of film production •More independents, more films - 50 percent increase in number of theatrical releases 2000-2010

Code, Law and Enthusiasm were not Enough

•Trust in reliability and safety •Business models that did more than burn venture capitalists $$$

Analytic Strategy

•What do people do on-line? •GSS questions: "In the past 30 days, how often have you visited a website for _____" - 4 categories (from never to more than five times) •Divide uses into capital-enhancing and recreational categories •Explore determinants of each

Enforcement through Code (American Style)

1. Canada has strong privacy protection laws. 2. U.S. law offers weak privacy protections. 3. Internet firms route 25% of Canada-to-Canada traffic through U.S. pipes (boomerang routing). (This includes some government communications, including e-mails to the Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada.) 4. This subjects Canadian citizens to U.S. privacy rules. 5. Intentional BGP Hijacking may also be used by states.

"impossibility argument" (Yahoo)

1. Defense used by Yahoo. Ford could stop selling cars in France, Yahoo could not. Beyond that, could not identify where its customers came from. If Yahoo removed Nazi items from server, no one in the world would have access to them. 2. Thus French law would become the law of the world.

Six Degrees: An Example

1. DiMaggio to Homans to Mama Homans to H. Adams to J.Q. Adams to J.Adams to George Washington 2. And now you are all 7 degrees from George Washington, Benjamin Franklin & Louis XIV

Richard Stallman

1. Dr. Richard Stallman launched the Free Software Movement in 1983 by announcing the plan to develop the GNU operating system, intended to be composed entirely of free software

Foresight is limited by both undue optimism and insufficient vision (1)

1. Early on, people overestimate the amount and rapidity of change. 2. Then, when it does not occur, they discount the possibility. 3. Then it happens very quickly when they least expect it.

Later History of Facebook

1. Emphasis on friend relationships 2. Status updates: first newsfeed, then curated newsfeed. Facebook has algorithms to predict what things you'll want to read. And now, ads are a part of the newsfeed. 3. Messaging 4. Photos and tagging (facial recognition). Facebook is able to do impressive facial recognition. 5. Federated log-in and identity (can use social media to log into another site). Facebook profile = identity on third party sites. This gives third parties lots of data and Facebook is getting lots of info as well. 6. Targeted advertising: ad revenue is key to Facebook. If Facebook is allowing advertisers to target users, advertisers know where click can come through. User may not know what they're revealing. Facebook makes it hard to target individuals.

ETags

1. Entity tags (ETags) are a mechanism that web servers and browsers use to determine whether the component in the browser's cache matches the one on the origin server. 2. An ETag is a string that uniquely identifies a specific version of a component. The only format constraints are that the string be quoted. The origin server specifies the component's ETag using the ETag response header.

Introduction to Intellectual Property Law

1. Expansion of copyright - qualitative & quantitative 2. Copyright as imagined by the founders 3. The early history of copyright 4. Three faces of IP use: Theft, Fair use, Creative incorporation 5. Fair use and creative incorporation, 1920-2012

Positivity Bias in Rating Systems

1. Herd behavior 2. Fear of retaliation 3. Self-selection 4. Strategic manipulation Yet 70 percent of consumers report that they trust online reviews.

Logic built from wires and switches

1. If Signal A enters from the left, and Signal B enters from the top, the gate is on if (A is on) and (B is on) 2. Output is represented by A and B 3. This is an "and gate" 4. If you can build an and structure, you can build an or structure

RFC 2109

1. In 1997, formal standard established for cookies: RFC 2109. RFC 2109 said browsers should not allow 3rd party cookies. But all browsers allowed 3rd party cookies. None of browsers changed behavior after promulgation of RFC 2109. 2. In 2011, new cookie standard written. Said 3rd party cookies allowed, but discouraged. But no browser changed its behavior. Now 3rd party cookies entrenched politically.

PageRank

1. PageRank is what Google uses to determine the importance of a web page. It's one of many factors used to determine which pages appear in search results. 2. PageRank measure's a web page's importance. Page and Brin's theory is that the most important pages on the Internet are the pages with the most links leading to them. PageRank thinks of links as votes, where a page linking to another page is casting a vote. 3. Now that people know the secrets to obtaining a higher PageRank, the data can be manipulated.

Application-blindness

1. Part of van Schewick's Framework for Evaluating Network Neutrality Rules 2. The network is application-blind. An application-blind network is unable to distinguish among the applications on the network, and, as a result, is unable to make distinctions among data packets based on this information.

Electronic money - 2 major criteria (privacy + no need for "trusted 3rd parties")

1. Privacy 2. No trusted third party i.e. banks These are 2 arguments for better forms of electronic currency

Browser finger-printing

1. collecting identifying information about unique characteristics of the individual browsers people use. 2. Under the assumption that each user operates his or her own browser, identifying a device is tantamount to identifying the person behind it.

Ideas of Freedom on Net Still Big

1. e.g. Arab Spring 2. Also freedom to mix up old stuff e.g. Mickey Mouse as Wolverine. Lessig wrote book called Remix, which celebrated this remixing capacity. Fan fiction is an example of this.

Results from Netville: Wired residents

1. had more informal contact with neighbors than non-wired neighbors 2. knew 25 neighbors' names compared to 8 for nonwired 3. visited each other in their homes more 4. knew people further dispersed in the development 5. wired residents had more contact with friends and relatives outside Netville 6. "glocalization" (Wellman) 7. "portfolios of sociability" (Castells)

Roughly what percentage of U.S. adults use the Internet according to the Current Population Survey?

68.39%

Privacy (continued)

A Right? Possible? Desirable?

Product niches

A good or service with features that appeal to a particular market subgroup. A typical niche product will be easily distinguished from other products, and it will also be produced and sold for specialized uses within its corresponding niche market.

Edge providers

Any individual or entity that provides any content, application, or service over the Internet, and any individual or entity that provides a device used for accessing any content, application, or service over the Internet.

Web Server Market Share

Apache: 50% nginx (also open source): 20% Microsoft: 13%

Complex Interrelationsips

Between mobile service providers and network equipment vendors

2013: Education

Bigger differences in use by education (American Community Survey)

BitTorrent

BitTorrent is a protocol for the practice of peer-to-peer file sharing that is used to distribute large amounts of data over the Internet. BitTorrent is one of the most common protocols for transferring large files.

Network centrality

Centrality = (popularity weighted by between-ness and/or by the popularity of the nodes that send ties) A. Popularity (number of incoming ties) B. Between-ness (how many other nodes must go through a given node = power, influence)

"Key Differences Between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0" by Graham Cormode and Balachander Krishnamurthy

Cormode and Krishnamurthy offer a succinct definition of Web 2.0 and what made it different from the early Internet. 1. Comparing the various metrics computed over the recent years in Web1 and what might be of interest in Web2, we see some obvious overlap but there are also several new metrics of interest. We follow the set of issues raised in Chapter 7 of Crovella and Krishnamurthy (2007) to identify these metrics. 2. Web 1.0 metrics of similar relevance in Web2 include the overall share of Internet traffic, number of users and servers, and share of various protocols. Around half a billion users are present in few tens of social networks with the top few responsible for most of the users and thus traffic. These sites work hard to keep traffic within their own network via their own versions of e-mail, instant messaging, etc. Traffic inside a Web 2 site is harder to measure without help from the site itself. For example, a user writing on a board ('wall') of a friend may result in notifications generated to other friends who have expressed interest. The notifications may only result in actual traffic when other friends log in, view the message and possibly respond. With a large fraction of users returning to the site more than once a day, there is bound to be considerable internal communication. However, such messages are short and human-generated and are likely to be fairly bounded in overall bytes. 3. Growth patterns have been similar to some popular Web sites. Since there are registration requirements and a fairly quick drying up of close friends for each user, there is some tailing off effect. Almost all the popular Web2 sites are accessed over the Web implying HTTP and thus TCP connections. Facebook is the seventh most visited Web site (currently just behind Google). Traffic generated by some popular applications (such as Twitter) is mostly UDP, and the people requesting such notifications are pre-registered. If there is a steady increase of external feeds into the growing volume of users there could be an explosion in the number of connection setups. This will lead to pressure to streamline feeds to reduce the overhead much like persistent connections and pipelining introduced in HTTP/1.1. Given the control that individual Web2 sites have over their interface, streamlining can be much more rapid than the years taken for HTTP/1.1 adoption. 3. As discussed earlier in Section 4.2, the set of external applications (almost 6,000 in Facebook alone) and widgets introduce a very different kind of challenge; one that is unique to Web2. Facebook has claimed that at least one application has been installed and used by virtually every user. Applications allow new interactions between friends, and trigger internal notifications after actions are taken (such as a move in a turn-based game). The overall traffic as a result of a Web2 site is thus the product of the set of interactive applications and the set of participating friends. 4. Web1 went through considerable effort to streamline popular sites for mobile users; in Web2 the challenges are slightly different. The fact that most communications are short and episodic allow for instant notification to users via mobile devices. Context is generally deprecated and any potential accompanying rich media can be deposited at the site for later perusal. Real-time requirements in Web1 only mattered for certain classes of Web sites (stock tickers and game score updates). In Web2, there are a class of communications (IM) that are time-immediate but writing on a user's board does not carry the same urgency. In fact, there is an explicit attempt to allow both kinds of communication in support applications: twitter for example allows the followers to get the notification ('tweet') on their board or on their cellphone. 5. In Web1 the communication between a client and a site is fairly limited and highly restrictive: a request is sent and the site responds. If there are too many requests some requests can be dropped and others can be delayed. A site can choose between classes of users. In Web2 since most communication is between users, the site has no easy way to select during overload. However, the sites can (and do) impose varying limitations to ensure that overall load and thus latency is maintained at a reasonable level. With increasing users any lack of scalability will result in additional restrictions. Decisions made by the Web2 site affect all users uniformly as there is no incentive in prioritizing classes of users.

"real-space" multinational firms

Firms that have an actual physical presence e.g. Ford as opposed to Yahoo

Law

In 1995, NSF surrendered control to private entities (nonprofit governance organizations and commercial backbone providers) in 1995. (NSF net restricted to educational and research use).

Growth Leveled Off 2001, 2005 & 2008

Needs no explanation

Theft

Powerful new modes of stealing and distributing... • Lots occurs without digital intervention (e.g. as late as 2007, 90% of cinema theft result of filming movies in theatres - often distributing it on tape; 60% of losses to film industry from "hard-goods" piracy)* • But ever more powerful means of distributing digital files on line (BitTorrent) • Issues: - How long should it last? - Should renewal be automatic or by application?

ISP Graduated Response policies

Private Action after SOPA •2013: ISP Graduated Response: based on private BitTorrent monitoring, all major ISPs agree to deny service to repeat offenders Graduated response programs through which IP holders enlist ISPs (with or without legal mandate) to contact and warn downloaders, inflicting a series of sanctions on the noncompliant.

SOPA/PROTECT-IP Pros and Cons

Pros 1. The worst IP offenders operate outside the U.S. This bill would provide tools against them. 2. Preventing access to a URL may be an effective way to fight piracy. 3. Unlike DMCA takedowns, action requires court order. 4. Strong requirements for diligence and evidence when AG brings case Cons 1. Efforts against pirates could exact collateral damage on legal expression - e.g. a newspaper accused of infringing... 2. Danger of misuse of private suit provision 3. Abuse by intermediaries possible. 4. Imposes policing load on companies not prepared for it. 5. SOPA complaints subject to abuse. 6. Threat to ISP Safe Harbor protection 7. Due to caching, action against DNS servers could compromise the system (DiNardis)

Re-identification

Reidentification concerns manipulating databases to determine the identity of individuals whose information is recorded as records within a deidentified database through data linkage techniques.

Arthur Clarke

Right on technological developments, wrong on the social implications of those development, as technology develops based on what people are inclined to do with it

All Print Newspaper Ad Revenues

Same pattern as Newspaper Classified Ads in Millions 1990-2010

Search engine optimization

Search engine optimization is a methodology of strategies, techniques and tactics used to increase the amount of visitors to a website by obtaining a high-ranking placement in the search results page of a search engine (SERP) -- including Google, Bing, Yahoo and other search engines.

Six degrees of separation

Six degrees of separation is the theory that anyone on the planet can be connected to any other person on the planet through a chain of acquaintances that has no more than five intermediaries. E.g. 1. DiMaggio to Homans to Mama Homans to H. Adams to J.Q. Adams to J.Adams to George Washington 2. And now you are all 7 degrees from George Washington, Benjamin Franklin & Louis XIV

2013: Race/Ethnicity

Small differences in use by race/ethnicity (American Community Survey)

Privacy (lecture)

Social Science Perspectives

Big Data's Disparate Impact (Solon Barocas)

Solon Barocas and Andrew Selbst, "Big Data's Disparate Impact," California Law Review, Vol. 104, 2016

Free software

Stallman's Position 1. Morally wrong to prevent someone from modifying or sharing software 2. Okay to get paid for stuff, but have to allow people to modify and share software Stallman sees software as being similar to science in that it needs to be advanced 3. Stallman's Economic Argument: software has high fixed costs and zero marginal costs: if it's free to give it to people, you should. 4. Stallman embedded this idea in term "free software." Free has 2 meaning: free speech and free beer. Software is free as in speech not as in beer. Free also known as "libre." One can also call it FOSS (Free and open-source software) or FLOSS (free/libre and open-source software). Stallman was the first to reach this position, and still believes in it strongly.

Technology does not develop along a single path - there are many false starts (1)

Technologies are Malleable and dead ends are common 1. A case in point: Arthur Hotchkiss's bicycle railroad in Smithville 2. A monorail for bikes that would let blue-collar workers fly over farmlands to their factory

The Politics of Net Neutrality

Technology, Regulation and the Architecture of the Information & Communications Market

"Chapter 10: How the Web Works" by Brian W. Kernighan

Cloud computing

The practice of using a network of remote servers hosted on the Internet to store, manage, and process data, rather than a local server or a personal computer.

How did we get here?

To become a wide-scale commercial medium, the Internet required changes in law and changes in code

Case Study: Browser Cookies

Web was originally stateless: website had no memory of what you had done previously. Site couldn't folow you over time. This meant a simplified design: this was a deliberate choice on the part of Tim Berners-Lee. 1. 1994: Lou Montulli invents cookies. Idea: user could state preferences to a site. Site sends "cookie" to brower. Browser keeps "cookie jar" for each site. Brower sends back cookies on a revisit to site. 2. Lou Montulli made web stateful. In 1994, web was new. Browser and web pages were static items.

Networks are everywhere and nowhere: Network analysis is a set of questions and tools.

Well, what do you know about that! ...These forty years now, I've been speaking in prose without knowing it. - M. Jourdain in Moliere's, The Bourgeois Gentleman

Policy issues: What systems should U.S. try to defend?

Control through Markets: Using incentives

Why has government not had to pass many laws to foster trustworthy behavior in eCommerce? 1. Online retailers and auction sites have incentives to protect users and create trust 2. Banks and credit-card companies have interest in ensuring security of transactions

Economics of Open Source (demand side)

Why prefer open source 1. Advantage #1: low/zero price of open source software. Zero price products can be tried out easily. It can be tough to justify spending even $1. 2. Advantage #2: not locked in by vendor. Not at mercy of vendor. Support is expensive to come by, but with open source software, can get support from 3rd parties, and software can be tailored to needs: job can be put out to bids. And even if open source vendor goes out of business, can hire someone to keep software going. 3. Advantage #3: can customize product to fit needs.

Effects of Internet Use on Earnings

With Bart Bonikowski 1. Tradition of literature on computer use and earnings 2. Significant policy rationale for concern over digital divide 3. Few if any studies using panel data 4. We exploited timing of CPS rotation and 2000 and 2001 CPS communication technology modules to produce panel of 9249 workers aged 18 to 65

Were we right?

Yes •Pew Internet & American Life Project (April 2012): "Ultimately, neither race nor gender are themselves part of the story of digital differences in its current form. Instead, age (being 65 or older), a lack of a high school education, and having a low household income (less than $20,000 per year) are the strongest negative predictors for internet use."

Change has been driven by tension or misfit between values embodied in early web and those of existing law and commerce

Yochai Benkler's View of the Struggle*: 1. New technology built on new network principles (information is a public good that wants to be free, with previous information and human capital the only important inputs; use creates value) vs. 2. Law, regulation, business models and political alliances represent an older institutional ecology (when information required large investment in production and distribution, with strong IP necessary to permit firms to reclaim costs).

A New Element: Digital Appropriation

e.g. Fan sites, Mash-ups, Photoshop tricks • Is it any different? Is it more threatening? • Or have intellectual property lawyers just gotten more demanding? • Benkler: Marginal cost of copying and distribution ~ 0

Let the Network Be Your Product

e.g. eBay, Meetup, eHarmony

Who Dropped Out? (2000 GSS & 2001 reinterviews)

•Advantaged groups drop out less •Later adopters drop out more

Early network analysis focused on locations in networks

•The position of a node in a network can be characterized by -Popularity (number of incoming ties) -Between-ness (how many other nodes must go through a given node = power, influence) -Centrality (popularity weighted by between-ness and/or by the popularity of the nodes that send ties) On the Internet, each of these is a plausible means of ranking search hits. Google's big innovation was to use a version of weighted centrality.

"Creative Destruction" - Joseph Schumpeter

*Capitalism, Socialism & Democracy, 1942 •Capitalism is periodically revitalized (in whole and in particular industries) by game-changing innovations •These innovations are sometimes referred to as competence-destroying technologies because they make previous ways of doing things (and the knowledge on which these are based) obsolete

What was Google thinking?

*Mountain View: Google built WiFi here *Motorola: Purchased Motorola *Wireless watch: *2010 spectrum auction: almost purchased spectrum Google's rattling its saber to show it can be an ISP like Verizon.

"The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business is Selling Less of More" by Chris Anderson

1. Retailers take advantage of size and scope to earn returns from the "long tail" (Anderson 2006).

Secrets of Online Commerce

E-Commerce Retail Sales, 1998-2014: grown more than 9 times between 2000 and 2014

Unlocking

Phones are typically locked into the network of a carrier. Carriers want to ensure they keep your business. Do not like it when customers unlock and have ability to join other mobile networks.

DMCA safe harbor provisions

The "safe harbor" provisions (section 512) protect service providers who meet certain conditions from monetary damages for the infringing activities of their users and other third parties on the net. • Protects "service providers" against liability based on - Transitory digital network communications - System caching - Information storage at behest of users - Provision of search tools • Obligation: Timely response to DMCA takedown notices • 2013: Viacom Intl. v. YouTube (strengthened safe harbor)

3. Feature Selection

The process of settling on the specific string of input variables - Coarseness and Comprehensiveness - Proxies

Odds Ratios White:Black Odds of Using Internet at Home 1997-2007

Went up between 1997 and 1998, and then declined between 1998 and 2009

Key question

• Are more and less advantaged groups simply at different points on the same curve? • Or are the trajectories different, so that convergence is unlikely without remedial public policy?

Addressing the Take-Down Problem

• As Seltzer notes in her paper: - Principal/agent problem in take-down provisions - Invitation to abuse due to • Incommensurate resources of parties and • Relief from false charge too time-consuming to be effective

Data Mining as Discrimination

• By definition, data mining is always a form of statistical (and therefore seemingly rational) discrimination • The very point of data mining is: - to provide a rational basis upon which to distinguish between individuals - to reliably confer to the individual the qualities possessed by those who seem statistically similar

Outline

• Introduction to Intellectual Property Law • IP Law Responds to the Internet • New Issues and Opportunities

2. Training Data

• Data mining is really a way to learn by example • The data that function as examples are known as "training data"—quite literally the data that train the model to behave in a certain way • Vulnerable to three different problems - Skewed set of examples (problems with data collection) - Uneven number of examples (problems with an inherent sample size disparity) - Bad example (problems with the labeling of examples)

1. Target Variables

• Determine how to solve the problem at hand by translating it into a question about the value of some "target variable" • Treats the target variable as a function of some other set of observed characteristics - A, B, C leads to X - D, E, F leads to Y

2003: Eldred v. Ashcroft

• Eldred's project of putting great literature on line stymied by copyright extension of DMCA • Lessig challenged DMCA for Eldred - "limited time" in Constitution prevents "perpetual copyright," which limits free expression. Supreme Court intrigued, but ruled for DMCA.

Two ways of regulating privacy...

• Forbid the collection of potentially compromising data • Forbid the abuse of potentially compromising data

Yahoo Again

• If Yahoo's servers were operated in the United States, didn't U.S. law apply? • Inconvenient fact: Yahoo's traffic to France originated in a mirror server in Sweden, so 1. Sweden did not claim jurisdiction and 2. The U.S. couldn't.... • But what if the server had been in the U.S. - whose laws should apply - U.S. 1st amendment or France's anti-hate laws?

Silk Road: Up and Running Again...

• If it's somewhere else, can the U.S. prosecute the new Dread Pirate Roberts? • If one of its new mirror servers or crypto-key storage sites is in the U.S., can the U.S. prosecute? • If there is no server in the U.S., can the U.S. prosecute anyway (based on the protective principle)?

ATT&T and FaceTime: A Timeline

• Jun'12: Apple announces FaceTime over cellular - Carrier restrictions may apply • Aug'12: AT&T limits use of FaceTime over cellular - Limited to customers with the Mobile Share plan - Sprint and Verizon announce support on all data plans • Aug'12: Some advocates & press denounce -AT&T violated Open Internet Order - FaceTime competes with telephony service - Shouldn't discriminate by data plan • Aug'12: AT&T responds in a blog -AT&T's policy is transparent - AT&T has no video chat app - FCC doesn't regulate preloaded apps • Sep'12: Public interest groups respond - Intent to file an FCC complaint • Oct'12: AT&T customer files FCC complaint - Blocking on his "unlimited" data plan • Nov'12: AT&T relaxes FaceTime limitations - Supporting FaceTime on some plans over LTE • In '13: AT&T rolls out FaceTime over cellular -On all data plans (including unlimited plans)

Anonymizing Data is Harder than You Think

• Latanya Sweeney: In 1990: 87% of the population in the United States had reported characteristics that likely made them unique based only on {5-digit ZIP2, gender, date of birth}.

Creative Incorporation Today

• Music: Rap samples and Sound Cloud • Literature: real proliferation of fan fiction on the Internet e.g. To Say by GinnyLilyana Novella Rating: Mature Chapters: 1 Reviews: 0 "Pregnant!" Molly screamed, raising a frying pan in the air. "My youngest son got a girl pregnant!" She started pacing around the room, her wild hair flying around in the hurry. "Mum, we get it. She's pregnant. We've been thinking about it all day." Ron said quietly. Ron and Hermione are getting ready for their 7th year at Hogwarts, but that's not the only thing they're getting ready for. • Photography: Photo Shop • Video: Mash-ups e.g. Negativland #24

DMCA Safe Harbor Provisions

• Protects "service providers" against liability based on - Transitory digital network communications - System caching - Information storage at behest of users - Provision of search tools • Obligation: Timely response to DMCA takedown notices • 2013: Viacom Intl. v. YouTube (strengthened safe harbor)

Intellectual Property (see duplicate)

•World International Property Organization: The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is the UN agency responsible for treaties involving copyright, patent, and trademark laws. WIPO can be a force for progressive change, helping the world take into account public interest and development needs. But all too often, governments are using international treaties negotiated through WIPO as well as other bilateral trade agreements to ratchet up IP rights at the behest of copyright holders. •Congress •Courts •Registrar of Copyright: Authorizes exemptions to DMCA anti-circumvention - e.g. for libraries or organizations of blind persons who alter DRM software to permit use of read-aloud software to enable sightless people to hear readings of digital works.

What is Net Neutrality?

1. "Pinning down a precise definition of network neutrality is difficult." -Christopher Yoo 2. "Network neutrality proponents agree that network neutrality rules should preserve the internet's ability to serve as an open, general-purpose infrastructure... There is, however, a lot of uncertainty on how to get from a high-level commitment to network neutrality to a specific set of rules."- Barbara van Schewick

Three Administrations: Three Perspectives

1. Clinton/Gore: Internet as Telephone: Ex-VP Gore & Ex-Nat. Telecommunications and Information Administration head, Larry Irving (Clinton Admin) 2. Bush: Internet as Mercedes: Ex-Pres. Bush & Ex-FCC Head Michael Powell 3. Obama: Internet =Infrastructure: Pres. Obama & ex-FCC Head Julius Genachowski

What does the idea of privacy pre-suppose?

Associated Ideas: "Publicity"

Review: about money

Currency has three uses 1. Store of value 2. Medium of exchange 3. Unit of account

All new technologies are strange

People struggled with books in the same way we struggle with the internet

The Problem with the Origin Test: Bad Guys Can Shop for the Best Laws

The Principality of Sealand

WIPO

The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is the UN agency responsible for treaties involving copyright, patent, and trademark laws. WIPO can be a force for progressive change, helping the world take into account public interest and development needs. But all too often, governments are using international treaties negotiated through WIPO as well as other bilateral trade agreements to ratchet up IP rights at the behest of copyright holders.

"Free Speech Unmoored in Copyright's Safe Harbor: Chilling Effects of the DMCA on the First Amendment" by Wendy Seltzer

Although the early hackers argued that "information wants to be free" (recall Barlow's declaration from week 1 of the semester), The Digital Millenium Copyright Act, required to implement the World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty, strengthened the hands of IP holders and dealt with a series of critical issues that the new technology presented. Seltzer addresses one such issue (the obligations of ISPs and other entities to IP holders). 1. Each week, more blog posts are redacted, more videos deleted, and more web pages removed from Internet search results based on private claims of copyright infringement. Under the safe harbors of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), Internet service providers are encouraged to respond to copyright complaints with content takedowns, assuring their immunity from liability while diminishing the rights of their subscribers and users. Paradoxically, the law's shield for service providers becomes a sword against the public who depend upon these providers as platforms for speech. 2. Under the DMCA, process for an accused infringer is limited. The law offers Internet service providers (ISPs) protection from copyright liability if they remove material expeditiously in response to unverified complaints of infringement. Even if the accused poster responds with counter-notification of non-infringement, DMCA requires the service provider to keep the post offline for more than a week. 3. If this takedown procedure took place through the courts, it would trigger First Amendment scrutiny as a prior restraint, silencing speech before an adjudication of lawfulness. Because DMCA takedowns are privately administered through ISPs, however, they have not received such constitutional scrutiny, despite their high risk of error. I add to prior scholarly analysis of the conflict between copyright and the First Amendment by showing how the copyright notice-and-takedown regime operates in the shadow of the law, doing through private intermediaries what government could not to silence speech. In the wake of Citizens United v. FEC, why can copyright remove political videos when campaign finance law must not? 4. This Article argues for greater constitutional scrutiny. The public is harmed by the loss of speech via indirect chilling effect no less than if the government had wrongly ordered removal of lawful postings directly. Indeed, because DMCA takedown costs less to copyright claimants than a federal complaint and exposes claimants to few risks, it invites more frequent abuse or error than standard copyright law. I describe several of the error cases in detail. The indirect nature of the chill on speech should not shield the legal regime from challenge. 5. When non-infringing speech is taken down, not only does its poster lose an opportunity to reach an audience, the public loses the benefit of hearing that lawful speech in the marketplace of ideas. Yet under the DMCA's pressure, the poster's private incentive to counter-notify and the host's incentives to support challenged speech are often insufficient to support an optimal communication environment for the public. Instead, this set of incentives produces a blander, but not significantly less copyright infringing, information space. 6. Copyright claimants assert that the expedited process of the DMCA is critical to suppress infringement in the highly networked digital world. While many instances of infringement are properly targeted for takedown under the DMCA, I argue that the accuracy of some takedowns does not excuse a careful examination of the rate and costs of error. I therefore recommend changes to the law to reduce the error, balancing speech protection and copyright.

Turing's 1938 Paper

Turing showed: 1. Universal circuit is possible 2. How to build it 3. Universal circuit is much simpler than you expect: if you couple universal circuit with memory, it could be simpler than the emulated circuit

Technology/policy re spectrum

Radio waves are analogous to sound waves. 1. Waves can interfere 2. How to control/avoid interference? Many ways 1. Divide up time, allocate to different senders 2. Divide up frequencies (assign bands of them), allocate 3. Divide up space, allocate Mobile phone technology uses all of these methods. NB: Spectrum and time are scarce.

"Cybercrime: A Sketch of 18 U.S.C. 1030 and Related Federal Criminal Laws" by Charles Doyle

1. The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA), 18 U.S.C. 1030, outlaws conduct that victimizes computer systems. It is a cyber security law. 2. It protects federal computers, bank computers, and computers connected to the Internet. It shields them from trespassing, threats, damage, espionage, and from being corruptly used as instruments of fraud. 3. It is not a comprehensive provision, but instead it fills cracks and gaps in the protection afforded by other federal criminal laws.

Takedown notices (and unintended consequences thereof) (Seltzer)

1. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act has created in the words of the legal scholar Wendy Seltzer a "copyright notice-and takedown regime," which "operates in the shadow of the law, silencing speech indirectly through private intermediaries where the government could not do so directly." 2. Those with copyrighted works, in other words, can force service providers to remove potentially infringing content online with nothing more than a simple legal complaint known as a takedown notice. 3. This seemingly innocuous process, of course, has a chilling effect on free speech, as service providers, at the behest of rights holders, indiscriminately and often without any judicial involvement at all take down content that likely would not have otherwise made it into the marketplace of ideas. If they did not comply with these requests, service providers would lose their immunity from liability.

E-rate programs of the Universal Service Administrative Company (USAC)

1. The E-Rate Program - or, more precisely, the Schools and Libraries Universal Service Support Mechanism - provides discounts to assist most schools and libraries in the United States to obtain affordable telecommunications and Internet access. Four service categories are funded: Telecommunications Services, Internet Access, Internal Connections Other Than Basic Maintenance, and Basic Maintenance of Internal Connections. Discounts range from 20% to 90% of the costs of eligible services, depending on the level of poverty and the urban/rural status of the population served. Eligible schools, school districts and libraries may apply individually or as part of a consortium. 2. The E-Rate Program supports connectivity - the conduit or pipeline for communications using telecommunications services and/or the Internet. The school or library is responsible for providing additional resources such as the end-user equipment (computers, telephones, and the like), software, professional development, and the other elements that are necessary to realize the objectives of that connectivity. 3. The E-Rate Program is one of four support mechanisms funded through a Universal Service fee charged to companies that provide interstate and/or international telecommunications services. The Universal Service Administrative Company (USAC) administers the Universal Service Fund at the direction of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC); USAC's Schools and Libraries Division (SLD) administers the E-Rate Program.

Global Online Freedom Bill (proposed legislation, Figliola CRS paper)

1. The Global Online Freedom Act of 2011 (H.R. 3605), would prohibit or require reporting of the sale of Internet technologies and provision of Internet services to "Internet restricting countries" (as determined by the State Department). 2. That legislation mirrors opinions of some who believe that the U.S. technology industry should be doing more to ensure that its products are not used for repressive purposes.

U.S. International Strategy for Cyberspace

1. The International Strategy lays out the President's vision for the future of the Internet, and sets an agenda for partnering with other nations and peoples to achieve that vision. It begins by recognizing the successes networked technologies have brought us, in large part due to the spirit of freedom and innovation that has characterized the Internet from its early days as a research project. While the strategy is realistic about the challenges we face, it nonetheless emphasizes that our policies must continue to be grounded in our core principles of fundamental freedoms, privacy, and the free flow of information. 2. To achieve our vision, the United States will build an international environment that ensures global networks are open to new innovations, interoperable the world over, secure enough to support people's work, and reliable enough to earn their trust. To achieve it, we will build and sustain an environment in which norms of responsible behavior guide states' actions, sustain partnerships, and support the rule of law. 3. The International Strategy is larger than any one department or agency. It is a strong foundation for the diverse activities we will carry out across our entire government. It is about the principles that unite our nation, the vision that unites our policy, and the priorities that unite our government. 4. With our partners around the world, we will work to create a future for cyberspace that builds prosperity, enhances security, and safeguards openness in our networked world. This is the future we seek, and we invite all nations, and peoples, to join us in that effort.

TLD

1. The Internet's domain-name system (DNS) allows users to refer to web sites and other resources using easier-to-remember domain names (such as "www.icann.org") rather than the all-numeric IP addresses (such as "192.0.34.65") assigned to each computer on the Internet. Each domain name is made up of a series of character strings (called "labels") separated by dots. The right-most label in a domain name is referred to as its "top-level domain" (TLD). 2. The DNS forms a tree-like hierarchy. Each TLD includes many second-level domains (such as "icann" in "www.icann.org"); each second-level domain can include a number of third-level domains ("www" in "www.icann.org"), and so on. 3. The responsibility for operating each TLD (including maintaining a registry of the second-level domains within the TLD) is delegated to a particular organization. These organizations are referred to as "registry operators", "sponsors", or simply "delegees."

Three Faces of Privacy

1. The Personal 2. The Political 3. The Economic These three understandings of privacy lead to 1. Varying views of what constitutes a violation of privacy 2. Varying remedies in public policy

Civic technologies (Zittrain)

1. The Personal Computer, spreadsheet applications, Wikipedia, even the Internet itself are all examples of Zittrain's civic technologies, innovations that are generative of further innovations and are as productive as users would like them to be. 2. These are technologies that can not be restrained by gate keepers but Professor Zittrain is concerned that these are a dying breed of technology, soon to be replaced by tethered, gated, un-civic technologies actually resist further innovation by users.

Private keys

1. The Public Key is what its name suggests - Public. It is made available to everyone via a publicly accessible repository or directory. On the other hand, the Private Key must remain confidential to its respective owner. 2. Because the key pair is mathematically related, whatever is encrypted with a Public Key may only be decrypted by its corresponding Private Key and vice versa.

Public keys

History Question: What Nation was the major home of IP Piracy in the 19th Century?

1. The United States. 2. The U.S. adopted International Copyright Treaty (Bern Convention) in 1891. 3. Adoption encouraged shift from Cooper and Twain to James and Wharton

Or will it Exacerbate Inequality? "Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis"

1. The advantaged also benefit from cheaper information 2. Moreover: A. they may have higher demand for information; B. and they may be able to exploit it more productively.

Verizon v FCC

1. The court upheld the FCC's authority to regulate broadband Internet access providers, and upheld the disclosure requirements of the Open Internet Order, but struck down the specific anti-blocking and nondiscrimination rules contained in the Order. •Verizon took FCC before DC Circuit Court of Appeals in Washington DC, claiming that FCC had no authority to regulate its Internet practices -First amendment: Free speech -Fifth amendment: Permanent easement on its system (prohibition of pay-for-priority) represents "illegal taking" •Relevant precedents cut both ways -Comcast v. FCC (2010, DC Circuit Court of Appeals) voided FCC judgment against Comcast's degradation of Bittorrent traffic (mooted by terms of Comcast/NBC merger agreement) -City of Arlington v. FCC (2013, Supreme Court) affirmed permissive standards for FCC use of congressional authority in rule-making (in case involving regulation of municipal licensing of wireless facilities) -Decision against FCC in February 2014 - Will decisively shape future of FCC's role in regulating Internet

Comcast V. FCC

1. The court, in an April 6, 2010, decision, ruled (3-0) that the FCC did not have the authority to regulate an Internet service provider's (in this case Comcast's) network management practices and vacated the FCC's order 2. Comcast v. FCC (2010, DC Circuit Court of Appeals) voided FCC judgment against Comcast's degradation of Bittorrent traffic (mooted by terms of Comcast/NBC merger agreement)

DNS

1. The domain name system (DNS) is the way that Internet domain names are located and translated into Internet Protocol addresses. 2. The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) coordinates the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) functions, which are key technical services critical to the continued operations of the Internet's underlying address book, the Domain Name System (DNS).

"Peering" vs. "transit pricing"

1. The early Internet was also characterized by relatively simple business relationships. End users typically purchased Internet access through some form of all-you-can-eat pricing, which allowed them to consume as much bandwidth as they would like for a single flat rate. Relationships between network providers typically fell into two categories. 2. Tier-1 ISPs entered into peering relationships with one another, in which they exchanged traffic on a settlement-free basis and no money changed hands. The primary justification for foregoing payment is transaction costs. Although the backbones could meter and bill each other for the traffic they exchanged, they could avoid the cost of doing so without suffering any economic harm so long as the traffic they exchanged was roughly symmetrical. Such arrangements would not be economical with when the traffic being exchanged by the two networks was severely imbalanced. Thus tier-1 ISPs will not peer with other networks that are unable to maintain a minimum level of traffic volume. In addition, peering partners typically require that inbound and outbound traffic not exceed a certain ratio. 3. Networks that cannot meet these requirements must enter into transit arrangements in which they pay the backbone to provide connectivity to the rest of the Internet.

Sample Size Disparity

1. The error of a classifier often decreases as the inverse square root of the sample size. Four times as many samples means halving the error rate. 2. Even if we had a mythical source of unbiased training data, I argue the problem would persist; machine learning can still be unfair. One reason is simple. Assuming a fixed feature space, a classifier generally improves with the number of data points used to train it. The whole spiel about big data is that we can build better classifiers largely as a result of having more data. 3. The contrapositive is that less data leads to worse predictions. Unfortunately, it's true by definition that there is always proportionately less data available about minorities. This means that our models about minorities generally tend to be worse than those about the general population. Importantly, this is assuming the classifier learned on the general population does not transfer to the minority faithfully. If both groups together form one homogeneous population, then additional samples may benefit both groups.

Application-agnostic network management

1. The first approach - which is the approach favored by van Schewick - bans application-specific discrimination, but allows application-agnostic discrimination 2. Under this rule, a network provider would not be allowed to treat Vonage differently from Skype, YouTube differently from Hulu, or the website of the New York Times differently from the website of the Wall Street Journal or Free Press. That would be discrimination based on application. Nor would it be allowed to treat online video differently from e-mail, treat applications that use the BitTorrent protocol differently from applications that do not use this protocol, or treat latency-sensitive applications differently from latency-insensitive applications. That would be discrimination based on class of application. 3. But it would be allowed to treat data packets differently based on criteria that have nothing to do with the application or class of application. For example, it could give one person a larger share of the available bandwidth if that person has paid for a higher tier of Internet service (e.g., if that person has paid for the "Up to 6 Mbps" Internet service packet instead of the "Up to 3 Mbps" Internet service packet).

Yahoo vs. France: the Nazi auction controversy

1. The introduction of Goldsmith and Wu's book begins with the description of Yahoo's evolving relationships with foreign government control. First, the authors discuss the lawsuit brought against Yahoo by Mark Knobel in the French Courts for alleged trafficking of Nazi goods in France. 2. The book describes Yahoo's resistance and then eventual surrender to the French demands, pulling all Nazi materials off its Web sites.

Yoo: How Internet's "middle mile" has changed

1. The network no longer adheres to the rigid and uniform hierarchy that characterized the early Internet and its predecessor, the NSFNET. 2. Packets can now travel along radically different paths based on the topology of the portion of the network through which they travel. This is the inevitable result of reducing costs and experimenting with new structures. At the same time that network providers are experimenting with new topologies, they are also experimenting with new business relationships. 3. Gone are the days when networks interconnected through peering and transit and imposed all-you-can eat pricing on all end users. 4. That fairly simple and uniform set of contractual arrangements has been replaced by a much more complex set of business relationships that reflect creative solutions to an increasingly complex set of economic problems. 5. Again, these differences mean that the service that any particular packet receives and the amount that it pays will vary with the business relationships between the networks through which it travels. 6. Although many observers reflexively view such deviations from the status quo with suspicion, in many (if not most) cases, they represent nothing more than the natural evolution of a network trying to respond to an ever-growing diversity of customer demands. Imposing regulation that would thwart such developments threaten to increase costs and discourage investment in ways that ultimately work to the detriment of the consumers that such regulation is ostensibly designed to protect.

Trespass to chattels eBay v. Bidders' Edge

1. The revival of the trespass to chattels doctrine in the context of cyberspace has had unexpected and far-reaching consequences. Trespass to chattels, a doctrine developed to protect physical property, was first applied in cyberspace cases to combat spam, unwanted commercial bulk email. However, recently courts have expanded the doctrine to reach activities that lie at the heart of the Internet-noncommercial e-mail and spiders, automatic programs that search the Internet. This expansion threatens basic Internet functions and exposes the flaws inherent in applying doctrines based in real and tangible property to cyberspace. 2. In eBay, Inc. v. Bidder's Edge, Inc., 2 spiders searching Internet accessible databases were held to be trespassing the database servers.

Sony Rootkit affair

1. The security and privacy implications of Sony-BMG's CD digital rights management (DRM) technologies first reached the public eye on October 31, 2005, in a blog post by Mark Russinovich. While testing a rootkit detector he had co-written, Russinovich was surprised to find an apparent rootkit (software designed to hide an intruder's presence) on one of his systems. Investigating, he found that the rootkit was part of a CD DRM system called XCP that had been installed when he inserted a Sony-BMG music CD into his computer's CD drive. 2. News of Russinovich's discovery circulated rapidly on the Internet, and further revelations soon followed, from us, from Russinovich, and from others. It was discovered that the XCP rootkit makes users' systems more vulnerable to attacks, that both CD DRM schemes install risky software components without obtaining informed consent from users, that both systems covertly transmit usage information back to the vendor or the music label, and that none of the protected discs include tools for uninstalling the software. (For these reasons, both XCP and MediaMax seem to meet the consensus definition of spyware.) 3. These and other findings outraged many users. As the story was picked up by the popular press and public pressure built, Sony-BMG agreed to recall XCP discs from stores and to issue uninstallers for both XCP and MediaMax, but we discovered that both uninstallers created serious security holes on users' systems.

Takedown notices

1. The so-called "DMCA take down notice" is a creature of Title II of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act ("DMCA"). 2. Compared to the normal legal process for getting an injunction to remove an infringing copy from the network, which takes a long time and an enormous amount of resources, a DMCA takedown notice is fast, simple, and can be drawn up by a copyright holder without the help of a lawyer. It really is very powerful. Moreover, you can issue takedown notices not only for the infringing material itself, but also "information location tools" pointing to the material—including "directory, index, reference, pointer, or hypertext link." 17 USC §512(d). 3. A DMCA takedown notice can be a cost-effective, quick, and powerful tool to remove material that infringes your copyright. In an age where electronic publication has made piracy an often-discussed topic, it gives individual authors more power to protect their rights. At the same time, the DMCA takedown mechanism has certain safeguards in place to protect the rights of those who have a right to publish material that is not infringing

Long tail, and its three mechanisms

1. The theory of the long tail can be boiled down to this: Our culture and economy are increasingly shifting away from a focus on a relatively small number of hits (mainstream products and markets) at the head of the demand curve, and moving toward a huge number of niches in the tail. In an era without the constraints of physical shelf space and other bottlenecks of distribution, narrowly targeted goods and services can be economically attractive as mainstream fare. Mechanisms to reduce the cost of reaching niches 1. Democratize the tools of production e.g. PC 2. Democratize the tools of distribution e.g. Internet to cut cost of consumption 3. Connecting supply and demand e.g. introducing consumers to these newly available goods and services and driving demand down the tail

Application-specific discrimination

1. The two definitions of application-specific discrimination used in the text - "discrimination based on application or class of application" and "discrimination based on criteria that depend on an application's characteristics" - describe the same concept. 2. In van Schewick's paper, "application" refers to a specific instance of a specific type of application. Thus, "discrimination based on application" is differential treatment of different instances of the same application type depending on which instance the user is using (e.g., Skype vs. Vonage). The specific instance of an application a user is using is also a characteristic of the application (i.e. it is a characteristic of the application whether it is Vonage or Skype).

Why most Facebook users get more than they give according to Hampton et al.

1. The typical Facebook user in our sample was moderately active over our month of observation, in their tendency to send friend requests, add content, and "like" the content of their friends. 2. However, a proportion of Facebook participants - ranging between 20% and 30% of users depending on the type of activity - were power users who performed these same activities at a much higher rate; daily or more than weekly. 3. As a result of these power users, the average Facebook user receives friend requests, receives personal messages, is tagged in photos, and receives feedback in terms of "likes" at a higher frequency than they contribute. 4. What's more, power users tend to specialize. Some 43% of those in our sample were power users in at least one Facebook activity: sending friend requests, pressing the like button, sending private messages, or tagging friends in photos. Only 5% of Facebook users were power users on all of these activities, 9% on three, and 11% on two. Because of these power users, and their tendency to specialize on specific Facebook activities, there is a consistent pattern in our sample where Facebook users across activities tend to receive more from friends than they give to others.

Use of information technologies by state and non-state actors in the Arab Spring (Youmans & York), and tensions between those uses

1. The uprisings in Tunisia, Egypt, and elsewhere have been credited in part to the creative use of social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter. 2. Yet the information policies of the firms behind social media can inhibit activists and empower authoritarian regimes. 3. Analysis of Facebook's response to Egypt's ''We Are All Khaled Said'' group, YouTube's policy exemption for videos coming from Syria, Moroccan loyalist response to the online presence of atheists, and the activities of the Syrian Electronic Army illustrate how prohibitions on anonymity, community policing practices, campaigns from regime loyalists, and counterinsurgency tactics work against democracy advocates. These problems arise from the design and governance challenges facing large-scale, revenue-seeking social media enterprises.

Mechanics of Cookies

1. Then someone figured you can put session iD into cookies. 2. Server sends Session ID = [number]Server to browser. The browser sends back a cookie every time the site is accessed. NB Cookie info: Session ID = [number], Lang = Eng, Font = Large, History etc. 3. It became easy for sites to build up a history of user on respective sites. The Session ID was way more economical than original cookies

Rating systems

1. There are currently very few practical methods for assessing the quality of resources or the reliability of other entities in the online environment. This makes it difficult to make decisions about which resources can be relied upon and which entities it is safe to interact with. 2. Trust and reputation systems are aimed at solving this problem by enabling service consumers to reliably assess the quality of services and the reliability of entities before they decide to use a particular service or to interact with or depend on a given entity.

Reputation systems

IPv4 vs. IPv6

1. There are two standards for IP addresses: IP Version 4 (IPv4) and IP Version 6 (IPv6). All computers with IP addresses have an IPv4 address, and many are starting to use the new IPv6 address system as well. Here's what these two address types mean: 2. IPv4 uses 32 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. 3. IPv6 uses 128 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. At the dawn of IPv4 addressing, the Internet was not the large commercial sensation it is today, and most networks were private and closed off from other networks around the world. When the Internet exploded, having only 32 bits to identify a unique Internet address caused people to panic that we'd run out of IP addresses. 4. Under IPv4, there are 232 possible combinations, which offers just under 4.3 billion unique addresses. IPv6 raised that to a panic-relieving 2128 possible addresses.

The distinction between desktop/laptops and smart phones

1. Think of a laptop as a desk-top computer on the go. It basically performs the same functions as a desk-top with the cool convenience of being able to use it anywhere. And with Wi-Fi (wireless Fidelity)connecting to the internet is not a problem. Laptops have CD/DVD internal drives and built in batteries that gives it on average four to ten hours of continuous use, with an added feature of sleep mode that allows it to remain on to save on battery power when not in use. Generally laptops are scaled down and weighs a few pounds causing the keyboard and screen to be smaller than a desktop. The processing abilities of laptops are impressive with some having a standard five-hundred gigabytes of storage space or even up to one terabyte (1000 gigabytes). External ports for peripherals such as mouse, printer and internet connectivity are included. - 2. Commonly referred to as a personal computer (pc) simply sits on a desk because it cannot be portable. A desktop consists of several pieces of external hardware such as a keyboard, mouse, monitor and tower with internal CD/DVD hard-drives. Standard processing is AMD with five-hundred gigabytes of storage space. It has all the external ports for a printer, scanner, fax-macine and connects to the internet via an Ethernet cable or through Wi-Fi. 3. t is great to have a device that fits in the palm of your hand, that can make calls,store files, send and receive emails and text messages, play games, record video and pictures and other cool capabilities such as processing credit-card transactions. No matter where you are in the world! Smartphones uses an operating system from its creator for example Apple's iPhone uses iPhone OS.

Uses of Special Purpose Computer

1. This can be used to control stop light: one wire for each light (output), and you can figure out the logic e.g. red light for 25 seconds, have a circuit produce output, have it remember that we're giving green to the people on Prospect Avenue. You subtract time from the counter and now the circuit says to change the output. 2. It is tedious to work out this logic. 3. You could have input that corresponds to button for people to push: you just need to specify what you want 4. This is the way traffic lights used to work 5. These computers can do anything as long as you express it in logic 6. The drawback is that you have to make a chip for each function.

Role of information technologies in enabling the Arab Spring (Hussain & Howard)

1. This comparative analysis demonstrates that digital media may also have a role in rapid political transformations. Weighing multiple political, economic, and cultural conditions, we find that information infrastructure—especially mobile phone use—consistently appears as one of the key ingredients in parsimonious models for the conjoined combinations of causes behind regime fragility and social movement success. Internet use is relevant in some solution sets, but by causal logic it is actually the absence of Internet use that explains low levels of success by Arab Spring movements. 2. This investigation has illustrated that countries that do not have a civil society equipped with digital scaffolding are much less likely to experience popular movements for democracy—an observation we are able to make only by accounting for the constellation of causal variables that existed before the street protests began, not simply the short-term uses of digital technologies during the short period of political upheaval.

Sophisticated social research

1. Time Diaries 2. Social Experiments

Why Might we Want to Control Information about Ourselves?

1. To avoid economic victimization 2. To manage relationships by selectively revealing or withholding information about oneself 3. To control one's reputation

URL Removal Request Totals

1. Total URLs that Google has evaluated for removal: 888,091 URLS 2. Total requests that Google has received: 244, 850 requests

Web 2.0 (and differences from Web 1.0) (Cormode & Krishnamurthy): Transactional; More user-created content; network rather than hierarchy; niche communities.

1. Transactional: A key difference in Web2 is that many sites encourage users to spend as much time as possible on their site. There are strong incentives for increasing such stickiness: opportunities for higher advertising revenue. Further, the more the users interact with the site, the more can be learnt about their interests and habits. 2. More user-created content: the essential difference between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 is that content creators were few in Web 1.0 with the vast majority of users simply acting as consumers of content, while any participant can be a content creator in Web 2.0 and numerous technological aids have been created to maximize the potential for content creation. 3. Network rather than hierarchy: Web 2.0 sites tend to resemble social networks more than the hierarchical model of Web 1.0 4. Niche communities: The democratic nature of Web 2.0 is exemplified by creations of large number of niche groups (collections of friends) who can exchange content of any kind (text, audio, video) and tag, comment, and link to both intra-group and extra-group "pages."

Four kinds of trust (in competence, in good will, secured trust, phenomenological trust)

1. Trust in competence 2. Trust in good will (you are honorable) 3. Secured trust (I have a hostage - R. Hardin etc.) 4. Phenomenological trust (A. Schutz: trust as the default position)

2014 Netflix throttling controversy

1. US cable giant Comcast has announced a deal with Netflix allowing Netflix's video-streaming service a more direct route through Comcast's network, which should improve streaming video quality for viewers. The first indications of the new deal between the companies came last week after App.net founder Bryan Berg observed more direct routes for Netflix data through Comcast's network. The Wall Street Journal reported on Sunday night that the change was the result of a formal, paid agreement between the two companies, but Comcast does not specify how much the deal is worth. 2. The result comes after a number of troubling moves by Comcast, which had seen Netflix speeds plummet on the network, as reflected in the service's monthly ISP rankings. Comcast has sworn it isn't throttling Netflix traffic, but the simple fact is that Netflix traffic has grown increasingly difficult to deliver onto Comcast's network, while other ISPs see little degradation. As analyst Rich Greenfield put it, "How come Time Warner is showing solid Netflix performance without paid peering?" 3. NB: Bandwidth throttling is the intentional slowing of Internet service by an Internet service provider.

Raising the Stakes: By combining cyberspace and intimate space

1. Uber A. Risk: Physical - assault, reckless driving, and so on B. Strategy: *Driver background checks •Symmetric anonymized rating systems •Insurance; cash-free transactions 2. Airbnb A. Risk: Property damage, litigation B. Strategy: *Symmetric rating systems and reviews (simultaneous release; listing rank based on rating) * Profiles *"Host Guarantees" ($1M, but carry insurance) *Language: "community," "family"

Eldred v. Ashcroft

1. Under the Copyright and Patent Clause of the Constitution, Article 1, section 8, "Congress shall have Power...to promote the Progress of Science...by securing [to Authors] for limited Times...the exclusive Right to their...Writings." In the 1998 Copyright Term Extension Act (CTEA), Congress enlarged the duration of copyrights by 20 years, making copyrights now run from creation until 70 years after the author's death. Petitioners, whose products or services build on copyrighted works that have entered the public domain, argued that the CTEA violates both the Copyright Clause's "limited Times" prescription and the First Amendment's free speech guarantee. They claimed Congress cannot extend the copyright term for published works with existing copyrights. 2. In a 7-2 opinion delivered by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, the Court held that Congress acted within its authority and did not transgress constitutional limitations in placing existing and future copyrights in parity in the CTEA. 2003: Eldred v. Ashcroft • Eldred's project of putting great literature on line stymied by copyright extension of DMCA • Lessig challenged DMCA for Eldred - "limited time" in Constitution prevents "perpetual copyright," which limits free expression. Supreme Court intrigued, but ruled for DMCA.

Schema of Universal Circuit with Memory

1. Universal circuit produces outputs and data. The data enters the memory. Memory produces data, which, along with inputs and code, enters the universal circuit. The code and data come from the memory: the inputs do not. The universal circuit is the computer. 2. Turing proved the universality of this. Any logical computation that can be done can be done by this device. 3. Over decades, people figured out how to build this at low-cost. The light-switch in Robertson 002 probably has a general purpose computer in it. Universal circuits all over the place e.g. car has 20-30 computers in it. 4. Real computer e.g. laptop, mobile phone (computer has code that allows it to make calls) 5. Circuitry has many billions of switches, usually highly miniaturized; memory stores many billions of bits. 6. Recently, batteries have improved. Sensors like microphone, camera, accelerator (phone knows which way is up), barometer all embedded in phones.

Necessary conditions for a valid patent claim (useful, novel, non-obvious)

1. Useful: useful to someone for some purpose - easy bar to go over 2. Novel: nobody has ever publicly made or used a covered thing i.e. you have to be first inventor 3. Non-obvious: this is where things get difficult. Hard to tell what was obvious to a hypothetical ordinary person in state of art at a past date. Of course, everything good is obvious in hindsight.

To be valid, a claim must be

Each Component Explained

1. Usenet: distributed protocol. Usenet servers would chat with each other. Each was like a discussion forum. 2. Forums: web-based that function like newsgroups. 3. Personal webpages: were hard to make. Came along to make it easier. 4. MySpace: started out as a way to make personal web pages. Started to take on a more social aspect. 5. Facebook: more private than Twitter. 6. Blogs: blog were more personal and social as opposed to professionalized blogs today. Blogs would also have one way link to other blogs. 7. Twitter: like early blogs, people discussing discrete posts: also friendship non-symmetric not as in Facebook.

Third party inclusions

1. User goes to A.com (first party) 2. A.com page includes image on B.com 3. Browser fetches image from B.com (third party access) A.com gives you first-party cookies. B.com can also establish a Session ID with you. Advertisers love this. Advertisers can use cookies to establish session ID across sites you visit, even you didn't want to visit B.com

Third party inclusions (lecture)

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

1. VPN is pronounced as separate letters and is short for virtual private network. VPN is a network that is constructed by using public wires — usually the Internet — to connect to a private network, such as a company's internal network. There are a number of systems that enable you to create networks using the Internet as the medium for transporting data. These systems use encryption and other security mechanisms to ensure that only authorized users can access the network and that the data cannot be intercepted. 2. A VPN is designed to provides a secure, encrypted tunnel in which to transmit the data between the remote user and the company network.

Why do people contribute to collective rating or review systems?

1. Vengeance 2. Enthusiasm/altruism 3. Commitment to generalized reciprocity (Golden Rule, "paying forward") 4. Pleasure in writing 5. Interest in reputation or building human capital?

Freemium

1. Version 1: Give something away that will require many people to purchase something else. 2. Version 2: Give something away and hope that people will like it so much they will want to pay more for even better.

Freemium model

Viacom Intl. v. YouTube (2013)

1. Viacom held for the first time that the Digital Millennium Copyright Act's (DMCA) safe harbor provisions are inapplicable to an online service provider that is willfully blind to facts indicating a high probability of copyright infringement because willful blindness is tantamount to actual knowledge of infringement. 2. 2013: Viacom Intl. v. YouTube (strengthened safe harbor)

Stakeholders: The Antis

1. Visible: Anti-regulation Ideologues (Heartland Institute, National Review, Tea Party elements, Americans for Prosperity (Koch Bros.), Internet Freedom Association) 2. ISPs - National Cable & Telecommunications Association, AT&T, Verizon, etc. A. Long term dream: Internet as cable television (AOL 1998) B. Per-service fee structure (e.g., plans with menu of fees) C. Fees from content originators D. Competitive advantage for own telephone & video services 3. Technology providers (Cisco, Jupiter): Protect market for network management hardware and software

Fate of News Industry

1. WaPo sold to Jeff Bezos, Amazon founder 2. NYT sells Boston Globe at 93 percent loss 3. There is now an newspaper death watch website

Means of enforcing legal rulings when perpetrator and servers are external: Wait for perp to enter country; remove domain name from DNS registry; get ISPs to block traffic; require banks to freeze accounts or credit card companies to deny payment; use boomerang routing or Border Gateway Protocol Hijacking to divert traffic into the complaining country where it can be blocked; engage in cyberattacks on offending servers.

1. Wait for perp to enter country 2. remove domain name from DNS registry 3. get ISPs to block traffic 4. require banks to freeze accounts or credit card companies to deny payment 5. use boomerang routing or Border Gateway Protocol Hijacking to divert traffic into the complaining country where it can be blocked 6. engage in cyberattacks on offending servers.

"Traveling the Silk Road: A measurement analysis of a large anonymous online marketplace" by Nicolas Christin

1. We have performed what we believe to be the first comprehensive measurement analysis of one of the largest anonymous online marketplaces, Silk Road. We performed pilot crawls, and subsequently collected daily measurements for six months (February 3, 2012-July 24, 2012). We analyzed over 24,000 items, and parsed over 180,000 feedback messages. We made anonymized versions of our datasets available in a companion website (https://arima.cylab.cmu.edu/sr/). 2. We were able to determine that Silk Road indeed mostly caters drugs (although other items are also available), that it consists of a relatively international community, and that a large fraction of all items do not remain available on the site for very long. We further discovered that the number of active sellers and sales volume are increasing, corresponding, when averaged over our measurement interval to slightly over USD 1.2 million per month for the entire marketplace, which in turn represents around USD 92,000 per month in commissions for the Silk Road operators. 3. Informed by these measurements, we discussed some of the possible intervention policies. Using appropriate procedures (e.g., persistent entry guards), Tor shows good resilience to deanonymization attacks, and, barring operator error, whether it is possible to obtain conclusive evidence of the exact location of a hidden service such as Silk Road remains an open question. Economic attacks (e.g., artificially creating large fluctuations in Bitcoin value), while probably more effective at impeding commerce on such underground marketplaces, would present significant collateral costs. Ultimately, reducing consumer demand (e.g., through prevention campaigns) is probably the most viable strategy.

Trend?

1. Weaker SES effects on most items in 2004 than in 2000. 2. Has institutionalization reduced effects of SES on behavior?

The History of Apache

1. Web server software developed at the University of Illionois 2. Turned into open source project. This is not a Stallman-free project. The license is viral and does not require you to pass along the rights to others. The license only requires you to disclose the presence of Apache software. 3. Apache outcompeted commercial products. This is an existence proof that open source software can beat deep-pocketed competitors in some cases.

Apache

Weighted centrality

1. Weighted centrality: sum of differences between maximal centrality of one point and the centrality of every other point. The sum is then divided by its maximal value. Google's big innovation was to use a version of weighted centrality.

"Needles in the Haystack: Google and Other Brokers in the Bits Bazaar" by Hal Abelson, Ken Ledeen and Harry Lewis

1. What are the secrets of online business? 2. There are several: gathering and selling consumer information (Abelson et al.) and "access to eyeballs" is at the core of most of them

Analyzing a Policy

1. What is the issue? Why does it matter? 2. What are the major arenas in which the problem can be addressed? (Congress? Courts? Code? Markets?) 3. What are the policy options? 4. What values does each option promote or corrode? 5. Who are the stakeholders and what are their interests? What is the configuration of influence and power? 6. How feasible are the options politically and technically?

Stallman's Evolution

1. What set Stallman off was when people at the AI lab went off to start companies. Stallman modified the printer, but wasn't able to spread this development around because of the commercialization of software

Patent claims

1. What specifically is covered by the patent 2. Each claim is treated separately 3. A claim covers some subset of all possible things: a set of limitations - think of this like a checklist

Results II: The effect of Internet use on earnings remained significant

1. When additional statistical controls were introduced for gender, race/ethnicity, age, education, region, marital status, metropolitan residence, occupation, union membership, industry, and eight measures of job-specific skills 2. The results also ran a gauntlet of robustness checks: propensity-score matching (for unobserved heterogeneity); analysis of change scores; and tests for effects of imputation, proxy responses, and other CPS issues

Does Anybody Care? Students on Social Media

1. When high-school and college students say they care about social-media privacy (which most say they do) they are referring to their parents or other kids, not to government or corporations - i.e. about personal privacy, not political or financial privacy. 2. Lane - Facebook for parents, Twitter for friends

Domain-name seizure

1. When the infringing web site's domain name is registered in another country or when the registry institution for the associated top-level domain is located in another country, a government agency has little jurisdiction to request a domain name redirection or reassignment. This transnational enforcement complexity explains why there has been so much interest in executing domain name seizures through more local DNS servers within a nation's borders. 2. One of the most controversial aspects of the failed SOPA and PIPA legislative measures was seeking to do just this.

Social media and "drama" (danah boyd)

1. While teen conflict will never go away, networked publics have changed how it operates. "Drama" is a very messy process, full of contradictions and blurred boundaries. But it opens up spaces for teens. As a concept, drama lets teens conceptualize and understand how their social dynamics have changed with the emergence of social media. Technology allows teens to carve out agented identities for themselves even when embroiled in social conflict. And it lets them save face when confronted with adult-defined dynamics, which their peers see as childish and irrelevant. 2. In this paper, we have attempted to map out some of the core elements of drama and understand the function that it serves in teenage lives. Understanding how "drama" operates is necessary to recognize teens' own defenses against the realities of aggression, gossip, and bullying in networked publics. Most teens do not recognize themselves in the "bullying" rhetoric used by parents, teen advocates, and mental health professionals. Even the pop cultural depictions in television shows like Glee feel irrelevant to many teens. They do not want to see themselves as victims or as aggressors, but as mature individuals navigating their world competently. Even teens who are clearly instigators of drama brush off its significance, enjoying the attention, emulating the excitement of celebrity culture, and unquestioningly reproducing the gender norms around them. These dynamics are different from those described in bullying narratives.

Economics of Open Source (supply side)

1. Why develop? A. "Scratch your own itch" in Raymond's terms: you can fix problem that bugs you, and you can do it, which is not case with commercial software e.g. Amazon used Linux in its data centers in the beginning. B. Demonstrate skill: contribution is public. You can say, "I built the cryptography engine in Linux." And discussion of contribution is public, so people can hire you. 2. Why contribute your changes? Don't have to put in extra effort to keep updating software. Of course, not all users in this mode. Linux has 50 million users. If only 0.1% of users contribute, you have a team of 5,000 programmers, which is bigger than the teams of Microsoft and Apple. Linux has 1,000 people working for it every day. 75% of people are doing Linux at work. A lot of people get paid to make it better. 3. How to bootstrap from one Finnish grad student to millions is even tougher.

Long-Term Trend: WiFi Offloading

1. WiFi offloading A. Unlicensed spectrum B. Low-cost (free or cheap to users) C. Carries 30-70% of mobile data traffic 2. Multiple flavors: home or office, offered by a business (e.g. Starbucks), commercial service (e.g. Boingo) 3. Influencing the market structure A. More options for customers B. Cellular for coverage, and WiFi for capacity C. Seamless authentication and mobility support

Examples of Networks

1. WiFi: radio-based network that relies on a central hub. Computer has individualized connection it is using. Packet goes to access point, then to next computer. 2. 3G/4G mobile network: there is a cell tower with antennas; phone talks to tower; again, one central radio point. 3. Local wired networks: switch forwards information between devices All these networks are local. Internet is much bigger.

The stakes are high.

1. Will the Internet be a frontier - dangerous, but open to innovation, creativity, and economic initiative? Or will it be a set of walled gardens, each attractive and easy to use, but limited in the affordances it offers? 2. Will the Internet be a tool that we use? Or will we (and our attention) be the products, not the producers?

Aggregation

1. Winners A. eBay (here too), Facebook , B. Chowhound - etc. C. Viral marketing 2. Losers A. Late movers B. Critics C. Traditional ad agencies 3. Strategies A. First-mover advantages + exploitation of network externalities (the larger the network the greater its value) B. Crowdsourcing advice systems, rating systems, etc. can substitute for identity-based trust

The Hierarchy of Complexity

1. Wires/Switches (the most simple building block) 2. Circuits 3. Special purpose computers (i.e. device does computing) 4. General-purpose computers (this is the leap Turing made) 5. Real computers (the device you have)

Internet addiction - status and issues

1. With connectivity so widespread, and tantalizing online activities constantly emerging, young people are spending more and more time online—studying, learning, communicating, creating, and entertaining themselves. 2. That is certainly not a disorder, but for a small number it may be a slippery slope when combined with psychological and environmental variables that increase risk for addictive behavior. Similar to gambling, several online environments offer unique and compelling features that promote frequent use and can lead to signs of behavioral addiction. The variable ratio, partial reinforcement schedules programmed into slot machines maintain a very high and persistent response rate, and many online environments do the same thing. For instance, that kind of reward schedule is probably one reason young people check their smartphones so frequently for status updates or new text messages. 3. 'Internet addiction disorder' may not be the right term, but the problems are very real and those students who are unable to control their online activities, whose grades drop and whose relationships with friends and family sour, definitely need help.

DNS aliasing

1. With the help of a DNS Alias, also popular as a CNAME record, domain owners who have access to a DNS management interface for their domains can have control over the subdomains they create. 2. This means they can specify a redirection action for a certain subdomain and point it to other domain or subdomain, according to their needs.

Worms, viruses, phishing

1. Worms: A worm is a computer program that has the ability to copy itself from machine to machine. Worms use up computer processing time and network bandwidth when they replicate, and often carry payloads that do considerable damage. 2. Viruses: Computer viruses are small software programs that are designed to spread from one computer to another and to interfere with computer operation. 3. Phishing: The act of sending an email to a user falsely claiming to be an established legitimate enterprise in an attempt to scam the user into surrendering private information that will be used for identity theft.

OLS Regressions Predicting Capital-Enhancing and Recreational Uses of Internet (30 days) (2004)

1. Years of schooling had a positive impact on capital enhancing use and negative impact on recreational use 2. GSS aptitude proxy has significant effect only for capital enhancing use, not recreational use

What is Patentable

1. Yes: process, machine, composition of matter [arrangement of stuff], an improvement to any of these 2. No: abstract idea, mathematical formula Courts have struggled to separate processes from abstract ideas in cases of software. We don't know where courts will draw the line

Creative commons license

1. You are free to: Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format 2. The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms. 3. Under the following terms:Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. 4. NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes. 5. NoDerivatives — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you may not distribute the modified material.

Rachael Ferguson Lecture (start)

1. You know about FBI bust of Silk Road 2. Site came back, but was busted again. 3. Customers are flocking to these sites 4. Ulbricht was convicted recently. Ulbricht oversaw a $1 billion enterprise. 4. These drug marketplaces are growing rapidly: there are now 29 of them. 5. These marketplaces are upending the global drug trade. Harm reduction researchers have found these drugs to be safer than offline drugs. Ferguson has been researching these marketplaces since 2013. 6. Silk Road vendors have been active in other online drug marketplaces. Ferguson is interested in how people behave in risky situations: questions of trust and identity 7. Deep web requires at least Tor web browser to access. These places are private but not evil. Tor is not just for illicit activity. Most people just want privacy. It does, however, give criminals the ability to operate unseen. 8. Quickkill is probably a scam to kill people. There are weapons dealers on the deep web. The Italian mob talks openly on the deep web. On the deep web, people are connected to each other with no central authority. They are, however, not entirely untraceable. 9. Bitcoin completely changed the online marketplace. All that was needed was people to believe that this would protect them. The first eTransaction was a pot deal in the 1970s. In the 1980s and 1990s, these drug websites boomed. These sites saved lives through safe drugs and connected people. In 2012, FBI shut down the Farmer's Market.

From Circuit to Special Purpose Computer

1. Zoom out and view circuit from macro level: input goes into the square circuit from the left and exits as output on the right. The output is some logical formula defined over the inputs 2. To turn this into a special purpose computer, need to add time and memory. Outputs enter memory, which in turn enters along with inputs into the circuit. A clock sends information to both the memory and the circuit, and is situated between the two. Every time the clock ticks, memory and inputs are delivered to the circuit, which produces outputs and memory. This is how the circuit remembers what it produced earlier.

Eric Raymond

1. a long-time hacker, active in the Internet culture since the 1970s, who got unexpectedly famous in the late 1990s as a result of events he has described elsewhere. 2. Either founded or re-invented (depending on who you ask, and how some history is interpreted; he prefers 're-invented', myself) the open source movement. If that term means nothing to you, think Linux. Linux is the open-source community's flagship product.

How to be a mobile carrier

1. buy/license spectrum 2. build radio towers: divide area into "cells" How to build the best cells If you build one giant cell with 100 channels, can only have 100 users. If you build many tiny overlapping cells, can use same spectrum in cells that don't overlap, thereby increasing number of users. Nevertheless, it can be expensive to have little cells, because you must negotiate with the owners of land and figure out ways communities can accommodate cell towers. Can't forget that another disadvantage of faraway towers is that they drain phones' battery life, as they must expend energy to communicate with the tower. Also spectrum is licensed regionally, so to be a good mobile carrier, you need to make a deal with companies that have infrastructure in other areas. Because of these high costs, we really only have 2.5 mobile carriers. Luckily, allocation of spectrum and creation of towers are good leverage points for policy. For carriers, relationship with the government is central.

Boston 4 Neighborhood Study (Hampton 2007)

1. upper-middle-class suburban neighborhood, high-rise and gated community (all 100-240 units) 2. Wired: neighborhood web page, personal page, communication & calendar, match-maker, ads, community poll 3. New users and non-users experience decline in network size when neighborhood wired 4. Over time, active users increase the size of neighborhood social networks - same number of "close" ties 5. Strongest effect for middle-class communities with lots of children 6. Weaker effect for gated community w few kids and older residents; and hardly any at all for apartment complex with mostly young single people

Relative position of US among advanced economies in broadband speed, capacity, penetration, and price (Berkman Center report).

1.Findings confirm the widespread perception that the United States is a middle-of-the-pack performer. 2. On fixed broadband penetration the U.S. is in the third quintile in the OECD; on mobile broadband penetration, in the fourth quintile. 2. In capacity the U.S. does better, mostly occupying the second quintile by measures of both advertised and actual speeds. 3. In price the picture is mixed, showing good performance on prices for the very low speed offerings, and very high prices, relatively, as speeds increase. 4. The U.S. does reasonably well for the lowest prices available for the slowest speeds, below1.5Mbps. Prices rise significantly as the offerings become those that are more "current generation": both in the 2-10Mbps category and the 10-32 Mbps high-speed category—where the US is 19th of 30 or 18th of the 28 that have high speed access, respectively. In prices for next generation speeds, the U.S. has the highest average prices from top-four providers in the OECD for speeds above 35Mbps, and is ranked 19th of 19 in that category.

The Long Tail

1.On-line retailing + 2.Cheap production + 3.Robotics in warehousing + 4.GPS in trucking fleets = 5.Robustness of long tail strategy. When demand is highly dispersed, selling a few copies of lots and lots of different things may work. (But you need recommendation systems for consumers to find the products they want.)

Cloud (including Noam's view of cloud computing's regulatory implications)

1.What we call today a 'cloud' is really just a continuation of concept that earlier was called 'time sharing', 'grid computing', 'utility computing', 'thin clients', 'terminal computing', and 'network computer'. The words change, the players rotate, but the plot stays familiar. The basic idea is constant: for a user to obtain computing resources such as storage,processing, databases, software, networks, platforms, etc, from somewhere else. 2. Eli Noam: More and more functions will move to a few powerful cloud providers, threatening interoperability and innovation. 3. A few companies will potentially have immense control and information over the Internet and how we use it, unless regulations protect competition. 4. Why? High fixed costs + low marginal costs + high network externalities = pressures toward industrial concentration

Part II: Where has a harm taken place? & Whose laws apply?

2000: The Yahoo Case (see Goldsmith & Wu)

Many Americans are Ignorant

52% of those surveyed wrongly believed that if a company posts a privacy policy, it ensures that the company keeps confidential all the information it collects on users

Takedowns

A DMCA Takedown is when content is removed from a website at the request of the owner of the content or the owner of the copyright of the content.

How Networks Work

A basic local network 1. Three computers, each represented by a box with a line connecting to a central line, which is a wire 2. This is the simplest network, which connects computers to each other: you can also do this wirelessly. WiFi is represented in the same way. This is also a local network

Main points in Digital Millenium Copyright Act, particularly DMCA anti-intervention rule

A. The DMCA is divided into five titles: 1. Title I, the "WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act of 1998," implements the WIPO treaties. 2. Title II, the "Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act," creates limitations on the liability of online service providers for copyright infringement when engaging in certain types of activities. 3. Title III, the "Computer Maintenance Competition Assurance Act," creates an exemption for making a copy of a computer program by activating a computer for purposes of maintenance or repair. 4. Title IV contains six miscellaneous provisions, relating to the functions of the Copyright Office, distance education, the exceptions in the Copyright Act for libraries and for making ephemeral recordings, "webcasting" of sound recordings on the Internet, and the applicability of collective bargaining agreement obligations in the case of transfers of rights in motion pictures. 5. Title V, the "Vessel Hull Design Protection Act," creates a new form of protection for the design of vessel hulls. B. DMCA anti-circumvention rule: The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) contains two main sections that have been a source of particular controversy since they went into effect in 2000. The "anti-circumvention" provisions (sections 1201 et seq. of the Copyright Act) bar circumvention of access controls and technical protection measures. Two classes of work shall be subject to the exemption from the prohibition on circumvention of technological measures that control access to copyrighted works. The two classes are: a. Compilations consisting of lists of websites blocked by filtering software applications; and b. Literary works, including computer programs and databases, protected by access control mechanisms that fail to permit access because of malfunction, damage or obsolescence.

Path-Dependent Nature of Technology

ARPANET as a case in point 1. As first envisioned by Rand Corporation scientists, ARPANET was meant to have military value, which meant it was produced to be durable, robust, and hard-to-kill... 2. When libertarian hackers use that kind of technology, they are able to foster very different values (decentralization, free speech, easy mobilization of collective action, not to mention less noble forms of hacking) based on: A. Open architecture B. Distributed computing C. Redundant functions

Almost all Computer Users were Online by 2004

According to GSS data

What Americans Say and Do about Privacy

Adults have little faith that companies can preserve their privacy (Pew 2013)

An Excursus on Network Analysis

After Many Years Network Analysis has gone from being the pursuit of a small cult of scientists in many disciplines to being very popular...

ATT&T/FaceTime Case Study

Apple FaceTime • High-quality video chat service • Originally available only over WiFi

Enforcement through Code (Defensive)

Article 4 of France's Internal Security Act (LOPPSI) requires filtering capacity in browsers and requires ISPs to block gambling sites and guard against IP infringement.

What's in a patent

At back of patent are the all important patent claims

"The NSA is Building the Country's Biggest Spy Center (Watch What You Say)" by James Bamford

Bamford provides a journalistic description (pre-Snowden) of NSA's data empire. 1. In the process—and for the first time since Watergate and the other scandals of the Nixon administration—the NSA has turned its surveillance apparatus on the US and its citizens. It has established listening posts throughout the nation to collect and sift through billions of email messages and phone calls, whether they originate within the country or overseas. It has created a supercomputer of almost unimaginable speed to look for patterns and unscramble codes. 2. Finally, the agency has begun building a place to store all the trillions of words and thoughts and whispers captured in its electronic net. And, of course, it's all being done in secret. To those on the inside, the old adage that NSA stands for Never Say Anything applies more than ever.

Rough percentage of 18-29 year old Facebook users who have changed their privacy settings

Based on data collected in early Fall 2009, Pew found that 71 percent of the 18-29-year-old social network site users they surveyed reported changing their privacy settings

Boston 3-neighborhood study

Boston 4 Neighborhood Study (Hampton 2007) 1. upper-middle-class suburban neighborhood, high-rise and gated community (all 100-240 units) 2. Wired: neighborhood web page, personal page, communication & calendar, match-maker, ads, community poll 3. New users and non-users experience decline in network size when neighborhood wired 4. Over time, active users increase the size of neighborhood social networks - same number of "close" ties 5. Strongest effect for middle-class communities with lots of children 6. Weaker effect for gated community w few kids and older residents; and hardly any at all for apartment complex with mostly young single people

"Facebook Privacy Settings: Who Cares?" by danah boyd and Eszter Hargittai

Boyd and Hargittai examine the issue of privacy, reporting on how Facebook users handle privacy settings. 1. With over 500 million users, the decisions that Facebook makes about its privacy settings have the potential to influence many people. While its changes in this domain have often prompted privacy advocates and news media to critique the company, Facebook has continued to attract more users to its service. This raises a question about whether or not Facebook's changes in privacy approaches matter and, if so, to whom. 2. This paper examines the attitudes and practices of a cohort of 18- and 19-year-olds surveyed in 2009 and again in 2010 about Facebook's privacy settings. Our results challenge widespread assumptions that youth do not care about and are not engaged with navigating privacy. We find that, while not universal, modifications to privacy settings have increased during a year in which Facebook's approach to privacy was hotly contested. We also find that both frequency and type of Facebook use as well as Internet skill are correlated with making modifications to privacy settings. In contrast, we observe few gender differences in how young adults approach their Facebook privacy settings, which is notable given that gender differences exist in so many other domains online.

Music Industry reality

But what's bad for major integrated recording companies is not necessarily bad for music.

One Implication of Mobile Technology

Can reach a person anywhere. This affects how people plan where and when to meet. Before mobile phones, needed to meet people in exact location.

Foresight is limited by both undue optimism

Cases of undue optimism 1. Picture phones in the Jetsons 2. NY Mayor Wagner and friend talking with Mrs. Ladybird Johnson on picturephone, 1964: this is Skype today: creators tossed out technology, not realizing that people would become less formal and not care about being seen 3. Electro & Sparko: Elektro was built in 1937/38 by Westinghouse at their factory in Mansfield, with the idea that everyone would have robots in the next 20-30 years. He was over seven foot tall and had a vocabulary of over 700 words. He first appeared at the 1939 New York World's Fair and returned there in 1940 with Sparko the dog, his operators putting on a twenty minute show every hour during the Fairs two summer run. Elektro was retired in the late 50s to be a static display at Palisades Theme Park in Ocean Side, California and after appearing in a few movies was sold for scrap. Even today, robot AI is bad, even though robots are very good at manufacturing

A group of insightful legal scholars from Harvard, Stanford and Yale have developed an analysis of this phenomenon that clarifies the relationship between technology, code, law, markets and norms. If one considers their work together, it adds up to a thorough analysis of the Internet's potential as a force for liberty or tyranny.

Common Themes: 1. Something has been lost in the shift from the "Navigational Web" to the "Transactional Web" (Easley & Kleinberg) 2. Architecture and Code embody values 3. Tension or misfit between values embodied in early web and those of existing law and commerce 4. Shift from regulation through norms to regulation through laws that use code 5. From anonymity to identity and accountability 6. From privacy to monitoring 7. Degradation of "End to End Principle" 8. From dumb pipes to smart pipes 9. The policy challenge: Providing necessary security while minimizing loss of privacy and autonomy.

How to Make a Big Network

Connect smaller networks. 1. Imagine two computers connected to one wire that connects to a third computer which is also connected to a network of three computers. The computer linking these two networks together is known as the "gateway" or "router." The gateway allows the connection of multiple network 2. This idea of connecting networks was originally called the "internetwork." As soon as this capability came about, people started connecting everything. The "Internet" is formed by these "internetworks." 3. To get on the Internet, need to find someone who's already on and use a gateway to link up your network. 4. Internet connectivity is not centrally managed. It's actually tough to make the Internet work at a large scale.

Values Motivate Preferences

Constitutive values of first U.S. communication infrastructure were the values of democracy (Paul Starr)

Network neutrality

Corporations and governments may not interfere with users' right to access any part of the World Wide Web for any legal purpose. 1. They may not interfere with the transmission of particular content, particular sites, classes of websites, or classes of web traffic. 2. They may not interfere by: A. blocking B. discriminating with technology C. discriminating through pricing

What is "Net Neutrality" 2nd cut: Consensus definition

Choice of law

Courts faced with a choice of law issue generally have two choices: A court can apply the law of the forum (lex fori)-- which is usually the result when the question of what law to apply is procedural, or the court can apply the law of the site of the transaction, or occurrence that gave rise to the litigation in the first place (lex loci)-- this is usually the controlling law selected when the matter is substantive.

"Bringing Municipal High-Speed Internet Access to Leverett, Massachusetts" by Susan Crawford and Robyn Mohr

Crawford and Mohr present a case study of one of several efforts by municipal governments to provide broadband access at a price accessible to all citizens. • LeverettNet is a last-mile fiber to the home network that will be operated by a publicly controlled Municipal Light Plant entity. The MLP will operate independently of Leverett's political infrastructure, but will be required by state law to charge subscribers no more than the cost of providing service. • The network will connect every household in a sparsely populated small town in Western Massachusetts that is currently underserved by private Internet access providers. Although every residence and business will be linked to LeverettNet, individual homeowners will have the discretion to decide whether to subscribe. • LeverettNet was planned to take advantage of MassBroadband 123, a publicly funded fiber network recently built to connect towns (but not individual homes and businesses) in Massachusetts. (Exhibit B is a map showing the progress of the MassBroadband 123, as of February 2013.) • Long-term leadership, planning, and community engagement by Leverett's public officials prompted the citizens of Leverett to approve a modest property tax increase in return for the long-term benefits of a FTTH network. • Although LeverettNet has opted for a tiered set of access plans, had it decided to deliver 1Gbps to every home and business in Leverett the cost of service to subscribers — including Internet access and phone service, state and local taxes, access fees, network operation fees, and maintenance fees — would have been $61.30 per household per month.

Odds Ratios for Using Internet at Home 1997-2009 by Education (BA or more vs. HS Grad, no college)

Declined between 1997 and 2001, before skyrocketing between 2001 and 2009

The Critical Role of DPI

Deep Packet Inspection can be used for: -Analyzing data flows -Responding to government information requests -Network security -Facilitating services like VoIP that require special treatment -(DPI and "packet sniffing") BUT! DPI also gives operators the opportunity to block content they don't like; block competing services; and gather data on customers.

Another example of complex relationship between commercial and state interests

Deep-Packet Inspection •Backdoors in pipes mandated under powers given the Justice Department under the Communications Assistance to Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) of 1994 •But backdoors can be used by ISPs to manage traffic and gain commercial advantage •They also make ISPS vulnerable to demands that they serve as IP law enforcement agents The result has been the degradation of the "End to End Principle" -- From dumb pipes with smart terminals to smart pipes that know what the smart terminals are doing.

Values I: Circulation of Information and a Vigorous Civil Society

Democracy requires publics with access to information about government and the ability to share ideas among one another. Implies: 1. Freedom of the press; 2. An inexpensive, national postal system, free from politics (common carriage); 3. Indirect subsidy of the press through cheap postal service (special rates)

DNS and Names

Domain Name System e.g. www.google.com 1.DNS: system that maps names to IP addresses 2. DNS is administratively controlled 3. It works by delegation e.g. any name that ends with .princeton.edu is delegated to the University 4. This system exists to make things easier for people

What do we know about the Internet's influence on community?

Early Research Stoked Fears of Technology

Patent Litigation

Even if USPTO issues patent, a person can raise 2 defenses after being sued for infringement: 1) We don't make product 2) USPTO shouldn't have issued the patent Now pretend you're a start-up, and you receive a letter from a lawyer saying pay us royalties to use our patent. You can: 1) Pay them 2) Change invention so as not to infringe 3) Challenge validity of their patent You could try to negotiate royalty rate down or defy them. Jury will rule on: 1) Validity of patent and 2) Whether you infringed If you lose, court will say you can't distribute product, have to pay damages, and have to pay royalties for products that have already been distributed. But if they sue you, and you win, you win big. Even better if the jury says the patent is invalid. While the lawsuit is going on, both sides are paying huge bills and are taking on big risks. Conventional wisdom: no one knows what jury is going to do. Many believe that juries are unpredictable. Even if you think patent in letter sent by lawyer is bogus, you as start-up owner will rationally pay off the patent troll. The question is whether this system works for software.

Cybersecurity and Cyberwarfare

Examples of cyberattacks 1. Russians read POTUS e-mail. Some people believed to be associated with Russian government penetrated weak State Department defense. Russians used phishing or spearphishing. Phishing: email made to look like a normal one with an attachment. Once opened, e-mail establishes presence on State Department e-mail. From State able to jump to White House unclassified email. White House detected attack and shut down both itself and State Department. Some intruders able to read both public and private e-mail. 2. Attacks on Sony Pictures: attributed to North Korea. Zetter article skeptical of attribution. US government as released more info that makes it likely that it was North Korea. Attacked extracted gossipy e-mails of CEO and put's Sony's computers out of commission for a week, in part due to "The Interview," movie that depicted assassination of named living leader, something is extremely rare. Attack may have been aided by insiders. 3. Stuxnet. This was a much more aggressive attack by US and Israeli governments working together. At time, there was fear that Iran was getting close to refining uranium. There was discussion of airstrikes against the facility. The attackers several times injected malicious software into the plant, which was airgapped from the Net. Not clear how the attackers put computer worm that surreptitiously infected and spread from computers in the plant.

"Two Challenges to Fixing Software Patents" by Eric Goldman

Explores two structural hurdles to addressing those problems: (1) the challenge of defining "software," and (2) which regulatory institution(s) can implement any fixes. 1. It may not be possible to define software patents precisely, it may be easy for patent applicants to game any software-specific rules, and we have to find a way to remain in compliance with our treaty obligations. On the other hand, if we avoid software patent-specific fixes and instead try to make changes across all patents, that would dramatically increase the number of potential opponents to the change-and reduce the odds of success. 2. Whether we decide to change software patents specifically or all patents categorically, the other major threshold question is who can implement a fix. The main options are Congress, the courts, the Patent & Trademark Office (PTO) and market solutions/industry self-regulation. In all likelihood, we may need participation from each institution to fully redress the problems with software patents.

Facebook's successful strategy for world domination (starting small, adding information, and then adding international identity infrastructure and targeted advertising)

Facebook tried to set up a network effect. Started at Harvard, then spread to other universities. Took advantage of the fact that Harvard people are highly networked. Facebook also played on the fact that people want to be friends with those who are higher status. Eventually, they brought advertising in after focusing on growth. 1. Modeled after Harvard's Facebook 2. Early on, photo and name and descriptive info 3. In early site, people could provide info on relationship status, political views 4. First rolled out at Harvard, then other "Ivies." Then other universities, then public universities. This release strategy was interesting. Friendster was doing something similar. Why Facebook Won 1. Zuckerberg's team was better at tech. 2. Rollout strategy was key. 3. Facebook relies on the network effect. How to get people to join: their friends are on. What Facebook did was clever. Facebook found people who dense ties and were high-status e.g. Harvard students. Facebook branched out to where Harvard kids had other friends i.e. other Ivies. Later History of Facebook 1. Emphasis on friend relationships 2. Status updates: first newsfeed, then curated newsfeed. Facebook has algorithms to predict what things you'll want to read. And now, ads are a part of the newsfeed. 3. Messaging 4. Photos and tagging (facial recognition). Facebook is able to do impressive facial recognition. 5. Federated log-in and identity (can use social media to log into another site). Facebook profile = identity on third party sites. This gives third parties lots of data and Facebook is getting lots of info as well. 6. Targeted advertising: ad revenue is key to Facebook. If Facebook is allowing advertisers to target users, advertisers know where click can come through. User may not know what they're revealing. Facebook makes it hard to target individuals.

Linus Torvalds

The Story of Linux

Linux

Finnish grad student Linus Torvalds 1. Build GPL-licensed OS kernel (UNIX-like). He emailed it to friends to say that they were welcome to work on it. 2. Kernel grew. Linus successfully built a kernel. 3. Linux kernel (Linus) + GNU Utilities (Stallman) = Linux. Linux grew organically from one guy to thousands of Linux programmers. The development team is as big as those at Windows or Mac OS. Linux Market Share 1. Desktop: 1% 2. Handheld devices: 53%, as Linux is at the base of Android and many mobile gaming devices. 3. Server as in server computers: 37%. Linux is the leader in this market. That is to say, Linux has outcompeted commercial products. That's pretty amazing.

Creative Commons Copyright

For artists who want others to be able to make use of their work, but who want to retain authorship, commercial and other rights, Creative Commons licensing provides an alternative to Copyright.

Creative Commons Licensing

For artists who want others to be able to make use of their work, but who want to retain authorship, commercial and other rights, Creative Commons licensing provides an alternative to Copyright.

Private-Sector Data Collection is Profit Driven

From advertisers to publishers to reach the audience

Stallman's Legal Strategy

GNU General Public License (GPL) 1. Because software is a creative work, you don't need copyright. 2. GPL is a statement Stallman put on his own software. 3. GPL gives anyone the right to share or modify the software, but shared/modified versions must carry the same license. 4. This is called a "viral license." Stallman is taking his legal right to prevent you from sharing software to allow sharing. He's using the force of copyright to protecting sharing. This is some serious legal judo. 5. Also under the GPL, you must provide the source code. If you violate the GPL, Stallman will sue you for copyright infringement. Once you say you accept the GPL, you must abide by it. Stallman objects to the refusal to share.

And New Adoption Continues to be Predicted by SES

GSS Panel Exponentiated Bs (Spring '00 - Fall '01) •BA or more (h.s. grad excluded) 3.092*** •Some college ("" "") 2.049** •Income (logged) 1.540*** •Not in labor force or school .465** •NS: Gender, African-American ID, Hispanic ID, Age •N=593 Nagelkerke R2 =.326 Q: But I thought new adopters were less elite? A: They're the elite of those at risk.

The Zittrain Cycle

Generativity requires interoperativity, which leads to vulnerability, which requires control, which threatens generativity

I. The Digital Divide in the U.S.

Good News •Gender gap has declined/disappeared •Age gap has shrunk except for oldest (cohort not age is issue) •Regional differences have diminished (though South still behind) Bad News •Educational inequality persists •Racial inequality persists •New Inequalities in access to broadband

Promoting a Virtuous Cycle

Good networks encourage the use of mobile devices, which in turn encourage people to develop applications, which users use, their use then encourages the creation of well-functioning networks

Many Policy Makers Believe that Internet Access Helps People Get Ahead

Gov. Blagojevich Announces More Than $63,000 in Innovative Grants to Strengthen Technology Literacy in Northwest Region • 'Eliminate the Digital Divide' Grants Will Prepare Workers for Better Jobs •Press release: "Expanding access to the Internet and technology goes hand-in-hand with giving children and working people all across Illinois the chance to learn more and get ahead. The grants we're announcing today will give dedicated local organizations in Kewanee and Rock Island the opportunity to help hundreds of people do better in school or in their jobs," Gov. Blagojevich said. •Statement of Findings for Illinois's 2000 "Eliminate the Digital Divide" Act: citizens who have mastered and have access to "the tools of the new digital technology" have "benefited in the form of improved employment possibilities and a higher standard of life," whereas those without access to and mastery of the technology "are increasingly constrained to marginal employment and a standard of living near the poverty level" (Illinois General Assembly 2000, Section I-5).

Governments and Online Behavior

Government has little power to regulate individual on-line behavior (without the help of social norms), but lots of power to regulate companies that can regulate individual behavior

Block chain

Hard part to implement is blockchain. You need to reach global consensus on wealth of millions of anonymous people. This was thought to be impossible before Bitcoin. Before Bitcoin, a central authority would publish blockchain for cryptocurrencies.

Granularity of the Data vs. Effects on historically disadvantaged communities

High Granularity 1. Benefit: • Discovering attractive customers and candidates in populations previously dismissed out of hand leads to Financial inclusion • Evidence-based and formalized decision-making 2. Harm: • Less favorable treatment in the marketplace leads to Finding specific customers not worth servicing (e.g., firing the customer) • Individualization of risk Low Granularity 1. Benefit: • Equal treatment in the marketplace leads to Common level of service and uniform price • Socialization of risk 2. Harm: • Underserving large swaths of the market leads to Redlining • Informal decision heuristics plagued by prejudice and implicit bias

"The Impact of the Internet on Financial Markets" by Nicholas Economides

High speed computing and digital communications as transformed finance three times - first, in the 1980s, when the ability to move currency across borders more or less instantaneously produced 24-hour-a-day world markets and new forms of arbitrage; second, in the 1990s, when operations research and finance converged to produce algorithm-driven trading; and, finally, in the past several years as digital currencies have challenged state monopolies over currency with new forms of money (and new forms of risk). 1. This short article discusses some important consequences of the emergence of the Internet as a global communications network. The Internet facilitation of information flows smoothes competitive frictions, intensifies competition, and promotes a winner-takes-most world. 2. The Internet threatens firms, markets, processes, systems, exchanges, and supply and distribution mechanisms that have thus far been protected from global and intense competition behind national borders, regulatory rules, or geographic location. The Internet brings financial markets even more forcefully into a regime of intense competition and very significant inequality: a winner-takes-most world with a very intense race for the winner and with significant benefits for market participants. 3. The Internet has been full of surprises. These include •its very rapid commercialization and expansion, •the emergence of the Internet browser as a must-have "killer" application in 1994-5, •the world-wide fast expansion in the use of electronic mail, •the huge success of live text-based multi-party chat, and •the emergence of Napster as 6% of all Internet traffic in the fourth quarter of 2000, among others. 4. The nature of the Internet is such that it holds a tremendous promise of new processes, goods, and services. Thus, despite the careful analysis above, I would venture to say that the Internet application and use that would become the most prominent in the next ten years is likely not yet conceived and its impact is unanticipated. On the Internet, expect the unexpected, and you will likely be pleasantly surprised!

"Behavioral Advertising: The Offer You Cannot Refuse" by Hoofnagle, Chris Jay, Soltani, Ashkan, Good, Nathan, Wambach, Dietrich James and Ayenson, Mika

Hoofnagle et al. discuss legal issues in the way our personal information is used for advertising 1. Our work demonstrates that advertisers use new, relatively unknown technologies to track people, specifically because consumers have not heard of these techniques. Furthermore, these technologies obviate choice mechanisms that consumers exercise. We argue that the combination of disguised tracking technologies, choice-invalidating techniques, and models to trick the consumers into revealing data suggests that advertisers do not see individuals as autonomous beings. Once conceived of as objects, preferences no longer matter and can be routed around with tricks and technology. 2. In the political debate, "paternalism" is a frequently invoked objection to privacy rules. Our work inverts the assumption that privacy interventions are paternalistic while market approaches promote freedom. We empirically demonstrate that advertisers are making it impossible to avoid online tracking. Advertisers are so invested in the idea of a personalized web that they do not think consumers are competent to decide to reject it. We argue that policymakers should fully appreciate the idea that consumer privacy interventions can enable choice, while the alternative, pure marketplace approaches can deny consumers opportunities to exercise autonomy.

Digital Inequality

How Social Inequality Influences Who Does What On-Line - and Why it Might Matter

Intellectual Property (start of second half of lecture notes)

How copyright has changed and how the Internet has changed Intellectual Property

The policy challenge: Providing necessary security while minimizing loss of privacy and autonomy.

How do we increase both user privacy, autonomy, generativity, and security/reliability? Increasingly a critical challenge for policy is defining "need." National security generates legitimate needs - but what protections can be retained without sacrificing national security needs. Commercial systems need information to serve their users and manage their networks. Does Google need unlimited access to personal data because its business model depend upon it? 1. Use ID devices that give websites only as much information as they need. 2. Let consumers see the data on them that websites and aggregators are sharing 3. Let consumers take their personal data with them when they leave websites. 4. Limit warrantless searches 5. Placing time limits on personal-data retention 6. Encourage software registration for automatic updates to enhance security 7. Extend warranties for users who opt for more secure configurations

"What Best Explains Successful Protest Cascades? ICTs and the Fuzzy Causes of the Arab Spring" by Muzamil M. Hussain and Philip N. Howard

Hussain and Howard describes the conditions under which mass protests use ICTs effectively. 1. This comparative analysis demonstrates that digital media may also have a role in rapid political transformations. Weighing multiple political, economic, and cultural conditions, we find that information infrastructure—especially mobile phone use—consistently appears as one of the key ingredients in parsimonious models for the conjoined combinations of causes behind regime fragility and social movement success. Internet use is relevant in some solution sets, but by causal logic it is actually the absence of Internet use that explains low levels of success by Arab Spring movements. 2. This investigation has illustrated that countries that do not have a civil society equipped with digital scaffolding are much less likely to experience popular movements for democracy—an observation we are able to make only by accounting for the constellation of causal variables that existed before the street protests began, not simply the short-term uses of digital technologies during the short period of political upheaval.

IP Address Geolocation

IP address geolocation is the process of localizing the location of a website visitor based on his IP address which is always provided for web browsing or other Internet usages. Personal Privacy • EU has one standard for commercial data, regulating 1. What can be collected 2. What must be revealed to the owner 3. How data must be protected • Can the EU impose its standard on US companies that do business in Europe? • Technologically, compliance is simple: Use IP geolocation to treat European personal data differently than U.S. personal data.

Enforcement through Code (Offensive)

If foreign interests use the Internet to violate U.S. laws, should the U.S. have the right to use cyber-warfare tools to punish them? e.g. Stuxnet

"Who Controls the Internet? Illusions of a Borderless World" by Jack Goldsmith and Tim Wu

If someone in Idaho posts an essay denying the Holocaust (speech that is illegal under French law but protected in the U.S.) and someone in Paris downloads it, can the French government take action against the downloader? The poster? The ISP? Can the Internet penetrate authoritarian systems with messages that cause citizens to question their regimes? What are the obligations of a service provider (e.g. , Google) to respect American free-speech values if a regime asks them to deny access to certain websites or types of messages? What should an ISP (e.g., Yahoo) do if that regime asks them to identify customers who have visited forbidden sites? What should a hardware company (e.g., Cisco) do if the regime asks them to provide smart networks that facilitate filtering and control? If these companies are headquartered in the U.S., should Congress pass laws forbidding them from complying with such requests? The brief excerpt from Goldsmith and Wu's book sets the stage 1. The introduction begins with the description of Yahoo's evolving relationships with foreign government control. First, the authors discuss the lawsuit brought against Yahoo by Mark Knobel in the French Courts for alleged trafficking of Nazi goods in France. 2. The book describes Yahoo's resistance and then eventual surrender to the French demands, pulling all Nazi materials off its Web sites. The authors then go on to describe Yahoo's relationship with China, promising to inspect and monitor information on Web sites and to refuse access to Web sites that contain an adverse influence of information. 3. "The Yahoo story encapsulates the Internet's transformation from a technology that resists territorial law to one that facilitates its enforcement."

In an age that believed in natural law and "inalienable rights," copyright was explicitly a created right: 1. It appeared in a separate part of the Constitution 2. Congress may "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors & Inventors the exclusive Rights to their respective writings and Discoveries" 3. Note language is permissive rather than insistent, explicitly instrumental, and emphasizes "limited time" 4. Freedoms of speech and association are different matters altogether!

Status of copyright in the U.S. Constitution

And from privacy to monitoring.

Invasive technologies produced for one purpose find new uses •From establishing identity at the session level to using code (cookies etc.) to aggregate user identities across sessions. •Taking data aggregated for commercial purposes and using it for government surveillance: we're trapped in Foucault's Panopticon

There are no technological imperatives. Technologies provide affordances rather than dictate behavior.

Inventors rarely know how their inventions will be used 1. The phonograph was first commercialized in 1888 by Jesse Lippincott, who thought it would replace stenographers and notepads. 2. It didn't. 3. Later, people paid to hear phonograph recordings in public... 4. Take the case of Hedy Lamarr: No star was more beautiful than she. She outran even the beauty factory of 1940 Hollywood. Hedy Lamarr came to America from Austria. She'd run away from a bad marriage to an arms maker who had helped to arm armed Mussolini for his invasion of Ethiopia. Her flight to America had also been a flight from the horrors of fascism as well as her marriage. In 1940 Lamarr met composer George Antheil at a dinner party. They fell to talking. The next evening, she invited him to dinner at her place. A peculiar chemistry had risen between two remarkable minds. They talked far into that night. Between them, they had an idea. Allied subs, it seems, were wasting torpedoes. Ocean currents and evasive action worked against them. Lamarr and Antheil meant to do something about that. Lamarr, just 26, had been only a girl when she'd listened to her husband talking about torpedoes. She might have looked like pretty wallpaper, but she'd been a quick pupil. And Antheil had done ingenious early work with the technology of modern music. The solution, they reasoned, was a radio-controlled torpedo. But it would be easy for the enemy to jam a radio-control signal. So they cooked up something called "frequency-hopping." The trick was to set up a sequencer that would rapidly jump both the control signal and its receiver through 88 random frequencies. They patented the system and gave it to the Navy. The Navy actually did put the system to use, but not in WW-II. Sylvania engineers reinvented it in 1957. The Navy first used frequency-hopping during the 1962 blockade of Cuba. That was three years after the Lamarr/Antheil patent had expired. Today, frequency hopping is used with the wireless phones that we have in our homes, GPS, most military communication systems

The Politics of Elite Division

Issues make it onto the political agenda when (a) lots of people care deeply about them or when (b) elites are split. 1. It's hard to get people to care about highly technical issues like network neutrality. 2. Network neutrality stays on the agenda because of conflict among major corporations --- the content and service providers vs. the Internet access providers -- over the new political economy of communications and information and entertainment. 3. If edge providers and access providers merge (Comcast/NBC) or reach accommodation (Verizon/Google) the issue will be resolved in favor of large companies.

Technologies are Malleable and dead ends are common

It's not just great minds that think alike... 1. Smithville Problems: 1) Sudden bumps, 2) Only one monorail led to confrontations when riders headed in different directions! 2. Jinnosuke Kajino planned a bicycle railroad. This plan did not materialize. This railroad bicycle does not understand even structure. This plan is...dated Aug-ust, 1889

"Gaydar: Facebook Friendships Expose Sexual Orientation" by Carter Jernigan and Behram Mistree

Jernigan/Mistree report the results of a study that shows what anyone with access to Facebook data can infer about sexual orientation. 1. Public information about one's coworkers, friends, family, and acquaintances, as well as one's associations with them, implicitly reveals private information. Social networking Web sites, e-mail, instant messaging, telephone, and VoIP are all technologies steeped in network data — data relating one person to another. 2. Network data shifts the locus of information control away from individuals, as the individual's traditional and absolute discretion is replaced by that of his social network. 3. Our research demonstrates a method for accurately predicting the sexual orientation of Facebook users by analyzing friendship associations. After analyzing 4,080 Facebook profiles from the MIT network, we determined that the percentage of a given user's friends who self-identify as gay male is strongly correlated with the sexual orientation of that user, and we developed a logistic regression classifier with strong predictive power. 4. Although we studied Facebook friendship ties, network data is pervasive in the broader context of computer-mediated communication, raising significant privacy issues for communication technologies to which there are no neat solutions.

Results of time diary studies of association of Internet use on time use

John Robinson, University of Maryland (U.S.) together with Jonathan Gershuny, Oxford Univ. (U.K.). Samples of people fill out diary for a week, saying what they do and when. 1. Internet use associated w/ A. Lots of other socializing B. Less television watching C. Less sleeping 2. By contrast, TV in 1950s A. Less visiting friends B. Less going out C. Less reading

Time Diary Studies

"How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression" by Gary King, Jennifer Pan, and Margarete E. Roberts

King et al. report results of research into how China's Great Firewall operates in practice. 1. We offer the first large scale, multiple source analysis of the outcome of what may be the most extensive effort to selectively censor human expression ever implemented. To do this, we have devised a system to locate, download, and analyze the content of millions of social media posts originating from nearly 1,400 different social media services all over China before the Chinese government is able to find, evaluate, and censor (i.e., remove from the Internet) the subset they deem objectionable. Using modern computer-assisted text analytic methods that we adapt to and validate in the Chinese language, we compare the substantive content of posts censored to those not censored over time in each of 85 topic areas. 2. Contrary to previous understandings, posts with negative, even vitriolic, criticism of the state, its leaders, and its policies are not more likely to be censored. Instead, we show that the censorship program is aimed at curtailing collective action by silencing comments that represent, reinforce, or spur social mobilization, regardless of content. 3. Censorship is oriented toward attempting to forestall collective activities that are occurring now or may occur in the future—and, as such, seem to clearly expose government intent.

Understanding the "Net Neutrality Debate"

Lecture by Jennifer Rexford

Greater regulation has entailed a movement from anonymity and freedom to identity and accountability.

Lessig's "Identity Layer" - Protocols that Authenticate Users (1996-2013) 1. Permanent IP addresses and caching of temporary addresses to tie users to sessions. 2. IP Mapping software to enable states to locate activity in space (essential for identifying violation of state or national laws; useful for retail) 3. Site specific security requiring public/private key encryption for sensitive websites 4. Permanent identities for particular domains (e.g., what you do at www.princeton.edu) 5. Stable identity within most of what you do online (Google, Facebook)

Commercial success of Linux

Linux Market Share 1. Desktop: 1% 2. Handheld devices: 53%, as Linux is at the base of Android and many mobile gaming devices. 3. Server as in server computers: 37%. Linux is the leader in this market. That is to say, Linux has outcompeted commercial products. That's pretty amazing.

"The Drama! Teen Conflict, Gossip and Bullying in Networked Places" by Alice Marwick and danah boyd

Marwick and boyd provide an ethnographic account of some disruptive effects (e.g. bullying) of social media in high-school-age communities. 1. While teen conflict will never go away, networked publics have changed how it operates. "Drama" is a very messy process, full of contradictions and blurred boundaries. But it opens up spaces for teens. As a concept, drama lets teens conceptualize and understand how their social dynamics have changed with the emergence of social media. Technology allows teens to carve out agented identities for themselves even when embroiled in social conflict. And it lets them save face when confronted with adult-defined dynamics, which their peers see as childish and irrelevant. 2. In this paper, we have attempted to map out some of the core elements of drama and understand the function that it serves in teenage lives. Understanding how "drama" operates is necessary to recognize teens' own defenses against the realities of aggression, gossip, and bullying in networked publics. Most teens do not recognize themselves in the "bullying" rhetoric used by parents, teen advocates, and mental health professionals. Even the pop cultural depictions in television shows like Glee feel irrelevant to many teens. They do not want to see themselves as victims or as aggressors, but as mature individuals navigating their world competently. Even teens who are clearly instigators of drama brush off its significance, enjoying the attention, emulating the excitement of celebrity culture, and unquestioningly reproducing the gender norms around them. These dynamics are different from those described in bullying narratives.

Network multiplexity

Multiplexity refers to the phenomenon in which more than one type of relationship exists between two nodes, with these multiple types of relationships potentially being interdependent, and influencing each other.

Setting a Bad Example: Instant Checkmate

Names, assigned at birth to more black or white babies, are found predictive of race (88% black, 96% white), and those assigned primarily to black babies, such as DeShawn, Darnell and Jermaine, generated ads suggestive of an arrest in 81 to 86 percent of name searches on one website and 92 to 95 percent on the other, while those assigned at birth primarily to whites, such as Geoffrey, Jill and Emma, generated more neutral copy: the word "arrest" appeared in 23 to 29 percent of name searches on one site and 0 to 60 percent on the other.

"Mobile Leapfrogging and Digital Divide Policy: Assessing the Limitations of Mobile Internet Access" by Philip Napoli and Jonathan Obar

Napoli and Obar raise critical questions about whether the expansion of mobile devices (a key way in which people in much of Asia and Africa, as well as low-income communities in the U.S., have accessed the Internet) bridges the divide or establishes a kind of second-class netizenship. 1. This paper examines the emerging global phenomenon of mobile leapfrogging in Internet access. Leapfrogging refers to the process in which new Internet users are obtaining access by mobile devices and are skipping the traditional means of access: personal computers. This leapfrogging of PC-based Internet access has been hailed in many quarters as an important means of rapidly and inexpensively reducing the gap in Internet access between developed and developing nations, thereby reducing the need for policy interventions to address this persistent digital divide. 2. This paper offers a critical perspective on the process of mobile leapfrogging. Drawing upon data on Internet access and device penetration from 34 countries, this paper first shows that while greater access to mobile technologies suggests the possibility of a leapfrog effect, the lack of 3G adoption suggests that mobile phones are not yet acting as functionally equivalent substitutes for personal computers. 3. Next, this paper puts forth a set of concerns regarding the limitations and potential shortcomings of mobile-based Internet access relative to traditional PC-based Internet access. This paper illustrates a number of important relative shortcomings in terms of memory and speed, content availability, network architecture, and patterns of information seeking and content creation amongst users. This paper concludes that policymakers should be cautions about promoting mobile access as a solution to the digital divide, and undertake policy reforms that ensure that communities that rely on mobile as their only gateway to the Internet do not get left further behind.

American Community Survey 2013

Not directly comparable to CPS but shows continuing inequality 1. Whites have greater rates of household internet access than Hispanics, who in turn have greater rates of household internet than blacks 2. Those with BA have significantly greater rates of household internet access than those with a high school diploma only

Offensive action

Offensive action is the decisive form of battle. The primary purpose of the offense is to defeat, destroy, or neutralize an enemy force.

Data mining definition

Often used as a means for detecting fraud, assessing risk, and product retailing, data mining involves the use of data analysis tools to discover previously unknown, valid patterns and relationships in large data sets.

Key tenets of 2010 Internet Policy

On Dec. 21 2010, after more than one year of investigation and debate, the FCC passed (by a 3-2 party-line vote): Preserving the Open Internet and Broadband Industry Practices Report and Order FCC-2010 (Open Internet Order). These rules became effective on November 20, 2011. 1. First principle: Transparency: All providers must clearly disclose network management practices and terms to consumers. 2. Second principle: No Blocking . "Fixed broadband providers may not block lawful content, applications, services, or non-harmful devices; mobile broadband providers may not block lawful websites, or block applications that compete with their voice or video telephony services." 3. Third principle: No unreasonable discrimination: "Fixed broadband providers may not unreasonably discriminate in transmitting lawful network traffic." This includes a near prohibition of "pay-for-priority" tiering of services to content providers. 4. "Reasonable network management" is ok: including transparent tiered plan offerings to subscribers; also application-agnostic discrimination (limit heavy users during congestion); spam blocking and protection against cyber-attack. 5. More lenient rules for cellular devices.

The FCC's Open Internet Order

Plus ça change....

On November 11, 2013, while Bob Dylan was in France to accept the French government's highest award - the Legion of Honor - a prosecutor charged him with "public injury" and "incitement to hatred" for comments in an interview posted online by Rolling Stone a year earlier. (In this case, though, they were published in France as well.)

An example: Britt McHenry Goes Viral

On the roughly one-minute long video that was captured by a surveillance camera, McHenry says to an employee at a register: "I'm in the news, sweetheart. I will (expletive) sue this place." The employee tells McHenry she's being recorded, but it doesn't stop her from continuing her rant. "That's why I have a degree and you don't," she says. "I wouldn't work at a scumbag place like this. Makes my skin crawl even being here." Later McHenry says, "maybe if I was missing some teeth they would hire me, huh?" The employee apparently says something about McHenry's hair and the color of her roots. McHenry sasses back, saying, "Oh, like yours, 'cause they look so stunning, 'cause I'm on television and you're in a (expletive) trailer, honey. Lose some weight, baby girl." 1. Ms. McHenry's privacy violated? 2. Was this a bad thing? A good thing? 3. When was her privacy violated? A. When she was videoed? B. When the video was released? C. When the video went viral?

Compulsory Licensing

Orphan works: Why should a play be harder than a radio show? - Means of reducing transaction costs - Makes material more readily available and -Ensures collection of fees for creators

Community On-Line: Theory and Research

Outline 1. What is community? 2. What do we know about how the Internet has affected community? 3. What are the major policy issues related to social media?

Newspaper Classified Ads in Millions 1990-2010

Peaked in 2000: declined between then and 2005 and declined incredibly dramatically between 2005 and 2010

EU/US privacy-regulation debate - the "right to be forgotten"

Personal Privacy • EU has one standard for commercial data, regulating 1. What can be collected 2. What must be revealed to the owner 3. How data must be protected • Can the EU impose its standard on US companies that do business in Europe? • Technologically, compliance is simple: Use IP geolocation to treat European personal data differently than U.S. personal data. • Economically, it's not: Google, Facebook, and Twitter business plans don't work without personal data. • Precedent: 2001 U.S. Children's On-Line Privacy Asserts jurisdiction over any website operating in the U.S., regardless of where the servers are located. EU v. Search Engines • In May 2014, the European Court of Justice ruled that Google can be forced to remove search results that link individuals to certain search results, thus enshrining a right to be forgotten. 1. Does not apply where there is strong public interest in the information. 2. Applies only to searches done and displayed in Europe, where subjects are EU citizens or residents. 3. Case taken in response to request from Spanish court facing 180 requests for relief from Google searches 4. Previously Formula One chief Max Mosely successfully sued Google successfully to remove images of him at a 2008 sadomasochistic orgy.

Who Imagines and Defends the Public Interest?

Policy research and advocacy groups play a critical role in (a) Gathering information; (b) Presenting information; (c) Clarifying values; (d) Transforming issue preferences into coherent positions. (e) Advocating for philosophically consistent policy packages. (f) Presenting particular interests as the "public interest."

Pros and cons of strong or weak privacy protection

Pros of weak privacy protection 1. Accurate information persons makes it easier for law enforcement and security agencies to prevent crime or terrorism (government) 2. Seller/Consumer incentives aligned around experience-tailoring (companies) 3. Incentives also aligned around privacy - data breaches cause embarrassment and liability (companies) Cons of weak privacy protection 1. But can we trust government not to use irrelevant information for political purposes? (government) 2. And where data-mining is used, do we have the right proxies? Guilt by association? (government) 3. Incentives are mis-aligned around price discrimination (Amazon, 2001) (companies) 4. Risk of data falling into wrong hands (companies) 5. Embarrassing ad targeting (companies)

Google's Ad Revenue

Rakes in more ad dollars than US print media

Registry

Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) are nonprofit corporations that administer and register Internet Protocol (IP) address space and Autonomous System (AS) numbers within a defined region. RIRs also work together on joint projects.

"Social media and the Activist Toolkit: User Agreements, Corporate Interests, and the Information Infrastructure of Modern Social Movements" by William Lafi Youmans and Gillian York

Repressive regimes, of course, are not taking these challenges lying down: Youmans and York show how they can use social media against movements for social change 1. The uprisings in Tunisia, Egypt, and elsewhere have been credited in part to the creative use of social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter. 2. Yet the information policies of the firms behind social media can inhibit activists and empower authoritarian regimes. 3. Analysis of Facebook's response to Egypt's ''We Are All Khaled Said'' group, YouTube's policy exemption for videos coming from Syria, Moroccan loyalist response to the online presence of atheists, and the activities of the Syrian Electronic Army illustrate how prohibitions on anonymity, community policing practices, campaigns from regime loyalists, and counterinsurgency tactics work against democracy advocates. These problems arise from the design and governance challenges facing large-scale, revenue-seeking social media enterprises.

DiMaggio and Bonikowski's main finding on Internet use effects on earnings (lecture)

Results I: Internet Use Increased Earnings 1. Controlling for lagged hourly earnings, Internet users had significantly higher earnings than non-users. 2. The effects were strongest for workers who currently used the Internet on the job, especially if they used it in both 2000 and 2001, and especially if they also used it at home ($1.74/hr. more with controls for median earners). But it was also the case for workers who A. Used the Internet only at work, but not at home ($1.03/hr.) B. Used the Internet at home, but not at work ($.61/hr.) C. Used the Internet in 2001, but not 2000 Indicating that results (a) not just human capital & (b) not artifacts of employer selection effects Results II: 1. The effect of Internet use on earnings remained significant: When additional statistical controls were introduced for gender, race/ethnicity, age, education, region, marital status, metropolitan residence, occupation, union membership, industry, and eight measures of job-specific skills 2. The results also ran a gauntlet of robustness checks: propensity-score matching (for unobserved heterogeneity); analysis of change scores; and tests for effects of imputation, proxy responses, and other CPS issues

"A Taste for the Necessary: A Bourdieuian Approach to Digital Inequality" by Laura Robinson

Robinson puts a human face on the statistics. 1. While American teenagers are often presumed to be uniformly 'wired', in reality, segments of the youth population lack high-quality, high-autonomy internet access. Taking a uniquely holistic approach that situates new media use within respondents' larger lifeworlds, this study examines the effects of digital inequality on economically disadvantaged American youth. 2. Analyzing primary survey and interview data, findings reveal the roles played by spatial-temporal constraints and emotional costs in creating disparities in usage and skills among differently situated respondents. A close examination of the interview material discloses a dramatic divergence in the informational orientation or habitus internalized by respondents with more- and less-constrained internet access. Drawing on Bourdieu's concept of skhole`, the work outlines the differences between the playful or exploratory stance adopted by those with high-quality internet access and the task-oriented stance assumed by those with low-quality internet access. 3. Analysis reveals that those with low-autonomy, low-quality access enact a 'taste for the necessary' in their rationing of internet use to avoid what they perceive as 'wasteful' activities with no immediate payoff.

"Data Mining and Internet Profiling: Emerging Regulatory and Technological Approaches" by Ira Rubinstein, Ronald Lee and Paul Schwartz

Rubinstein et al. bridge government and corporate activity, trying to find a coherent legal framework for policies toward both. 1. Predictive data mining by the government offers promise and peril in its response to terrorism. In this essay, we have considered ways for heightening the positive and reducing the negative aspects of this technique. We have also evaluated the likely emergence of identity management systems within the private sector and some tradeoffs between and similarities with data mining. 2. Greater transparency is needed regarding the reliability, track record, and operation of government and commercial data mining systems. In addition, questions re-main about the extension of consensus safeguards around government data mining to commercial data mining, the extent and speed of ad-funded web services' adoption of identity management systems, and the broader social impact of greater online anonymity and pseudonymity.

Section 215 of the U.S. Patriot Act

Section 215 allows the government to obtain a secret court order requiring third parties, such as telephone companies, to hand over any records or other "tangible thing" if deemed "relevant" to an international terrorism, counterespionage, or foreign intelligence investigation

"Data Mining and Homeland Security: An Overview" by Jeffrey W. Seifert

Seifert offers an overview of government data-mining activities employed for purpose of "homeland security" 1. While data mining represents a significant advance in the type of analytical tools currently available, there are limitations to its capability. One limitation is that although data mining can help reveal patterns and relationships, it does not tell the user the value or significance of these patterns. These types of determinations must be made by the user. A second limitation is that while data mining can identify connections between behaviors and/or variables, it does not necessarily identify a causal relationship. Successful data mining still requires skilled technical and analytical specialists who can structure the analysis and interpret the output. 2. As with other aspects of data mining, while technological capabilities are important, there are other implementation and oversight issues that can influence the success of a project's outcome. One issue is data quality, which refers to the accuracy and completeness of the data being analyzed. A second issue is the interoperability of the data mining software and databases being used by different agencies. A third issue is mission creep, or the use of data for purposes other thanfor which the data were originally collected. A fourth issue is privacy. Questions that may be considered include the degree to which government agencies should use and mix commercial data with government data, whether data sources are being used for purposes other than those for which they were originally designed, and possible application of the Privacy Act to these initiatives

"Effective Counterterrorism and the Limited Role of Predictive Data Mining" by Jeff Jonas and Jim Harper

Seifert offers an overview of government data-mining activities employed for purpose of "homeland security" - efforts of which Jonas and Harper question the value. 1. Searching for terrorists must begin with actionable information, and it must follow logically through the available data toward greater knowledge. Predictive data mining always provides "information," but useful knowledge comes from context and from inferences drawn from known facts about known people and events. 2. Searching for terrorists must begin with actionable information, and it must follow logically through the available data toward greater knowledge. Predictive data mining always provides "information," but useful knowledge comes from context and from inferences drawn from known facts about known people and events.

"Democracy and the Internet" by Cass R. Sunstein

Sunstein argues that the Internet may threaten the kind of political communities that democracy requires. 1. Is the Internet a wonderful development for democracy? In many ways it certainly is. As a result of the Internet, people can learn far more than they could before, and they can learn it much faster. If you are interested in issues that relate to public policy - air quality, wages over time, motor vehicle safety, climate change - you can find what you need to know in a matter of seconds. If you are suspicious of the mass media and want to discuss issues with like-minded people, you can do that, transcending the limitations of geography in ways that could barely be imagined even a decade ago. And if you want to get information to a wide range of people, you can do that, via email, blogs, or Web sites; this is another sense in which the Internet is a great boon for democracy. 2. But in the midst of the celebration, I want to raise a note of caution. I do so by emphasizing one of the most striking powers provided by emerging technologies: the growing power of consumers to 'filter' what they see. As a result of the Internet and other technological developments, many people are increasingly engaged in the process of 'personalization', which limits their exposure to topics and points of view of their own choosing. They filter in and they also filter out, with unprecedented powers of precision. Relevant Web sites and blogs are being created every week.

Why does money have value?

Supply (limited) and demand means that money has some non-zero value. Real question: where does demand come from? 1. Base level of demand: A) exchangeable for a commodity, B) required for certain transactions i.e. paying taxes 2. Consensus demand: consensus belief that money will have value in the future All demand for Bitcoin is consensus demand: this is circular, but still true, argument. If consensus breaks, Bitcoin will depreciate.

"Discrimination in Online Ad Delivery" by Latanya Sweeney

Sweeney writes about how algorithms produce inequality. 1. A Google search for a person's name, such as "Trevon Jones", may yield a personalized ad for public records about Trevon that may be neutral, such as "Looking for Trevon Jones? ...", or may be suggestive of an arrest record, such as "Trevon Jones, Arrested?...". 2. This writing investigates the delivery of these kinds of ads by Google AdSense using a sample of racially associated names and finds statistically significant discrimination in ad delivery based on searches of 2184 racially associated personal names across two websites. 3. First names, previously identified by others as being assigned at birth to more black or white babies, are found predictive of race (88% black, 96% white), and those assigned primarily to black babies, such as DeShawn, Darnell and Jermaine, generated ads suggestive of an arrest in 81 to 86 percent of name searches on one website and 92 to 95 percent on the other, while those assigned at birth primarily to whites, such as Geoffrey, Jill and Emma, generated more neutral copy: the word "arrest" appeared in 23 to 29 percent of name searches on one site and 0 to 60 percent on the other. 4. On the more ad trafficked website, a black-identifying name was 25% more likely to get an ad suggestive of an arrest record. A few names did not follow these patterns: Dustin, a name predominantly given to white babies, generated an ad suggestive of arrest 81 and 100 percent of the time. All ads return results for actual individuals and ads appear regardless of whether the name has an arrest record in the company's database. Notwithstanding these findings, the company maintains Google received the same ad text for groups of last names (not first names), raising questions as to whether Google's advertising technology exposes racial bias in society and how ad and search technology can develop to assure racial fairness.

Lessons for privacy of Netflix Challenge

Takeaway: dataset poses privacy issue, if behavior is distinctive enough to likely be unique. Issue with reidentification: scrubbing identifiers out is not nearly enough. 1. Power of using external data to reidentify, and 2. Power of using lots of data, even if the data are low quality.

Sony Rootkit Scandal

Tells us about how companies try to put copyright in in practice 1. Student in Felten's lab discovered that Sony CDs had software that prevented people from ripping them 2. Instead of Auto-run, Sony automatically installed software on the computer 3. Installing software without permission was problematic 4. Worse yet was the fact that this software not only left gaping hole in security but also contained a rootkit that could not be detected 5. Halderman discovered this by reverse engineering the CDs 6. This is an example of the ways in which companies can get in trouble

Summary of Digital Millenium Copyright Act provided by the U.S. Copyright Office

The DMCA is divided into five titles: 1. Title I, the "WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act of 1998," implements the WIPO treaties. 2. Title II, the "Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act," creates limitations on the liability of online service providers for copyright infringement when engaging in certain types of activities. 3. Title III, the "Computer Maintenance Competition Assurance Act," creates an exemption for making a copy of a computer program by activating a computer for purposes of maintenance or repair. 4. Title IV contains six miscellaneous provisions, relating to the functions of the Copyright Office, distance education, the exceptions in the Copyright Act for libraries and for making ephemeral recordings, "webcasting" of sound recordings on the Internet, and the applicability of collective bargaining agreement obligations in the case of transfers of rights in motion pictures. 5. Title V, the "Vessel Hull Design Protection Act," creates a new form of protection for the design of vessel hulls.

Mistakes of the Farmer's Market

The Farmer's Market was too open. Undercover agents infiltrated it, because it used open payment methods, which were easy to take down. Beyond that, the Farmer's Market 1) Publicized online drug markets 2) Revealed weak point of P2P dealing: communications and payments. In last few years, users shopped at many sites that were scams. Sheep's Market owners absconded with $40 million. There was also a weapons trading site on the Silk Road. The Armory closed after lack of interest.

"Legal FAQ: Introduction to Patent Law" by Robin Reasoner and Charlene Morrow

The Reasoner/Morrow and Goldman readings address IP as it applies to patents rather than to copyrights, featuring issues related to the patenting of software.

Could the UK prosecute Dread Pirate Roberts?

The US can because he operated in the U.S.

"Big Data: Seizing Opportunities and Preserving Values" by the President's Council on Science and Technology

The White House report on big data raises issues of justice in a world of big data. 1. Big data tools offer astonishing and powerful opportunities to unlock previously inaccessible insights from new and existing data sets. Big data can fuel developments and discoveries in health care and education, in agriculture and energy use, and in how businesses organize their supply chains and monitor their equipment. Big data holds the potential to streamline the provision of public services, increase the efficient use of taxpayer dollars at every level of government, and substantially strengthen national security. The promise of big data requires government data be viewed as a national resource and be responsibly made available to those who can derive social value from it. It also presents the opportunity to shape the next generation of computational tools and technologies that will in turn drive further innovation. 2. Big data also introduces many quandaries. By their very nature, many of the sensor technologies deployed on our phones and in our homes, offices, and on lampposts and rooftops across our cities are collecting more and more information. Continuing advances in analytics provide incentives to collect as much data as possible not only for today's uses but also for potential later uses. Technologically speaking, this is driving data collection to become functionally ubiquitous and permanent, allowing the digital traces we leave behind to be collected, analyzed, and assembled to reveal a surprising number of things about ourselves and our lives. These developments challenge longstanding notions of privacy and raise questions about the "notice and consent" framework, by which a user gives initial permission for their data to be collected. But these trends need not prevent creating ways for people to participate in the treatment and management of their information. 3. An important finding of this review is that while big data can be used for great social good, it can also be used in ways that perpetrate social harms or render outcomes that have inequitable impacts, even when discrimination is not intended. Small biases have the potential to become cumulative, affecting a wide range of outcomes for certain dis-advantaged groups. Society must take steps to guard against these potential harms by ensuring power is appropriately balanced between individuals and institutions, whether between citizen and government, consumer and firm, or employee and business.

"International Strategy for Cyberspace: Prosperity, Security and Openness in a Networked World" by Barack Obama

The White House report sets out current U.S. policy, emphasizing the importance of security. Also Outlines the U.S.'s current policies. 1. The International Strategy lays out the President's vision for the future of the Internet, and sets an agenda for partnering with other nations and peoples to achieve that vision. It begins by recognizing the successes networked technologies have brought us, in large part due to the spirit of freedom and innovation that has characterized the Internet from its early days as a research project. While the strategy is realistic about the challenges we face, it nonetheless emphasizes that our policies must continue to be grounded in our core principles of fundamental freedoms, privacy, and the free flow of information. 2. To achieve our vision, the United States will build an international environment that ensures global networks are open to new innovations, interoperable the world over, secure enough to support people's work, and reliable enough to earn their trust. To achieve it, we will build and sustain an environment in which norms of responsible behavior guide states' actions, sustain partnerships, and support the rule of law. 3. The International Strategy is larger than any one department or agency. It is a strong foundation for the diverse activities we will carry out across our entire government. It is about the principles that unite our nation, the vision that unites our policy, and the priorities that unite our government. 4. With our partners around the world, we will work to create a future for cyberspace that builds prosperity, enhances security, and safeguards openness in our networked world. This is the future we seek, and we invite all nations, and peoples, to join us in that effort.

WIPO (2nd half of semester)

Root servers

The authoritative name servers that serve the DNS root zone, commonly known as the "root servers", are a network of hundreds of servers in many countries around the world. They are configured in the DNS root zone as 13 named authorities, as follows.

"Next Generation Connectivity: A Review of Broadband Internet Transitions and Policy from Around the World" by Robert Faris, Urs Gasser, Laura Miyakawa, Stephen Schultze

The brief summary of the Berkman Center report provides context, condensing the findings of the most thorough study of policies that have supported the rapid emergence of broadband connectivity in the economically advanced societies. 1. Our most prominent initial findings, confirmed and extended in this final draft, were that U.S. broadband performance in the past decade has declined relative to other countries and is no better than middling. Our study expanded the well known observation with regard to penetration per 100 inhabitants, and examined and found the same to be true of penetration per household; subscriptions for mobile broadband; availability of nomadic access; as well as advertised speeds and actually measured speeds; and pricing at most tiers of service. Our study further identified the great extent to which open access policies played a role in establishing competitive broadband markets during the first-generation broadband transition in Europe and Japan, and the large degree to which contemporary transpositions of that experience were being integrated into current plans to preserve and assure competitive markets during the next generation transition. 2. The primary changes between the original draft report and the final are: the inclusion of a new, extensive, formal literature review of the quantitative and qualitative literature on open access, in particular unbundling, and broadband performance and investment; expansion of the price and actual speed measurement benchmarking, as well as a slight refinement of assessing 3G growth; a new, compact review of the critiques of penetration per 100 measurements and responses to them that replaces the original focus on the density critique alone; new extensive case studies of the voluntary models of open access in the Netherlands and Switzerland; and a variety of discrete responses to useful comments we received on specific country studies.

"Digital Inequality" by Eszter Hargittai and Yuli Hsieh

The chapter by Hargittai and Hsieh summarizes the social-science literature on digital inequality 1. Digital inequality can refer both to how existing social inequalities influence the adoption and use of digital technologies as well as how differential uses of the Internet itself may influence social stratification. 2. Given that ample research has shown how Internet access, skills, and uses are related to people's demographic background and socioeconomic status, there is a good chance that these inequalities will be perpetuated when it comes to outcome of digital media uses rather than resulting in an ameliorating effect.

"Digital Differences" by Kathryn Zickuhr and Aaron Smith

The chapter by Hargittai and Hsieh summarizes the social-science literature on digital inequality and the Pew Report brings the numbers up to date. 1. While increased internet adoption and the rise of mobile connectivity have reduced many gaps in technology access over the past decade, for some groups digital disparities still remain 2. One in five American adults does not use the internet. Senior citizens, those who prefer to take our interviews in Spanish rather than English, adults with less than a high school education, and those living in households earning less than $30,000 per year are the least likely adults to have internet access. 3. Among adults who do not use the internet, almost half have told us that the main reason they don't go online is because they don't think the internet is relevant to them. Most have never used the internet before, and don't have anyone in their household who does. About one in five say that they do know enough about technology to start using the internet on their own, and only one in ten told us that they were interested in using the internet or email in the future. 4. The 27% of adults living with disability in the U.S. today are significantly less likely than adults without a disability to go online (54% vs. 81%). Furthermore, 2% of adults have a disability or illness that makes it more difficult or impossible for them to use the internet at all. 5. Though overall internet adoption rates have leveled off, adults who are already online are doing more. And even for many of the "core" internet activities we studied, significant differences in use remain, generally related to age, household income, and educational attainment. 6. Currently, 88% of American adults have a cell phone, 57% have a laptop, 19% own an e-book reader, and 19% have a tablet computer; about six in ten adults (63%) go online wirelessly with one of those devices. Gadget ownership is generally correlated with age, education, and household income, although some devices—notably e-book readers and tablets—are as popular or even more popular with adults in their thirties and forties than young adults ages 18-29. 7. The rise of mobile is changing the story. Groups that have traditionally been on the other side of the digital divide in basic internet access are using wireless connections to go online. Among smartphone owners, young adults, minorities, those with no college experience, and those with lower household income levels are more likely than other groups to say that their phone is their main source of internet access.

GNU

The name "GNU" is a recursive acronym for "GNU's Not Unix." GNU Project: 1. Build a GPL licensed "clone" of UNIX 2. NB: UNIX: Pronounced yoo-niks, a popular multi-user, multitasking operating system developed at Bell Labs in the early 1970s. Created by just a handful of programmers, UNIX was designed to be a small, flexible system used exclusively by programmers. 3. Operating systems consists of a kernel as well as utilities. The kernel is the core of the OS, while utilities make the OS useful. 4. Stallman was an amazing programmer, but while the utilities were good, the kernel was bad.

"Characterizing Privacy in Online Social Networks" by Balachander Krishnamurthy and Craig Wills

"How Unique is Your Web Browser?" by Peter Eckersley

The next three papers address the data collected from you as you browse the web, describing methods both conventional (Kernighan on cookies, etc.; Krishnamurthy & Wills on the industry that has grown up to trade in your personal information ) and avant-garde (Eckerley on browser fingerprinters). 1. We implemented and tested one particular browser fingerprinting method. It appeared, in general, to be very effective, though as noted in Section 3.1 there are many measurements that could be added to strengthen it. 2. Browser ngerprinting is a powerful technique, and ngerprints must be considered alongside cookies, IP addresses and supercookies when we discuss web privacy and user trackability. Although fingerprints turn out not to be particularly stable, browsers reveal so much version and conguration information that they remain overwhelmingly trackable. There are implications both for privacy policy and technical design. 3. Policymakers should start treating fingerprintable records as potentially personally identifiable, and set limits on the durations for which they can be associated with identities and sensitive logs like clickstreams and search terms. 4. The Tor project is noteworthy for already considering and designing against fingerprintability. Other software that purports to protect web surfers' privacy should do likewise, and we hope that the test site at panopticlick.eff.org may prove useful for this purpose. Browser developers should also consider what they can do to reduce fingerprintability, particularly at the JavaScript API level. We identified only three groups of browser with comparatively good resistance to fingerprinting: those that block JavaScript, those that use TorButton, and certain types of smartphone. It is possible that other such categories exist in our data. Cloned machines behind firewalls are fairly resistant to our algorithm, but would not be resistant to fingerprints that measure clock skew or other hardware characteristics.

ARPAnet

The precursor to the Internet, ARPANET was a large wide-area network created by the United States Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA). Established in 1969, ARPANET served as a testbed for new networking technologies, linking many universities and research centers. The first two nodes that formed the ARPANET were UCLA and the Stanford Research Institute, followed shortly thereafter by the University of Utah. 1. As first envisioned by Rand Corporation scientists, ARPANET was meant to have military value, which meant it was produced to be durable, robust, and hard-to-kill... 2. When libertarian hackers use that kind of technology, they are able to foster very different values (decentralization, free speech, easy mobilization of collective action, not to mention less noble forms of hacking) based on: A. Open architecture B. Distributed computing C. Redundant functions

Affordance

The qualities or properties of an object that define its possible uses or make clear how it can or should be used

"Liberty and Security in a Changing World: Report and Recommendations of the President's Review Group on Intelligence and Communications Technologies"

The report from the President's Review Group is the product of a White House-initiated study commissioned to set the policy agenda for the executive branch. 1. . The Review Group's product recognizes the need to maintain the public trust - including the trust of our friends and allies abroad - and proposes steps to reduce the risk of unauthorized disclosures. 2. In particular, the report highlights the need to develop principles designed to create sturdy foundations for the future, safeguarding liberty and security amidst a changing world. The recommendations emphasize risk management and the need to balance a wide range of potential consequences, including both costs and benefits, in considering potential reforms. 3. The report emphasizes throughout that the central task is one of managing a wide assortment of risks. The Review Group is hopeful that the recommendations made here might prove helpful in striking the right balance. Free nations must protect themselves, and nations that protect themselves must remain free.

Further Complicating Matters

Then, to complicate matters, the tools used to combat threats from malware, IP-law violation, and cyberterrorism becomes weapons that can be used against the populations they are supposed to protect. 1. Software that can be used to make websites more secure can also be used to violate the privacy of people who use those websites A. e.g. LinkedIn faces lawsuit for alleged email hacking scheme. B. e.g. A major American computer security company has told thousands of customers to stop using an encryption system that relies on a mathematical formula developed by the National Security Agency (NSA). RSA, the security arm of the storage company EMC, sent an email to customers telling them that the default random number generator in a toolkit for developers used a weak formula, and they should switch to one of the other formulas in the product.

Reliability

There's no guarantee that the packet will arrive. 1. The best effort principle: devices make their best effort to get packet to its destination. The packet could get duplicated. To cope with this problem, receiver sends a packet acknowledging receipt of packet. Sender resends, if no acknowledgment received. 2. There can be congestion in the network. There can be such a huge surge that the network cannot handle. Luckily, you can throw stuff away because of the no-guarantee principle. This makes the internet more efficient. Traditional telecoms wanted to get every call through: not true of founders of the internet.

Once the Web became a commercial medium, regulation through norms no longer worked; since 2000, regulation through code has yielded to regulation through laws that use code.

This is particularly the case for Intellectual Property Rights enforcement 1. Industry use of IP addresses to identify downloaders (through BitTorrent sniffing using phony accounts) 2. Legally mandated use of take-down notices to pull allegedly infringing content off of web sites (in return for legal indemnity for cooperating sites) 3. Proposed use of DNS (Domain Name System) registrars to strip domain names from infringing websites (as a way of reaching sites outside of continental U.S.) 4. Graduated response programs through which IP holders enlist ISPs (with or without legal mandate) to contact and warn downloaders, inflicting a series of sanctions on the noncompliant.

"Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System" by Satoshi Nakamoto

This week's readings focus on Bitcoin, the major online currency, beginning with the (almost certainly) pseudonymous Satoshi Nakamoto's introductory manifesto 1. We have proposed a system for electronic transactions without relying on trust. We started with the usual framework of coins made from digital signatures, which provides strong control of ownership, but is incomplete without a way to prevent double-spending. 2. To solve this, we proposed a peer-to-peer network using proof-of-work to record a public history of transactions that quickly becomes computationally impractical for an attacker to change if honest nodes control a majority of CPU power. 3. The network is robust in its unstructured simplicity. Nodes work all at once with little coordination. They do not need to be identified, since messages are not routed to any particular place and only need to be delivered on a best effort basis. Nodes can leave and rejoin the network at will, accepting the proof-of-work chain as proof of what happened while they were gone. They vote with their CPU power, expressing their acceptance of valid blocks by working on extending them and rejecting invalid blocks by refusing to work on them. Any needed rules and incentives can be enforced with this consensus mechanism.

"The Tightening Web of Russian Internet Regulation" by Andrey Tselikov

Tselikov describes Russia's increasing control of the Internet 1. Over the past two years, systematic Internet regulation has increased more in Russia than anywhere else in the world. A series of progressively more restrictive legislative developments between the summer of 2012 and the summer of 2014 have increased the power of the Russian Prosecutor General's Office and federal agency Roskomnadzor to block or take down websites for a wide range of alleged infractions. New legislation has also mandated the registration of bloggers with the federal government and greatly increased Russian law enforcement access to user data, among other changes. 2. Over the past two years Russian Internet users and freedom of information advocates have adopted two distinct approaches to opposing the new censorship regime. One is public opposition to the censorship policies, combined with lobbying of legislative and regulatory bodies in order to repeal or amend the laws. The other approach—the legality of which is dubious—consists of finding ways of combating and circumventing the policy outcomes of the laws.

Policies for limiting or permitting government access to personal information

Two ways of regulating privacy... • Forbid the collection of potentially compromising data • Forbid the abuse of potentially compromising data

Status of the "right to privacy" in U.S. and EU jurisprudence

US Jurisprudence 1. "Right to privacy" is a derived right - derived from 4th Amendment but not mentioned in it - courts have struggled to define its extent 2. Not until 1877 did Supreme Court declare that opening and reading private mail was a violation of 4th Amendment protections 3. The status of the "right to privacy" remains murky in U.S. law EU Jurisprudence 1. European countries have recognized privacy as a fundamental right for many years. Although the EU has only officially existed since 1993, privacy is well established in the constitutions of member countries and the national courts. Most notably, the German Constitutional Court has set out substantial opinions on the right to privacy, as well as the right to "informational privacy."

Architecture and code embody values

Values 1. Starr - Democracy: Government transparency, informed citizenry, personal privacy 2. Lessig - "Chicago" values (privacy, autonomy, the market of ideas) vs. "Harvard" values (accountability, safety, authority) 3. DeNardis - Governance through architecture, with values embedded in the architecture: e.g., rules governing the tradeoff of authentication vs. encryption, or regulating deep packet inspection (DPI) weigh the values of privacy vs. security. 4. Benkler - Value of freedom and creativity embedded in the core technology vs. those of hierarchy and property expressed through law. 5. Zittrain - "Generativity" (versatility, adaptiveness, ease of mastery, accessibility)

Online reputation

Vendors on Silk Road need to maintain a good reputation. Like on Amazon, you add items to your cart. Most vendors position themselves as businessmen with excellent shipping and delivery. These identity claims increase vendors' appeal. Buyers need to know about a vendor's reputation. Heisenberg is often spoken of in glowing terms. Some vendors tried to coerce buyers into giving good scores. Buyers don't know when they would get on blacklist and get off it. Price was not as important as on the street. Low price looked on with suspicion. Very hard for vendors to get away with fraud. Silk Road's reputation system works. Silk Road and others like it experienced rapid growth. Total transaction value in excess of $100 million.

International harmonization of IP laws

WIPO '96: The "Internet Treaties" • Treaty that provides framework for national legislation: - Protects copyright holders - Protects "related rights" (companies that produce and distribute copyrighted material) - Provides some protection for intermediaries (ISPs) - if they respond instantly to "takedown notices" - Provides room for "fair use" exceptions - Mandates penalties against reverse engineering or eliminating DRM software

"Internet Addiction and Youth" by Patricia Wallace

Wallace provides a dispassionate overview of "Internet addiction," behavioral patterns that some commentators argue represent a serious problem and of which others question the existence. 1. With connectivity so widespread, and tantalizing online activities constantly emerging, young people are spending more and more time online—studying, learning, communicating, creating, and entertaining themselves. 2. That is certainly not a disorder, but for a small number it may be a slippery slope when combined with psychological and environmental variables that increase risk for addictive behavior. Similar to gambling, several online environments offer unique and compelling features that promote frequent use and can lead to signs of behavioral addiction. The variable ratio, partial reinforcement schedules programmed into slot machines maintain a very high and persistent response rate, and many online environments do the same thing. For instance, that kind of reward schedule is probably one reason young people check their smartphones so frequently for status updates or new text messages. 3. 'Internet addiction disorder' may not be the right term, but the problems are very real and those students who are unable to control their online activities, whose grades drop and whose relationships with friends and family sour, definitely need help.

Sovereignty

Westphalian Principles [Gerard ten Borch, signing of peace of Westphalia, marking end of 80 years of European warfare, 1648] • Europe divided among sovereign states • States recognize one another's borders • Within borders each state has a monopoly of control • States have the right to regulate passage of people and things across borders • Each national community has a right to its distinctive culture, language and form of government.

"Promoting Global Internet Freedom: Policy and Technology" by Patricia Moloney Figliola

What should the U.S. do about all this? Figliola lays out the issues nicely and describes one legislative approach that has not gained leverage. 1. Internet freedom can be promoted in two ways, through legislation that mandates or prohibits certain activities, or through industry self-regulation. Current legislation under consideration by Congress, the Global Online Freedom Act of 2011 (H.R. 3605), would prohibit or require reporting of the sale of Internet technologies and provision of Internet services to "Internetrestricting countries" (as determined by the State Department). 2. Some believe, however, that technology can offer a complementary and, in some cases, better and more easily implemented solution to ensuring Internet freedom. They argue that hardware and Internet services, in and of themselves, are neutral elements of the Internet; it is how they are implemented by various countries that is repressive. 3. Also, Internet services are often tailored for deployment to specific countries; however, such tailoring is done to bring the company in line with the laws of that country, not with the intention of allowing the country to repress and censor its citizenry. In many cases, that tailoring would not raise many questions about free speech and political repression.

Capital-Enhancing Use: Skill and Social Support Matter

When one adds skill (2000, 2002 and 2004) and social support (2000, 2002) measures: 1.R2 increases markedly. Skill is highly significant in all years; social support in 2000. 2.The gender disadvantage declines by 25-50 percent when both skill & social-support are included 3.The effect of education is robust (declining by 23% in 2000, just 5% in 2002)

Jurisdiction in Cyberspace

Which countries can treat which acts as illegal - and what can they do about it?

URL blocking via a proxy server

With URL filtering, the requested URL is scanned for targeted keywords irrespective of the actual domain name typed in the URL. Many popular content control software and filters use this method. Typical users include educational institutions, private companies and government offices.

Even people who say they are "less confident" that surveillance is in public interest rarely do anything about it

Wow

"Online Copyright Infringement and Counterfeiting: Legislation in the 112th Congress." by Brian T. Yeh

Yeh reviews the two recent initiatives (the PROTECT-IP Act and SOPA, which, though defeated in 2013, may re-emerge in the new Congress [and some goals of which the industry is trying to achieve through the courts]). 1. Some believe that legislation is necessary to address the jurisdictional problem of holding foreign websites accountable for piracy and counterfeiting. On May 12, 2011, Senator Leahy introduced S. 968, the Preventing Real Online Threats to Economic Creativity and Theft of Intellectual Property Act (PROTECT IP Act), that would allow the Attorney General to seek an injunction from a federal court against a domain name used by a foreign website that engages in, enables, or facilitates infringement; such court order may then be served on U.S.-based domain name servers, Internet advertisers, search engines, and financial transaction providers, which would be required to take actions such as preventing access to the website or suspending business services to the site. IP rights holders may also sue to obtain a cease and desist order against the operator of an Internet site dedicated to infringement (whether domestic or foreign) or the domain name itself. 2. On October 26, 2011, Representative Lamar Smith introduced H.R. 3261, the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA). SOPA is similar to the PROTECT IP Act yet is broader in scope by including several provisions not found in S. 968, such as those that increase the criminal penalties for online streaming of copyrighted content, create criminal penalties for trafficking in counterfeit drugs, and require the appointment of dedicated IP personnel in U.S. embassies. 3. There has been considerable public debate about the PROTECT IP Act and SOPA. Critics claim these measures amount to "Internet censorship" and that they would impair free speech. There are also concerns that the legislation will disrupt the technical integrity of the Internet. Supporters of the bills argue that in order to reduce digital piracy and online counterfeiting, new enforcement mechanisms are vital for U.S. economic growth and needed to protect public health and safety. After intense lobbying against the legislation, Senator Reid on January 20, 2012, postponed a cloture vote that had been scheduled for the PROTECT IP Act, and Representative Smith announced that the House Judiciary Committee would similarly postpone consideration of SOPA, until a compromise could be reached between supporters and opponents of the legislation.

"Critics Say New Evidence Linking North Korea to the Sony Hack is Still Flimsy" by Kim Zetter

Zetter's brief article describes the use of the hacking as a weapon and the difficulty states face in attributing responsibility for cyberattacks. 1. Kim Zetter in Wired proclaimed the evidence of North Korea's involvement "flimsy." 2. About the U.S. government's accusation in the NYT, she wrote: "they have provided no evidence to support this and without knowing even what agency the officials belong to, it's difficult to know what to make of the claim. And we should point out that intelligence agencies and government officials have jumped to hasty conclusions or misled the public in the past because it was politically expedient."

"An Overview of Jurisdictional Problems in Cyberspace" by Jonathan Zittrain

Zittrain presents an outline of jurisdictional issues. "Which sovereign's laws should apply to a situation that spans multiple jurisdictions and which physical locations are suitable for the parties to settle their dispute?"

Universality Principle

• All states have the right to enforce laws against crimes against humanity (genocide, war crimes, ethnic "cleansing") e.g. Adolf Eichmann, apprehended 1961: Jurisdictional precedent was also set in a time that was not warplagued. In Attorney General of Israel v. Eichmann, Adolph Eichmann was prosecuted for crimes against humanity, war crimes, and crimes against Jewish people. Eichmann was in charge of Gestapo's Jewish Section as a leader of the Nazi regime. His responsibility was to persecute, deport, and exterminate the entire Jewish population in Germany and other territories. Israel prosecuted Eichmann in Jerusalem after kidnapping him in Argentina and moving him to Israel. Israel argued jurisdiction under the universal jurisdiction principle because Eichmann's crimes directly affected Jewish people. The government argued that they had the right to prosecute him in their own country based on his crimes being categorized as war crimes and crimes against humanity.

Data Mining (explained)

• Automate the process of discovering useful patterns—regularities upon which subsequent decision-making can rely - "Learning" • The accumulated set of discovered relationships in the dataset is commonly called a "model," and these models can be employed to automate the process of: - classifying entities or activities of interest - estimating the value of unobserved variables or - predicting future outcomes

Enforcement through Code (Defensive continued)

• China: Articles 4-6, are: "Individuals are prohibited from using the Internet to: harm national security; disclose state secrets; or injure the interests of the state or society. Users are prohibited from using the Internet to create, replicate, retrieve, or transmit information that incites resistance to the PRC Constitution, laws, or administrative regulations; promotes the overthrow of the government or socialist system; undermines national unification; distorts the truth, spreads rumors, or destroys social order; or provides sexually suggestive material or encourages gambling, violence, or murder. Users are prohibited from engaging in activities that harm the security of computer information networks and from using networks or changing network resources without prior approval."

Jurisdiction Matters for

• Commercial regulation (gambling, drugs) • Government surveillance (NASA) • Control over currency (Bitcoins) • Intellectual property (Cybersquatting; SOPA) • Some free expression issues (e.g., hate speech) • And Personal Privacy (EU v. US)

Training data

Personal Privacy

• EU has one standard for commercial data, regulating 1. What can be collected 2. What must be revealed to the owner 3. How data must be protected • Can the EU impose its standard on US companies that do business in Europe? • Technologically, compliance is simple: Use IP geolocation to treat European personal data differently than U.S. personal data. • Economically, it's not: Google, Facebook, and Twitter business plans don't work without personal data. • Precedent: 2001 U.S. Children's On-Line Privacy Asserts jurisdiction over any website operating in the U.S., regardless of where the servers are located.

2005

• Family Entertainment and Copyright Act of 2005 makes Camcording in a theater a felony -- Penalty for first offense: 3-5 years in jail • MGM vs. Grokster - Peer to peer companies can be held liable for copyright violations •SONY Rootkit Scandal - Secret DRM software installed on CD-user computers creates security risk - Texas A.G. sues and SONY retreats

EU v. Search Engines

• In May 2014, the European Court of Justice ruled that Google can be forced to remove search results that link individuals to certain search results, thus enshrining a right to be forgotten. 1. Does not apply where there is strong public interest in the information. 2. Applies only to searches done and displayed in Europe, where subjects are EU citizens or residents. 3. Case taken in response to request from Spanish court facing 180 requests for relief from Google searches 4. Previously Formula One chief Max Mosely successfully sued Google successfully to remove images of him at a 2008 sadomasochistic orgy.

Search results blocking

"Redundant Encodings"

• In many instances, making accurate determinations will mean considering factors that are somehow correlated with proscribed features - There is no obvious way to determine how correlated a relevant attribute must be with class membership to be worrisome - Nor is there a self-evident way to determine when an attribute is sufficiently relevant to justify its consideration, despite the fact that it is highly correlated with class membership.

Digital Millenium Copyright Act of 1998 - A Brief History: Part I

• Lead-Up - 1931: Copyright Act Passed reflecting new technologies - 1995: Commerce Department White Paper - 1996: WIPO agreement • Digital Millenium Copyright Act - House of Representatives - Judiciary Committee supports content providers; House leadership gives jurisdiction to Commerce Committee, which was more even-handed. - Battles between Commerce Committee and content providers, who were unwilling to compromise

Labeling Examples: Reflect Current Prejudice

• Not only can data mining inherit prior prejudice through the mislabeling of examples, it can also reflect current prejudice through the ongoing behavior of users taken as inputs to data mining - In catering to the demonstrated preferences of users, companies may unintentionally adopt the prejudices that guide users' behavior

At What Cost?

• Obtaining information that is sufficiently rich to draw precise distinctions can be expensive. Even marginal improvements in accuracy may come at significant practical costs, and may justify a less exacting and encompassing analysis. - Does the relatively higher costs involved in gaining more data about marginalized groups justify subjecting them to higher error rates? - Should these groups bear the disproportionate burden of erroneous determinations, even if this means that the majority enjoys greater accuracy in decision-making? • Ultimately, any rigorous defense of data mining must justify ignoring the history that accounts for the higher costs involved in improving the accuracy of determinations for the least well-off

Bases for Jurisdiction

• Origin: Does the on-line activity originate in the country (i.e. is the server there)? • Effect: Does the on-line activity create a significant harm in the country that objects? • Intent: Did the originator target recipients in the objecting country, or was their access incidental and at their own initiative? • Involvement: Did citizens of the objecting country interact with the website? Did they download information from it?

Bases for claiming jurisdiction over on-line activity (origin, effect, intent, involvement)

Technical Background in 2 Slides (2)

• Packet switching networks (messages separated into small packets which are sent separately through fastest paths and then reassembled at the end point) • Simple protocol (TCP/IP - transmission control protocol for sending information/and Internet Protocol (for identifying recipient machines) (other protocols layered on these [like Border Gateway Protocol for peering - organizing flows among networks] and, especially, in the "application layer" - e.g., VoIP and P2PP on top) • End to end principle (modified as pipes became smarter due to demand for security & censorship). Net neutrality became an issue with packet-sniffing technologies that enabled conveyors of information (ISPs) to identify senders and type of packet; and in last 5-10 years with use of deep packet inspection, which permits surveillance of content.

AT&T/FaceTime Issues

• Pre-loaded application - Available to all users of popular phone - Accessed via device's core calling features • High bandwidth usage - Heavy load in both directions -Asymmetric network capacity - Limited adaptation in the face of congestion • Staged deployment - Rapid adoption could lead to unpredictable load - Initially limit the number of users accessing an app • Enforcement point - Usage limited on the device, not in the network

Summary

• Privacy is multifaceted concept, emergent from historical change in the family, the economy, and personal identity. Appropriate policies depend on the kind of "privacy" that matters to you. • Threats to privacy from government, companies and employers have varying costs and benefits. • Once data are collected, deleting them is largely impossible and anonymization is difficult • Most Americans don't care much about privacy - except for teenagers who want to keep their parents at bay.

Labeling Examples: Reproduce Past Prejudice

• So long as prior decisions affected by some form of prejudice serve as examples of correctly rendered determinations, data mining will necessarily infer rules that exhibit the same prejudice - e.g., good/bad job candidate • Fair Isaac's comments in the early debates about credit scoring

Outline of Lecture

• Sovereignty and jurisdiction before the Internet • Where has the harm taken place? and whose laws apply? • How can the law be enforced?

Sovereignty and Jurisdiction

• Sovereignty is the legal basis for states' claims of jurisdiction. • Rules of jurisdiction specify the conditions under which claims of sovereignty apply to specific wrongs or disputes.

Sovereignty, jurisdiction and the difference between them

• Sovereignty is the legal basis for states' claims of jurisdiction. • Rules of jurisdiction specify the conditions under which claims of sovereignty apply to specific wrongs or disputes.

Specialized servicese

• Specialized services: services offered by broadband providers that share capacity with broadband Internet access service over providers' last-mile facilities • Examples: facilities-based VoIP, IP video, e-reading services, heart rate monitoring, energy sensing

Nationality Principle

• States can assert jurisdiction over the criminal conduct of their nationals no matter where the conduct occurs.

The Protective Principle of Jurisdiction

Passive Personality Principle

• States may punish foreign nationals for crime committed outside their borders when the their citizens are victimized by those crimes (generally rejected except for terrorist attacks or assassinations). e.g. Achille Laura hijacking, 1985: Furthermore, an analysis of U.S. actions in the Achille Lauro affair also demonstrates U.S. acceptance of the passive personality principle. On October 7, 1985, members of the Palestine Liberation Front seized the Achille Lauro, an Italian cruise ship, and murdered one passenger. 75 The passenger killed was one of twenty-eight U.S. nationals on board the ship. In order to terminate the hijacking, Egypt provided an aircraft to the hijackers. U.S. fighter planes forced the aircraft carrying the Achille Lauro hijackers to land in Italy. Asserting jurisdiction on the basis of the passive personality principle, the United States requested that Italy extradite the offenders to the United States to stand trial for the murder of the U.S. national. Although Italy refused to extradite the hijackers, the U.S. actions illustrate U.S. recognition of the passive personality principle.

Prioritizing Resources and Organization for Intellectual Property Act of 2008 (PRO-IP Act)

• Supported by "creative industries"; Opposed by White House • Passed Senate unanimously-passed House 381-41 • Provided for - IP-enforcement-coordinating post in the White House's Office of the President (Commerce & Justice Depts.) - Enables Justice Department to pursue civil cases against infringers on behalf of industry. - More $$ for FBI anti-piracy efforts - Higher fines for downloaders - Domain-name seizures of domain names registered in U.S. • "Rick Cotton, NBC VP & General Council, says that ...the bill is also a way to help get the country out of that economic downdraft, saying its passage was a major building block in terms of the job-creation capacity of the creative industries 'as the country looks to recover from the current financial and economic crisis.'

Is Privacy Ever Desirable?

• The Chicago Economists (Posner 1978; Stigler 1980): Privacy means less information and less information means inefficient markets. • Reputation control means inefficient labor markets, credit markets, and marriage markets.

Principles of International Jurisdiction

• The territorial principle • The protective ("injured forum") principle • The nationality principle • The passive personality principle • The universal theory • The floating territorial principle

A Particular kind of Inequality

• These discoveries reveal the simple fact of inequality, but they also reveal the fact that these are inequalities in which members of protected classes are frequently the groups in the position of relative disadvantage - Better data will simply expose the exact extent of inequality • If any decision that only takes relevant attributes into account entrenches this inequality, the tidy distinction between equality of opportunity and equality of outcome begins to break down

The Evolution of Copyright Rules (Expanding Copyright)

• Thou shalt not steal • Thou shalt not make software that helps you steal • Thou shalt not hack software that keeps you from stealing • Thou shalt not protect yourself from intrusive software

DMCA

• Title 1: WIPO Copyright & Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act of 1998 -- Anti-hacking provisions • Title 2: Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitations Act - Private take-down orders for infringing content require response and compliance - Safe-harbor protections for universities and other ISPs • Title 3: Computer Maintenance Competition Assurance Act (allowing technicians to make backup copies of files when they repair computers) • Title 4: Miscellaneous Provisions, esp - Distance education support - Libraries - Ephemeral recordings (made by broadcasters to facilitate legal activity) - Webcasting - Film residuals under rights transfers (so writers, directors, actors etc. still get paid) • Title 5: Vessel Hull Design Protection Act

WIPO '96: The "Internet Treaties"

• Treaty that provides framework for national legislation: - Protects copyright holders - Protects "related rights" (companies that produce and distribute copyrighted material) - Provides some protection for intermediaries (ISPs) - if they respond instantly to "takedown notices" - Provides room for "fair use" exceptions - Mandates penalties against reverse engineering or eliminating DRM software

Summing Up: Part 1

• Two principles are most relevant to jurisdiction in cyberspace: 1. The Territoriality Principle 2. The Protective Principle • BUT: 1. What does territoriality mean in cyberspace? 2. And what components of sovereignty are central enough to warrant claims of protection 3. If any conveyance of bits into or across a territory invokes territoriality; or if any entrance of bits into a country violates a sovereign state's right to control its borders, then each state's rights are very broad indeed.

Law and Code

• US claims jurisdiction over foreign sites through the Anti-Cybersquatting Consumer Protection Act of 1999 because the main registry for the DNS (i.e. main registry) is in the US. • SOPA, Wikileaks, On-Line Gambling Laws A visit to www.rodstewart.com on May 18, 2001 would have taken you to advertisements for HerbalEcstacy (from Wayback Machine).

2001: Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Corley

• Universal City Studios sued Corley under DMCA for decrypting DRM software on a legally purchased DVD, to facilitate his personal use. • Corley responded that he had hacked the software for purposes that clearly fell under fair use. • The court ruled that use not a relevant defense and ruled in favor of Universal City. Fun fact: Eric Corley may have attracted attention because he published the source code for the DeCSS decryption program his magazine, The Hacker Quarterly.

Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Corley (2001)

Creative Incorporation

• What is an author? Who is a creator? • Definition changes over time: 1. Cave painting 2. Detail: Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel: Michelangelo was not alone: had workshop 3. Monet: established idea of solitary genius 4. Jackson Pollock's "action painting": Pollock built on Monet's idea 5. Kinkade: had business that sold his original paintings, so clearly definition of artist is socially constructed *Foucault: the author is dead (announced death of author in 1960s) *Varese: Foucault

Fair Use: What Rights Do Citizens Need for The Marketplace of Ideas

• What rights do we need to ensure a free marketplace of ideas? • Reproduction of single copies? • Quoting material (essay, film, music, code) in process of criticizing it? • Educational uses (e.g. for teaching) • Use of fragments of material in satirical work? • Use of material for political expression? • Noncommercial use? (Singing a song at a party? Showing John Stewart's picture in a Princeton lecture?)

Enforcement: Summing Up

• When states disagree on matters of jurisdiction, one state may provide safe havens for activity that another state regards as criminal • Enforcement tools include: 1. Wait for "criminals" to set foot on local soil 2. Use filtering and blocking tools to keep out offending materials 3. Use laws to get local companies to take enforcement action 4. Use hacking to disable offending websites • Only economically powerful and technologically advanced countries can use the latter method. What happens if the other country fights back?

Sealand (lecture)

Sealand

• World's smallest micronation - 120x50' anti-aircraft platform 7 miles of British coast. U.K. courts say they lack jurisdiction. • Recruited MIT dropout to create HavenCo, the ultimate in data security for money launderers, copyright pirates, gamblers -- anyone but child pornographers or spammers. • Major Roy Bates used an international "dereliction of sovereignty" statute to assert independence • The data operation fell victim to mismanagement, DoS attacks, the end of the .com boom, a German invasion, and friction between the cyberpunks (Ryan Lackey, right) and Sealand's royal family. • Julian Assange considered moving Wikileaks to Sealand in 2012. That year HavenCo was revived, using secure network storage, Least-Authority File Systems, VPNs, and web proxying, all with strong encryption. An on-line casino was said to be in the works.

Earlier Statements Revised

•"Information Wants to be Free..." -Stewart Brand, 1st Silicon Valley Hackers Conference, 1984 "Governments of the Industrial World, you weary giants of flesh and steel, I come from Cyberspace, the new home of Mind. On behalf of the future, I ask you of the past to leave us alone. You are not welcome among us. You have no sovereignty where we gather... Your legal concepts of property, expression, identity, movement, and context do not apply to us. They are all based on matter, and there is no matter here." John Perry Barlow - "A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace" (Davos, 1996) BUT •... Information also wants to be expensive. That tension will not go away." -Stewart Brand, 1st Silicon Valey Hackers Conference, 1984 "We all get older and smarter" -- John Perry Barlow, 2004

Background: AT&T Case and subsequent reorganization of the industry

•1983 AT&T Antitrust agreement -Breakup of firm into "baby bells" -Common carriage requirements for telephone service and competition in long-distance market -Permission for regional bells to compete in all markets •Mergers and Recombinations (Telecommunications Act of 1996) -Bell Atlantic + NYNEX (1997) = Bell Atlantic + GTE (2000) = Verizon + MCI (2005)=Verizon as ISP+pay TV+ phone service + mobile wireless - Southern Bell + South Central Bell = Bell South; Bell South + AT&T (formerly Southwestern Bell/SBC) + Cingular Wireless (2005)=AT&T as ISP, provider of pay TV, phone service, and mobile wireless -Time Warner Cable (Spun off from Time Warner 2005) starts Road Runner High Speed Online 2005, purchased Paragon (1995) and Adelphia (2006) and Insight (2012) cable systems, purchased Navisight (cloud, hosting) in 2011, and formed joint venture with Spring Nextel (cell service) in 2005. -Comcast + NBC/Universal (2011) = Comcast as a major cable company, ISP, and content provider

In 2012

•21% e-mailed, posted or shared music •15% of U.S. adults e-mailed, posted or shared own photography; •13% edited photos; 12.4% "created photographs for artistic purposes") •12% played an instrument •5.9% did "creative writing" •4.4% e-mailed, posted or shared one's own music

Three Mechanisms of Creative Destruction through the Internet

•Aggregation •Disintermediation •Hypersegmentation

A Network Is:

•Any entity that can be conceived of as a set of nodes (objects, "points") connected by a set of ties ("lines," edges). •Such entities include: -The Internet -Neural networks -Social networks (human or animal groups)

Industry: Policy through Code II (Van Schewick)

•Application-specific -Favoring a specific application (Skype vs. Vonage, Hula v. YouTube) -Discriminating against particular types of applications (e.g., those using BitTorrent) -Discriminating in favor of latency-sensitive applications •Application-agnostic -Slowing flow to high-volume users during congestion -Tiered pricing to users to regulate usage volume - "Reasonable network management" exception

Freedom of Expression

•Are DMCA takedown-notice provisions consistent with freedom of expression? •Should government require libraries that serve kids to have filters on computers that block websites with "obscene" material - what if these filters also block non-obscene material?

National Cable & Telecommunications Association v. Brand X Internet Services

Information? Communications?

•At first, high-speed internet service was provided by telecoms, and was accordingly treated as a telecommunications service. •But when cable systems got into the act (2002), based on historical precedent, their Internet services was treated as an information service. •June 2005: National Cable & Telecommunications Association v. Brand X Internet Services agreed that cable service is an information service (so the cable company didn't have to let Brand X use its system). •August 2005: FCC redefines telecom ISPs as information service, too, relieving them from common carriage obligations. •At same time, FCC enunciated 4 principles (access to lawful content; consumers' right to run applications and services of their choice; right to connect to any legal device; right to competition among providers of services and content).

Fairness/Accuracy Trade-Off

•Attempts to ensure procedural fairness may be in conflict with the imperative to ensure accurate determinations. -As Dwork et al. "demonstrate a quantitative trade-off between fairness and utility."

Self-Regulation

•BITAG (Broadband Internet Technical Advisory Group) •Internet Congestion Exposure Working Group (Internet Engineering Task Force) •Verizon/Google agreement (2010) -Attempt to head off FCC rules -Reasonably strong neutrality with two exceptions: •Applies only to ISP service and not to additional software services. What does this mean? •Does not apply to wireless networks. What was Google thinking?

Some Unhappy Statistics

•BLS found employment in sound recording industry fell 40% from 2001-2012 •Global revenues from recorded music fell 40 percent between 1999 and 2011 •Retail record stores and recording studios declined even more dramatically Majors blamed downloaders

Changes in Film Industry: Challenges

•BitTorrent increased illegal circulation of films •Netflix, Amazon, et al., increased share of legal online distribution •Between 2001 and 2011, 10 percent decline in number of motion picture theatres - but increase in screens per theatre •Box office receipts flat in U.S. (but way up in Asia and Latin America)

Competence-destroying technologies

•Capitalism is periodically revitalized (in whole and in particular industries) by game-changing innovations •These innovations are sometimes referred to as competence-destroying technologies because they make previous ways of doing things (and the knowledge on which these are based) obsolete

Values II: A Capable Citizenry

•Citizens have to be competent to consume and interpret information - Mass literacy and numeracy essential •Public schooling, first primary then secondary - the "common school movement" (Horace Mann) •Land grant colleges (Morrill Act)

Code

•Commercial applications would require a user-friendly graphical interface - i.e. a "browser" -Tim Berners-Lee invented first browser at CERN in 1989 -Mark Andreesen released Mosaic in 1993 at Univ. Illinois - commercialized as Netscape -Thomas Reardon built Internet Explorer (on Spyglass), IE bundled with Windows, takes over world (95% of market) temporarily •Javascript (Netscape 1994; IE 1996) and cookies (Netscape 1994) for individualization & transactions

What do we know?

•Computer use is associated with higher earnings (Krueger 1993 etc.) •The impact of computer use on earnings increased from 1980 to 1993 then turned downward through 1997 - and up again in late 1990s (Valletta & McDonald 2004)

(Arenas) Policies are Debated and Policy is Made in Many Venues

•Congress •Federal Agencies (FCC, FTC, NTIA) •State and Local Government •The Courts •International Regulatory Regimes (e.g. WIPO) •Corporate Self-Regulation •Private Citizen Action •Computer Scientists Writing Code

Affordances of Digitization for Cultural Production Have Been Substantial

•Connected not to Internet, but to user-owned devices: computers, soundboards and mixers, cameras and video editors •Production costs decline - more players enter -Photography -Digital art -Recorded music -Radio programming (podcasting) -Journalism (blogging) •Less of a distinction between "professional" and "amateur"

Disintermediation

•Creative: because it reduces transaction costs by replacing business intermediaries with automated and efficient on-line transactions •Destructive" because it is competence destroying, making old business plans dysfunctional and old skills less useful.

Private Action After SOPA

•Credit card companies deny financial services to pirate sellers •2012: Google downranks sites base on IP-infringement claims •2013: ISP Graduated Response: based on private BitTorrent monitoring, all major ISPs agree to deny service to repeat offenders •2013: ICANN makes registrars add anti-infringement language to contracts: Industry pressures ICANN to take down offenders

4. Masking

•Data mining could also breathe new life into traditional forms of intentional discrimination because decision-makers with prejudicial views can mask their intentions by exploiting each of the mechanisms enumerated above -Knowingly bias the collection of data to ensure that mining suggests rules that are less favorable to members of protected classes -Attempt to preserve the known effects of prejudice in prior decision-making by insisting that such decisions constitute a reliable and impartial set of examples from which to induce a decision-making rule -Intentionally rely on features that only permit coarse-grain distinction-making—distinctions that result in avoidable and higher rates of erroneous determinations for members of a protected class •Of course, also possible to simply infer class membership

But economists aren't sure that majors are correct in blaming downloaders

•Different methods yield different results •Most think that file-sharing accounts for part, but not all of the decline (c. 15-30% of sales) •Other problems: -No new physical medium -No major new genre since rap -Legal services (Pandora, Spotify, Deezer, Grooveshark) don't generate as much revenue

Why Discrimination is a Bigger Problem than Blocking

•Discrimination can harm a site or service as much as blocking it: -If Skype is slow and ineffective, you won't use it -If it takes a long time to load Fox News, you will go to Google News instead •Discrimination is less visible so -The ISP is less likely to incur the wrath of customers -And customers are more likely to blame the service or website

Three Cases

•Film industry has fared pretty well •Newspaper industry has suffered terribly •Music - creative destruction par excellence

Correcting for Prejudice (2)

•Fulfilling this procedural obligation will require that organizations specify when certain outcomes are unfair •Organizations will only be able to purge the effects of prejudice from the data upon which their decisions depend if they commit to ensuring a minimum discrepancy in the impact those decisions have on different social groups

Established Papers Haven't Easily Moved Online

•Google News gets much of the benefit •On-line papers can't use attractive content to subsidize less attractive content •Physical papers mixed ads and content on same page -- online sites can't do that •Subscription plans have failed miserably •Vicious cycle of cutbacks creating less attractive product, leading to fewer revenues, more cutbacks •Insiders now say philanthropic or government aid is needed for newspapers to survive

Key Forms of Differentiation among Internet Users

•Hardware, software, and connections (advanced site features) •Autonomy of use (Access to own computer? Is use monitored?) •Navigational know-how & trouble-shooting skills (to reinforce use) •Social support (when skills fail) •Effectiveness of use (satisfaction and gain in human & social capital)

The Politics of Ambiguity

•Highly technical issues requiring grasp of technology, law, economics and history •Simplified into framing contest, in which most idealistic and ideological parties are supported as public voices (along with politicians receiving support from industry groups) •Suppression of debate about economic issues, which involve rights, rents, and governance in the construction of a new industrial field.

Equality and Access

•How big a problem are the "digital divide" and "digital inequality" (in connection speeds, skills, networks)? •What is the best route to universal broadband: federal initiatives (tax breaks, common carriage mandates, free right of way) or user subsidies? [Pres. Bush: Broadband for all by 2007. Pres. Obama: Broadband for all by 2012.] •When do algorithms contribute to inequality - and what should we do about it it?

Privacy

•ISPs - should ISPs be permitted to intercept and read subscribers messages for business purposes? (U.S. v. Councilman 2007) Should Google? What does "read" mean? •If you quit Facebook, who should own and control the material you have posted there? •Internet of Things: In you use a service that allows you to monitor your own fitness information and share it with friends, should the service be able to use the information to send you ads? Sell it to an insurance company?

The decline of the majors

•In 1995 there were six major integrated record labels •In 1999 Universal purchased PolyGram and there were five •In 2004 Sony began a process leading to its absorption of BMG - by 2008 there were four •In 2012, Sony and Universal Music Group split of EMI; now just three: Sony, Universal and Warner

Creative Destruction in Cultural Industries

•In traditional cultural industries - film, press, music - production and distribution were integrated: •Large firms employed or held under exclusive contract journalists, directors, editors, or recording artists and were in charge of: (a) production (b) distribution (c) marketing promotion

Detecting Discrimination and Masking

•Ironically, statistical techniques have long been employed to assess whether the only way a decision procedure could result in a sorting with systematically less favorable outcomes for protected classes is one in which class membership has been taken into account explicitly •But this requires performing a disparate impact assessment, even though the issue is disparate treatment

Policy Options: Modalities of Control (From Lessig, Code, ch. 7)

•Law •Markets •Architecture ("code") •Norms

What are the four instrumentalities through which we can regulate behavior on the Internet according to Lawrence Lessig?

•Law •Markets •Architecture ("code") •Norms

Why is Film Industry OK?

•Lots of downloading, but it doesn't seem to affect box office unless openings are delayed (7% in Europe, no effect in U.S.); Downloads reduce rentals 5-10% but not sales (Danaher et al. 2010) •Film companies have been supple - they learned to license to cable, sell and rent through video stores, deal with VHS long before Internet •Greater bandwidth requirements for film gave them more time to prepare (and they learned from music industry). •Film organized on a project basis: less risk (cost-sharing)_ and fewer fixed costs; and majors can make money off independents through distribution deals •People listen to pirated music the same way they listen to legal music; but you can't watch a downloaded film in a movie theatre - and people seem to like theatres!

The Politics of Policy Making

Government Use of Code

•Manufacturing mandates - -Pipes that are accessible to Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) surveillance -Always-on GPS -TVs with V-Chips •Use of architecture (DeNardis): -Termination of web hosting and financial services to take down "Wikileaks" -DNS (Domain Name System) for IP enforcement - can't seize server but can disable domain name thru registrars (SOPA) -Central "kill switches" in authoritarian regimes (Egypt, SF BART 2011)

Regulation of Markets

•May ISPs like Verizon charge websites for premium service? Is it OK if Comcast slows down Netflix or YouTube? •Should VoIP be regulated in the same way as other telephone service? •Should wireless service providers be subject to the same rules as conventional ISPs?

Not Every Cultural Industry is Hurting

•Movie theatre revenues about the same in 2009 as in 1999 •Cable television revenues rose dramatically •Book sales declined but no more than in the decade before the Internet

Privacy Arenas

•Private Companies •Federal Trade Commission •Congress •National Security Agency •Courts •Internet Architecture Designers

That model threatened when digitization

•Reduced the cost of distribution dramatically •Reduced production costs to varying degrees •Made it easy to decouple parts of the business that had previously been integrated •And in some cases made it easier for creative workers to manage the process themselves.

Key Issue Domains

•Regulation of Markets •Intellectual Property •Equality and Access •Security •Privacy •Freedom of Expression •Governance •Sovereignty •eGovernment •Social Media

Private Control through Code

•Requiring users to enter a serial # to use software. •Cookies or browser fingerprinters that determine -What links you see -What recommendations you get -What price you are offered •Social media sites: -Is your screen identity tied to your real one? -Do your friends know who your other friends are? Do they know when you are on-line? What you are doing on-line? -What control do you have over who knows what about you?

Security

•Should government be permitted to engage in routine monitoring of on-line communication? •Should government restrict use of encryption technologies? •Should government require "back doors" to all communication applications?

In addition to human capital, two other mechanisms may operate

•Social capital: Technology useful for building and exploiting networks and for getting job-relevant information •Signaling: During the Internet boom, Internet users may have been perceived as more hip or competent than they otherwise would have been.

(Start of lecture notes) Main points:

•Technologies are socially constructed. There are no technological imperatives - technologies provide affordances rather than dictate behavior. •Technology does not develop along a single path - there are many false starts. Early choices can be consequential. Technological development is path dependent. •All new technologies are strange. Purposes must be discovered. Tacit knowledge must become commonplace. •Our ability to predict the technological future is limited: Foresight is subject both to undue optimism and to insufficient vision. •Technological change is a political process involving struggle between incumbents and challengers

The FCC's role: A Tale of Two Titles

•The 1934 Communications Act gives the FCC the authority to regulate communications and information services. •But telecommunications services are regulated under stringent Title 2 as common carriers, whereas information services are regulated under the more lenient Title 1. •Which is Internet service???

The 1934 Communications Act - Titles 1 and 2

Ad Revenues Devastated

•The Internet (Craigslist) killed demand for newspaper classified ads and want ads. •Online shopping sites have killed department stores, which used to be their major ad buyers.

Three Issues

•The digital divide: Inequality in access to the Internet. •Inequality On-Line: Inequality in the quality of the online experience and the uses to which connectivity is put. •Does it matter? To what extent does lack of equal access and use disadvantage the less well off?

Uncounted, Unaccounted, Discounted

•The quality and representativeness of records might vary in ways that correlate with class membership -less involved in the formal economy and its data-generating activities -unequal access to and less fluency in the technology necessary to engage online -less profitable customers or less important constituents and therefore less interesting as targets of observation •Convenience Sample -Data gathered for routine business purposes tend to lack the rigor of social scientific data collection

Proxies

•The very same criteria that correctly sort individuals according to their predicted profitability, for example, may also sort individuals according to class membership -Decision-makers' reasonable priorities as profit-seekers unintentionally recapitulate the inequality that happens to exist in society

Correcting for Prejudice (1)

•Those who attempt to remove the influence that prejudice had on prior decisions by re-coding or re-labeling examples may find that they cannot easily resolve what should have been the non-prejudicial determination •There may be cases in which it is simply impossible to prevent prejudice from expressing itself in the data from which organizations draw the insights that drive their decisions, even when the existence of prejudice is well known

Takeaways

•To analyze policy, focus on: -Issues -Arenas -Modalities -Values -Stakeholders -Political Context •Concepts -Issue domain -Lessig's 4 modalities of control: law, markets, code, norms -Interactions among law and other modalities --Constitutive values in U.S. information policy (Starr) -"diffuse" vs. "concentrated" interests in policy formation

Correcting for Bias

•Unfortunately, the under- and over-representation of members of protected classes is not always evident. -The idea that the representation of different social groups in the dataset can be brought into proportions that better match those in the real world presumes that analysts have some independent mechanism for determining these proportions

Let the Network Produce the Value

•User reviews add value to Amazon's retail platform. •Collaborative Filtering: Use information from consumers to predict what other consumers will like, adding value to service diectly (Netflix; Spotify.)

Why Application Blindness? (Van Schewick's view)

•VS believes that Application-Class neutrality ("application blindness," "application agnosticism") is necessary to prevent ISPs from discriminating against whole classes of applications that compete with their "special services" •If we permit providers to discriminate against classes of services, we rely on them to decide how to categorize services. Should we classify services on the basis of protocol or latency-sensitivity? Doing the former hurts legal video services that run on P2P? (Cox Communications)

The Main Event: Verizon v. FCC

•Verizon took FCC before DC Circuit Court of Appeals in Washington DC, claiming that FCC had no authority to regulate its Internet practices -First amendment: Free speech -Fifth amendment: Permanent easement on its system (prohibition of pay-for-priority) represents "illegal taking" •Relevant precedents cut both ways -Comcast v. FCC (2010, DC Circuit Court of Appeals) voided FCC judgment against Comcast's degradation of Bittorrent traffic (mooted by terms of Comcast/NBC merger agreement) -City of Arlington v. FCC (2013, Supreme Court) affirmed permissive standards for FCC use of congressional authority in rule-making (in case involving regulation of municipal licensing of wireless facilities) -Decision against FCC in February 2014 - Will decisively shape future of FCC's role in regulating Internet

Verizon v. FCC

Cable TV's "Elevator Pitch"

•We're developing a video delivery service that provides literally hundreds of channels. Sure we'll carry the big networks, but mostly we'll be offering niche outlets that only a tiny fraction of our customers will want to watch. Our subscription prices will include rental fees for low-cost hardware like modems, set-top boxes and remote controls. We also plan to build in annual rate hikes that outpace inflation by about, say 400%. And for good measure, our arrangement with the creators of the content that we distribute will ensure that every couple of years we'll be locked in contentious and public renegotiation rights that interrupt service for our customers. If all goes as planned, we should be able to consistently deliver customer satisfaction levels that rank among the lowest of any industry. -Amadou Diallo, Forbes Magazine, May 2013

Questions

•What is net neutrality? (Not as easy as it sounds.) •Why is the issue so contentious? (Not as obvious as it sounds.) •Why is the issue so central to discussion of policy about broadband technology and the Internet, and why has it become so central now?

Intellectual Property

•When is file-sharing technology inherently illegal? •How many years of copyright protection provide the right balance between incentives for creators and public benefit? •Is "fair use" possible (e.g. from 3 seconds of a video) if you have to evade DRM technology to capture it?

Disintermediation in the Music Industry Are the Majors Still Relevant?

•http://bandcamp.com/ (24 million active users) •https://soundcloud.com/explore/electronic (200 million users by 2013) •http://members.cdbaby.com/ (3 million tracks) •Promotion: Twitter, YouTube, & many other platforms

The Evolution of Thought on Freedom on the Internet

"Information wants to be free." - Stewart Brand 1984 "Governments of the Industrial World, you weary giants of flesh and steel, I come from Cyberspace, the new home of Mind. On behalf of the future, I ask you of the past to leave us alone. You are not welcome among us. You have no sovereignty where we gather." John Perry Barlow, 1996 "Left to itself, cyberspace will become a perfect tool of control." Lawrence Lessig, 2006 How did we get from Barlow to Lessig in just 10 years?

Policy Making: The Legislative Process

"Laws, like sausages, cease to inspire respect in proportion as we know how they are made." John Godfrey Saxe, 1869 (sometimes attributed to Otto von Bismarck)

The public case for net neutrality

"Net neutrality may sound like a technical issue, but it's the key to preserving the internet as we know it -- and it's the most important First Amendment issue of our time." - Al Franken Exemplars: 1. 2005: Telus's (Canadian ISP) blockage of union website, Voices of Change 2. 2007: Verizon blocks NARAL (Pro-Choice America) access to its wireless broadband text-message network, claiming right to block "controversial or unsavory" content 3. 2005 Madison River Communications (ISP) blocks VoIP 4. 2009 Comcast slows BitTorrent traffic BUT: Exemplars are few, responses have been effective, and consensus has emerged in North America that content censorship is unacceptable. Sen. Al Franken (D-MN)

The Nuances of Net Neutrality

"Network neutrality" is not one thing - it is several. Each version of network neutrality raises different issues and the case for each version rests on different kinds of facts.

Open access to networks and impact on national broadband outcomes (Berkman Center)

"Open access" policies—unbundling, bitstream access, collocation requirements, wholesaling, and/or functional separation—are almost universally understood as having played a core role in the first generation transition to broadband in most of the high performing countries; that they now play a core role in planning for the next generation transition;and that the positive impact of such policies is strongly supported by the evidence of the first generation broadband transition.

Variety.com: "Cable TV Tightens its Grip on Revenues"

"Subscriber declines don't matter much when those who stick around pay more than ever. But how much longer can these companies continue to defy gravity?" (Todd Spangler, Variety May 2013)

What is Net Neutrality? 1st cut: Partisan Rhetoric (2013)

"The Federal Communications Commission is writing new rules - called network neutrality rules - to dictate how Internet providers can manage the information that flows over their networks... [N]etwork neutrality supporters really just want the government - for the first time since the inception of the Internet - to have control over how private companies deliver broadband to your home and office." -- From the website of the Internet Freedom Coalition "The Internet will look a whole lot different if network operators get to favor one online business or speaker over another. We can't let the Verizons of the world turn the Web into their own private fiefdoms where they award express service to their corporate allies and shunt everyone else to the side. Verizon has put its cards on the table. Under its preferred scenario, the open Internet no longer exists."

The Public Case Against Net Neutrality

"The new [2013 network neutrality] rules represent an unprecedented power-grab by the unelected members of the FCC .. The `unreasonable discrimination' order would in effect establish that the FCC would have an approval portal that companies must pass through just to manage their day-to-day operations." --Kay Bailey Hutchison ISPs do have to manage their networks actively, including using deep packet inspection: 1. latency-dependent applications (e.g., VoIP, gaming, films) need more bandwidth & different buffering 2. periods of network congestion require management 3. need to protect users against Spam, malware, or DoS attacks 4. CALEA requirements (Communications Assistance to Law Enforcement Act) But... Bandwidth scarcity is socially constructed (little firm evidence; partly related to choices [e.g., how much of cable devoted to Internet v. TV]. And consensus has emerged that minimal-interference congestion management is acceptable.

Jonathan Zittrain's Explanation

"Which sovereign's laws should apply to a situation that spans multiple jurisdictions and which physical locations are suitable for the parties to settle their dispute?"

Hargittai on Skill

*** Skill = Scale of responses to knowledge questions that predicted effective web searching in a laboratory setting. *** Research subjects were freshman class at an urban nonflagship campus of a large public university *** Experience matters a lot; but *** Family educational background, gender, and racial/ethnic differences persisted

Control through Law

-Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA): ISPs liable for repeat IP offenders -Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) etc.: Requiring ISPs or cell phone companies to use technologies that permit spying -DMCA: $10,000 penalty for each downloaded tune... Which of these laws has been least effective? DMCA penalty

Control through Norms

-Norms among cooperating professionals: Internet protocols; Internet Engineering Task Force; Linux programmers; Joint Photographic Experts Group; -Private ordering: Peering among infrastructure companies -Norms governing discussion board postings •Respectful treatment of others by respondents •Not divulging information that is "too personal" •Not divulging secrets of third parties -Real-world norms enforced By digital means: it all started when a woman recently refused to clean up her dog's excrement on a subway in South Korea. Fellow travelers, obviously bothered by the new addition to the train, expressed their irritation. She did not yield. In the old days, that would have been the end of it. But today, when face-to-face persuasion fails, there's a fallback plan: anonymous Internet humiliation. The Post notes, "One of the train riders took pictures of the incident with a camera phone and posted them on a popular Web site. Net dwellers soon began to call her by the unflattering nickname [loosely translated to 'Dog Poop Girl'], and issued a call to arms for more information about her."And information they received. "According to one blog that has covered the story, 'within days, her identity and her past were revealed.'" But that wasn't enough: blogs and online discussion groups buzzed with dirt about Dog Poop Girl's parents and relatives, and cries for more invasions of her privacy. As George Washington University law professor Daniel J. Solove wrote on one blog, this was a demonstration of bloggers acting "as a cyber-posse, tracking down norm violators and branding them with digital scarlet letters."

Network neutralities (3rd cut)

1) The Impossible Dream: •Pure Classic End to End Neutrality: ISPs simply move packets from mid-mile operators to end users, without even the technical means to discriminate. Horses are out of the barn on this one. 2) The Main Event: A. Content Neutrality. Prohibits discrimination (or blocking) on the basis of content. B. Application Neutrality. Prohibits discrimination against particular applications within a class (e.g., YouTube vs. Hulu) (Open Internet Order includes "special services" provided by ISPs) C. Application-Class Neutrality. Prohibits discrimination against different types of applications (application agnostic) D. Content-provider Neutrality. Prohibits tiering: discrimination in favor of providers who pay more for superior service, and thus against providers who fail to pay. (Why does Yoo think this is a good thing?) C) Side shows (for now) A. Consumer-based discrimination based on metering of usage (controversial), slowdowns for peak users during congestion (approved) or price/bandwidth tier (conventional) B. Search neutrality - Are search-engine algorithms stacking the deck against some kinds of content? Is Google a quasi-monopolist? (Speculation in law schools...) C. Middle-mile neutrality - Are the networks that link content servers to ISPs a level playing field? (No [Yoo 2010: some bits have to pay traffic charges; some bits slowed so carriers can stay below mandated traffic levels; providers that can afford multiple server farms get faster service as do those that use caching services like Akimai], but we know very little about them and it's a regulatory nightmare.) D. Common carriage - Requiring last-mile carriers to rent capacity to competitors (as had been case with telcos)

Why patents don't work well for software (Goldman): Rapid innovation cycle, sufficiency of other incentive, difficulty describing at adequate level of abstraction, expense of patent research)

1, Rapid innovation cycle: Software iterates quickly. Implications: A) Software Has Significant First Mover Advantages, B) Software's Lifecycles End Before Patents Issue. 2. Sufficiency of other incentives: A) Copyrights and Trade Secrets Provide Adequate Production Incentives, B) Software Vendors Can Restrict Competition Without Patents (lock-in effects), C) Software Gets Produced Without Any IP Incentives at All (e.g. free and open source) 3. Difficulty describing at adequate level of abstraction: the boundaries of many software "innovations" are too hard to describe precisely. Because of the semantic challenges, the resulting patents are so opaque that no one can understand what they mean. This also means that the patent owner can adopt expansive interpretations of the patent boundaries and then use the threat of patent litigation over those ambiguous borders to extract cash from potential defendants-even those who would ultimately be outside the patent's scope if they invested in challenging the patent owner. 4. Expense of patent research: First, as mentioned, the imprecision of software patents makes it hard for developers to realize that the patent owner thinks the patent covers the developer's efforts. Second, large software programs may have millions of lines of code, while it's possible to obtain patents for functionality that can be expressed in only a few lines of code. The result is that a single software program could potentially implicate thousands, or even tens of thousands, of patents. The costs to find these patents, research their applicability, and then where appropriate negotiate licenses to even a small fraction of those patents, would vastly exceed the potential economic returns from most software applications. Thus, software developers rationally choose not to research the patent database at all and instead "fly blind."

Tradeoffs between strong encryption and cybersecurity?

1. "Going dark"/"backdoors". Comey, director of FBI, argues that companies changing their products so that it's tough for law enforcement to get access. If police get warrant to search iPhone, they can't get data off of phone. Apple says that it wants to protect consumers from theft or loss of phone. Comey says phones are "going dark." Data on phone, he says, is a law-free zone. 2. This leads to idea of a backdoor. Idea is that when law enforcement gets warrant, they have a key to access data. You need to have some kind of backdoor that is not used inappropriately. Yahoo has said we don't know how to give US a key that won't be used by others. There's a big debate in the Obama administration about this.

Back doors and "secure golden keys"

1. "Going dark"/"backdoors". Comey, director of FBI, argues that companies changing their products so that it's tough for law enforcement to get access. If police get warrant to search iPhone, they can't get data off of phone. Apple says that it wants to protect consumers from theft or loss of phone. Comey says phones are "going dark." Data on phone, he says, is a law-free zone. This leads to idea of a backdoor. Idea is that when law enforcement gets warrant, they have a key to access data. You need to have some kind of backdoor that is not used inappropriately. Yahoo has said we don't know how to give US a key that won't be used by others. There's a big debate in the Obama administration about this. 2. Secure golden key: for government to retain and use only when a court has approved a search warrant. Nevertheless, There is no way to put in a backdoor or magic key for law enforcement that malevolent actors won't also be able to abuse.

Two Policies and Their Implications

1. "Hands off the Internet" but watch everything 2. Overseas surveillance leads to desire to have overseas systems be vulnerable, which results in domestic systems being vulnerable, which leads to domestic surveillance. NB: One of the impacts of the Snowden disclosure is a better debate about surveillance.

Orphan works

1. "Orphan Works" probably comprise the majority of the record of 20th century culture. These works are still presumably under copyright (only works published before 1923 are conclusively in the public domain), but the copyright owner cannot be found. 2. The default response of archivists, libraries, film restorers, artists, scholars, educators, publishers, and others is to drop copyrighted work unless it is clearly in the public domain. As a result, orphan works are not used in new creative efforts or made available to the public due to uncertainty over their copyright status, even when there is no longer anyone claiming copyright ownership, or the owner no longer has any objection to such use.

Great firewall of China

1. "The Great Firewall of China" disallows certain entire Web sites from operating in the country. 2. The Great Firewall is an obvious problem for foreign Internet firms, and for the Chinese people interacting with others outside of China on these services, but it does little to limit the expressive power of Chinese people who can find other sites to express themselves in similar ways. For example, Facebook is blocked in China but RenRen is a close substitute; similarly SinaWeibo is a popular Chinese clone of Twitter, which is also unavailable.

High-courtesy equilibrium

1. (1) high rate of providing evaluations, and (2) extreme rarity of neutral or negative evaluations. 2. The first suggests that free riding is overcome, the second that buyers are grading generously, or saying nothing after bad experiences.

Why did Twitter create a 140 character limit?

1. 140 character limit: Twitter's greatest strength and weakness. 2. Where did limit come from? In early days of Twitter, company wanted to deliver tweets through all media, including SMS. 140 bytes = 1120 bits. SMS = 160 x 7 bits = 1120 bits. Now you can't really fit a Tweet into SMS anymore.

Twitter: In-depth

1. 140 character limit: Twitter's greatest strength and weakness. Where did limit come from? In early days of Twitter, company wanted to deliver tweets through all media, including SMS. 140 bytes = 1120 bits. SMS = 160 x 7 bits = 1120 bits. Now you can't really fit a Tweet into SMS anymore. 2. Publish and subscribe model. Conventions of use emerged: #hashtag - invented by Chris Messina one day. Hashtag is economical for categorizing and naming. Other conventions: @username, RT @username _____. These conventions are now enshrined in Twitter software. Unlike Facebook, where design decisions are centralized, Twitter followed users' conventions of use, which in part resulted from character limit. And whereas most people access Facebook through Facebook apps, Twitter is accessed through 3rd party sties. 3. Targeted ads: "promoted tweets." Pay Twitter to make your tweet appear even to people who don't follow your company. Promoted tweets upend the publish and subscribe model. 3rd party service will likely throw ads away, so Twitter has started to dictate that ads must appear in 3rd party sites. Also virtually everything on Twitter is public. This creates Twitter firehose. 4. Twitter "firehose": what you would get if you followed everyone. Used to be available for free. Now you need permission or pay Twitter to see firehose. Political organizations use Twitter a lot.

A brief history of sampling before the Internet

1. 1857: Herman Melville uses story from newspaper in The Confidence Man... 2. 1919: Marcel Duchamp paints moustache on copy of Mona Lisa, calls it art... 3. 1954: Salvador Dali copies his idea, calls it art, too ... 4. 1961: William Seward Burroughs invents "cut-up" writing, publishes The Soft Machine 5. 1967: Paul Krassner publishes "Disneyland Memorial Orgy," in Realist: Disney displeased 6. 1970: George Harrison releases "My Sweet Lord," rips off Chiffons, "He's So Fine" - Court rules that Harrison owes Chiffons most of the royalities 7. 2015: Robin Thicke v. estate of Marvin Gaye ("Blurred Lines vs. Got to Give it Up)

Do people act as if they care: Young users of Social media?

1. 2005: Krishnamurthy/Wills (assigned) 1.2% of CMU Facebook users changed searchability of Thumbnail profile; <1% changed profile visibility. 2. 2008: Krishnamurthy/Wills: 99% of Twitter users retained default privacy settings 3. 2008: Krishnamurthy/Wills: 79% of MySpace users retained default settings 4. 2008: Krishnamurthy/Wills: Between 53-84% (by region) of Facebook users kept Profile visibility; 78-99% kept friends visible (the larger the network, the higher the privacy settings). 5. 2010: Hargittai: 98% of Facebook users changed privacy settings at least once

Do People Say they Care about Government Spying? Adults - Pew 2015

1. 80% approve of spying on "terrorism suspects" 2. 60% approve of government spying on "leaders of other countries" 3. 60% approve of government spying on "American leaders" (!!) 4. 54% approve of spying on "citizens of other countries" 5. 40% even approve of spying on "American citizens" (and more if those citizens are "leaders" or "terrorism suspects")

In 2013, Pew Found a More Critical Public

1. 80% of adults "agree" or "strongly agree" that Americans should be concerned about the government's monitoring of phone calls and internet communications 2. 54% of adults have become less confident over time that the surveillance programs are serving the public interest A change in opinion? Or a change in question wording?

Application-class-specific discrimination

1. A "class of applications" is a group of individual applications that share some common characteristic. Thus, there are many different potential classes of applications based on which a network provider could discriminate, each defined by the criteria that are used to allocate the applications to the classes. 2. For example, a class of applications may be the group of all applications of the same application type (e.g., Internet telephony, e-mail), all applications that use the same application-layer protocol (e.g., all applications that use SIP, all applications that use HTTP) or transport-layer protocol (e.g., all applications that use TCP, all applications that use UDP), or all applications that have similar technical requirements (e.g., all latency-sensitive applications, all latency-insensitive applications). 3. A network provider discriminates "based on class of application" if it treats the application differently depending on whether it belongs to the class or not. Since classes are defined by a common characteristic that the applications in the class share, discrimination based on class of application is the same as discrimination based on a characteristic of an application.

Or Structure

1. A Gate at top 2. B Gate at bottom 3. Both connected to each other 4. Always on part is to the left, between A and B 5. Output registers A or B on right side, between A and B 6. Can build a "not gate" etc. 7. Any statement you can express in logic, you can build 8. Can build up any logical formula

Ad placement with and without cookies

1. A cookie is information (a small text file) that a site saves to your computer using your web browser. Cookies make the personalization of your web experiences possible. 2. The term "third-party" indicates that rather than having a direct relationship with a user, a company has a relationship with one or more of the websites that a user visits. For example, if a user visits sportsfan.com, that website is the "first party." If sportsfan.com partners with an advertising network, platform, or exchange to place ads, the network, platform, or exchange is the "third party." The advertising network uses cookies when the user visits sportsfan.com to help it select and serve the best ad. These cookies are considered "third-party cookies". First parties partner with third parties in this way because third parties have technology and expertise to enable more efficient ad placement across websites. NAI members, working with brands, publishers and websites, use third-party cookies to make advertising more engaging and relevant to users and more valuable to publishers and advertisers. 3. The days of dropping in small pieces of code or "cookies" on a user's computer will one day be a thing of the past. Yes, these cookies are still helpful with letting marketers know where or how a user has interacted with something on the web, but they can easily be deleted, therefore providing advertisers with incorrect information, especially from mobile devices. On average, cookies have a 59% tracking success rate, and according to executives on an Atlas launch panel, they overstate frequency by 41%. Using Atlas, Facebook has fixed this problem by linking users' ad interactions to their Facebook persistent ID rather than a cookie , which allows the social network to measure user activity on both desktop and mobile devices, including mobile conversion and desktop conversion tracking.

Credit ratings

1. A credit score is a number, generally between 300-850, assigned to you to rate how risky a borrower you are--the higher the score, the less risk you pose to creditors. 2. The Equal Credit Opportunity Act forbids creditors from considering race, sex, marital status, national origin, and religion. Lenders and other institutions argue that credit-scoring systems provide a consistent, mathematical system to evaluate individuals. Institutions argue that a credit score is superior to the previous method of evaluation by a loan officer because the loan officer was given too much discretion, which gave rise to problems such as bias. Others argue that the disparate loan denial ratio has not changed since the implementation of the credit score, and the outright discrimination of the past was simply replaced with a more subtle form of discrimination that is built into the credit scoring calculations through the programmers' judgment calls regarding which factors to consider, and the amount of weight assigned to these factors.

Public key cryptosystems

1. A cryptographic system that uses two keys -- a public key known to everyone and a private or secret key known only to the recipient of the message. 2. When John wants to send a secure message to Jane, he uses Jane's public key to encrypt the message. Jane then uses her private key to decryptit.

Digital signatures

1. A digital signature (not to be confused with a digital certificate) is a mathematical technique used to validate the authenticity and integrity of a message, software, or digital document. 2. Digital signatures are based on public key cryptography, also known as asymmetric cryptography. Using a public key algorithm such as RSA, one can generate two keys that are mathematically linked: one private and one public. To create a digital signature, signing software (such as an email program) creates a one-way hash of the electronic data to be signed. The private key is then used to encrypt the hash. The encrypted hash -- along with other information, such as the hashing algorithm -- is the digital signature.

Third party tracking

1. A first-party website authorizes a third party website to learn about its users 2. Third-party websites record and analyze users' browsing activities across unrelated first-party websites ("third-party web tracking" or "tracking" for short).

Hashtag

1. A hashtag is simply a way for people to search for tweets and other social media posts that have a common topic. 2. Conventions of use emerged: #hashtag - invented by Chris Messina one day. Messina first proposed that Twitter users use a hashtag to create "groups" back in 2007. Hashtag is economical for categorizing and naming.

Cookies (2nd half of semester)

1. A message given to a Web browser by a Web server. The browser stores the message in a text file. The message is then sent back to the server each time the browser requests a page from the server. 2. The main purpose of cookies is to identify users and possibly prepare customized Web pages for them. When you enter a Web site using cookies, you may be asked to fill out a form providing such information as your name and interests. This information is packaged into a cookie and sent to your Web browser which stores it for later use. The next time you go to the same Web site, your browser will send the cookie to the Web server. The server can use this information to present you with custom Web pages. So, for example, instead of seeing just a generic welcome page you might see a welcome page with your name on it.

The distinction between the web and apps

1. A mobile website is designed specifically for the smaller screens and touch-screen capabilities of smartphones and tablets. It can be accessed using any mobile device's Web browser, like Safari on iOS and Chrome on Android. Users simply type in the URL or click on a link to your website, and the website automatically detects the mobile device and redirects the viewer to the mobile version of your website. 2. A mobile app is a smartphone or tablet application. Unlike a mobile website, a mobile app must be downloaded and installed, typically from an app marketplace, such as the Apple App Store or Android's Google Play store.

Router

1. A networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks 2. A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks 3. When a data packet comes in one of the lines, the router reads the address information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. This creates an overlay internetwork. Routers perform the "traffic directing" functions on the Internet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through the networks that constitute the internetwork until it reaches its destination node

Patents

1. A patent is a legal right to exclude others from practicing the patented invention for a limited period of time in exchange for disclosing the details of the invention to the public. 2. An owner of a United States patent can exclude others making, using, offering for sale, or selling their invention in the United States, importing their invention into the United States, exporting a substantial portion of the invention for assembly into the invention overseas, or exporting components overseas that were especially made or adapted for use in a system that infringes and those components are not staple articles of commerce suitable for substantial non-infringing use.

Patent trolls

1. A patent troll uses patents as legal weapons, instead of actually creating any new products or coming up with new ideas. Instead, trolls are in the business of litigation (or even just threatening litigation). Unfortunately, the Patent Office has a habit of issuing patents for ideas that are neither new nor revolutionary, and these patents can be very broad, covering everyday or commonsense types of computing - things that should never have been patented in the first place. Armed with these overbroad and vague patents, the troll will then send out threatening letters to those they argue infringe their patent(s). These letters threaten legal action unless the alleged infringer agrees to pay a licensing fee, which can often range to the tens of thousands or even hundreds of thousands of dollars. 2. Many who receive infringement letters will choose to pay the licensing fee, even if they believe the patent is bogus or their product did not infringe. That's because patent litigation is extremely expensive — often millions of dollars per suit — and can take years of court battles. It's faster and easier for companies to settle.

Public goods

1. A product that one individual can consume without reducing its availability to another individual and from which no one is excluded. 2. Economists refer to public goods as "non-rivalrous" and "non-excludable". 3. National defense, sewer systems, public parks and basic television and radio broadcasts could all be considered public goods.

What are public goods? (nonrival, nonexcludable)

Anti-blocking vs. nondiscrimination rules

1. A rule against blocking: a rule that forbids network providers from blocking applications, content and services on their networks. A rule against blocking is part of all network neutrality proposals; it is the one rule on which all network neutrality proponents agree. 2. Nondiscrimination rules: ban differential treatment that falls short of blocking. The first approach - which is the approach favored by van Schewick - bans application- specific discrimination, but allows application-agnostic discrimination.

80/20 rule

1. A rule of thumb that states that 80% of outcomes can be attributed to 20% of the causes for a given event i.e. 20% of products responsible for 80% of sales 2. Anderson believes the long tail means the death of the so-called 80/20 rule

Session ID

1. A session ID is a unique number that a Web site's server assigns a specific user for the duration of that user's visit (session). The session ID can be stored as a cookie, form field, or URL (Uniform Resource Locator). Some Web servers generate session IDs by simply incrementing static numbers. However, most servers use algorithms that involve more complex methods, such as factoring in the date and time of the visit along with other variables defined by the server administrator. 2. Session IDs, in their conventional form, do not offer secure Web browsing. Skilled hackers can acquire session IDs (a process called session prediction), and then masquerade as authorized users in a form of attack known as session hijacking.

Spiders, crawlers, bots

1. A spider is a program that visits Web sites and reads their pages and other information in order to create entries for a search engine index. 2. The major search engines on the Web all have such a program, which is also known as a "crawler" or a "bot."

Creative destruction and its 3 mechanisms

1. A term coined by Joseph Schumpeter in his work entitled "Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy" (1942) to denote a "process of industrial mutation that incessantly revolutionizes the economic structure from within, incessantly destroying the old one, incessantly creating a new one." Mechanisms: •Aggregation: bringing together larger audiences as eBay did •Disintermediation: reduction in the use of intermediaries between producers and consumers •Hypersegmentation: the process of looking at your customers and dividing them up into segments - for example you may have a cluster of retired customers, some young girls, etc. Then once you know this and have identified them, you market to them differently based on their differing wants/needs.

Programming language

1. A vocabulary and set of grammatical rules for instructing a computer to perform specific tasks. The term programming language usually refers to high-level languages, such as BASIC, C, C++, COBOL, FORTRAN, Ada, and Pascal. 2. Each language has a unique set of keywords (words that it understands) and a special syntax for organizing program instructions. 3. High-level programming languages, while simple compared to human languages, are more complex than the languages the computer actually understands, called machine languages. Each different type of CPU has its own unique machine language.

Zero-day vulnerability

1. A zero-day vulnerability is a flaw in software, hardware or firmware that is exploited as soon as or before it becomes generally known to the public. 2. Such an attack is called a zero-day exploit, meaning that there are zero days between the time the vulnerability is discovered and the first attack.

Opinion #2: Service Providers

1. AT&T at a higher risk for focused overload A. Many customers have iPhones B. and unlimited data plans 2. Good to introduce FaceTime gradually A. Constrain the number of users B. Create incentives to limit use C. Reduce negative impact on others 3. Dynamic rate limiting was less attractive A. Complex, not supported by equipment B. May degrade performance for all

Lecture

1. About how patent systems operates in practice 2. Much of policy debate stems from differences between theory and practice

The Policy Issue: "Net Neutrality"

1. About the rights and obligations of the ISPs - Internet Service Providers - that bring the Internet over "the last mile" to our homes and offices. 2. FCC's 2013 Open Internet Order limited ISPs rights to interfere with the bits that pass through their systems. 3. Large part of that order was declared null and void early in 2014 by 2nd District Court of Appeals - with significant implications for the architecture of media, information, and communications industries. 4. After appearing to capitulate, the FCC is now trying to do what it must do (reclassifying the Internet) legally to assert authority and promulgage "open internet" regulations.

Some Notable Things about U.S. IP Policy

1. Ad hoc - different rules for different industries --- no "inalienable rights," just specific legislation...different regimes for music on radio, music on Internet radio, books, plays, furniture designs, comedy routines, and ships' hulls 2. Decoupled from original purpose and unevaluated 3. Treaty-driven - WIPO process constrains courts and Congress 4. Automatic, not opt-In --- Most IP is worthless unless infringed, yet rights remain... leaving much of our recent cultural heritage unavailable 5. Compulsory licensing rare, which increases uncertainty and transaction costs - musical compositions and TV programming vs. design, plays, films, books, etc.

Problems to Solve to Make Worldwide Web Work

1. Addressing (packets) 2. Routing: even if you know address, internet structure is complicated and intricate. How are gateways supposed to know what to do with inputs? Hard to do with network grown organically 3. Reliability: how to get network to work when many parts are down 4. Security: how to protect internet

"Advantages of Adherence to the WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) and the WIPO Performances and Phonographs Treaty" by World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

1. Adherence and implementation of the treaties offer a number of benefits for countries regardless of their stage of development. 2. It provides important economic incentives to creative individuals and companies in the new digital environment. 3. The treaties provide a substantial legal basis for healthy electronic commerce. 4. They sustain the national copyright industries, attract investment, and protect local creativity.

Selling Eyeballs: False Starts

1. Advertising rates based on visitors (unreliable, gameable) 2. Demographic information about visitors (no advantage over traditional media) 3. Pay per click (manipulation by persons or software)

Do People Act as if they Care? The Pew Post-Snowden Study

1. Almost everyone had heard of the government surveillance programs revealed by the Snowden leaks. 2. But relatively few had changed their behavior in response (as of Jan. 2015).

Persistent cookies

1. Also called a permanent cookie, or a stored cookie, a cookie that is stored on a user's hard drive until it expires (persistent cookies are set with expiration dates) or until the user deletes the cookie. 2. Persistent cookies are used to collect identifying information about the user, such as Web surfing behavior or user preferences for a specific Web site.

Packet filtering

1. Also referred to as static packet filtering. Controlling access to a network by analyzing the incoming and outgoing packets and letting them pass or halting them based on the IP addresses of the source and destination. 2. Packet filtering is one technique, among many, for implementing security firewalls.

Quality of Use: Our Major Focus

1. Among Internet users, what determines extent to which people use the Internet to increase their human or social capital? 2. Premise: From standpoint of study of inequality, digital inequality is important only in so far as it characterizes the use of the Internet for the acquisition of human capital and social capital.

Information appliance

1. An "information appliance" is one that will run only those programs designated by the entity that built or sold it. 2. In the taxonomy of generativity, an information appliance may have the leverage and adaptability of a PC, but its accessibility for further coding is strictly limited.

Client-server

1. An architecture in which the user's PC (the client) is the requesting machine and the server is the supplying machine, both of which are connected via a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN) such as the Internet. Throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s, client/server was the hot buzzword as applications were migrated from minicomputers and mainframes with input/output terminals to networks of desktop computers. 2. With ubiquitous access to company LANs and the Internet, almost everyone works in a client/server environment today. However, to be true client/server, both client and server must share in the business processing.

Operating system

1. An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as "OS") is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all the other programs in a computer. 2. The other programs are called applications or application programs. 3. The application programs make use of the operating system by making requests for services through a defined application program interface (API). 4. In addition, users can interact directly with the operating system through a user interface such as a command language or a graphical user interface (GUI).

"How the Internet Works, and Why it's Impossible to Know What Makes Your Netflix Slow" by Tim Fernholz and David Yanovsky

1. An informative article by two journalists on recent developments 2. You'll hear people say that debates over transit and peering have nothing to do with net neutrality, and in a sense, they are right: Net neutrality is a last-mile issue. But at the same time, these middle-mile deals affect the consumer internet experience, which is why there is a good argument that the back room deals make net neutrality regulations obsolete—and why people like Netflix's CEO are trying to define "strong net neutrality" to include peering decisions. 3. What we're seeing is the growing power of ISPs. As long-haul networks get cheaper, access to users becomes more valuable, and creates more leverage over content providers, what you might call a "terminating access monopoly." While the largest companies are simply building their own networks or making direct deals in the face of this asymmetry, there is worry that new services will not have the power to make those kinds of deals or build their own networks, leaving them disadvantaged compared to their older competitors and the ISP. 4. The counter-argument is that the market works: If people want the services, they'll demand their ISP carry them. The problem there is transparency: If customers don't know where the conflict is before the last mile, they don't know whom to blame. Right now, it's largely impossible to tell whether your ISP, the content provider, or a third party out in the internet is slowing down a service. That's why much of the policy debate around peering is focused on understanding it, not proposing ideas. Open internet advocates are hopeful that the FCC will be able to use its authority to publicly map networks and identify the cause of disputes. 5. The other part of that challenge, of course, is that most people don't have much choice in their ISP, and if the proposed merger between the top two providers of wired broadband,Time Warner Cable and Comcast, goes through, they'll have even less.

Operating systems

1. An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as "OS") is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all the other programs in a computer. The other programs are called applications or application programs. The application programs make use of the operating system by making requests for services through a defined application program interface (API). In addition, users can interact directly with the operating system through a user interface such as a command language or a graphical user interface (GUI). 2. Operating systems consists of a kernel as well as utilities. The kernel is the core of the OS, while utilities make the OS useful.

OS & Device: SDK/Handset Agreements

1. Android A. OS is free and open (unlike Apple iOS) B. But the OS isn't the whole story 2. Agreements with handset manufacturers A. Early access to new versions of Android B. Engineering and technical support C. Access to Google Play (app store and search) 3. Anti-fragmentation policy A. Reduces app portability problems B. Limits OS experimentation (e.g. search, navigation)

Code vs. Law

1. Antigua controls 59% of world's online gambling (c. 10% of GDP) 2. 2001: U.S. begins to enforce anti-gambling laws by blocking sites, getting Visa & Paypal to stop transferring funds, etc. 3. 2004: WTO rules in Antigua's favor that U.S. restrictions violating General Agreement on Trade in Services (international treaty); U.S. appeals, Antigua wins. 4. 2006: Antigua complains to WTO that U.S. has ignored ruling. 5. 2013: WTO gives Antigua permission to ignore U.S. copyright laws. (Antigua blinks)

Spyware

1. Any software that covertly gathers user information through the user's Internet connection without his or her knowledge, usually for advertising purposes. Spyware applications are typically bundled as a hidden component of freeware or shareware programs that can be downloaded from the Internet; however, it should be noted that the majority of shareware and freeware applications do not come with spyware. 2. Once installed, the spyware monitors user activity on the Internet and transmits that information in the background to someone else. Spyware can also gather information about e-mail addresses and even passwords and credit card numbers.

Case Studies

1. App stores 2. Carrier service agreements 3. Network-unfriendly applications 4. SDK and handset agreements 5. WiFi offloading

Some "Vertical" Players in Mobile Business

1. Apple: Devices (iPhone/iPad) and OS (iOS) 2. Google: OS (Android), Apps, and recently devices 3. Samsung: Top handset manufacturer; sells LTE equipment, handset equipment 4. Huawei: Mobile devices and network equipment

Opt-In Copyright Renewal

1. Argument for Opt-In A. Most IP has little value (Pew poll) B. ***Opt-in would save orphan works from limbo (aiding film preservation) C. WIPO treaty may prevent opt-in 2. Other approaches: A. Shawn Bentley Orphan Works Act of 2008 (EU passed similar leg. 9/12) a. Nearly passed but didn't b. Protects users if copyright holders cannot be found c. Requires due diligence, notice of use and reasonable damages d. Safe harbor for schools, libraries, museums, and public broadcasters 3. Canada - User gets license from Copyright agency and pays fee which is placed in escrow

Privacy from Whom?

1. As a citizen: From government 2. As a consumer: From businesses with whom one deals 3. As an employee: From one's employer

Why mobile phones are attractive targets for surveillance

1. Attack endpoint, not network. End-to-end principle: interesting stuff at end, thus attack end. Ends most complex and thus most vulnerable. 2. Mobile phone best thing to attack. Book "Spycraft" says ideal device has microphone, camera, battery, radio, person can be induced to carry it, so this is a golden age for remote listening.

Common Factors in Examples

1. Attack endpoint, not network. End-to-end principle: interesting stuff at end, thus attack end. Ends most complex and thus most vulnerable. Mobile phone best thing to attack. Book "Spycraft" says ideal device has microphone, camera, battery, radio, person can be induced to carry it, so this is a golden age for remote listening. 2. Exploit commercial software e.g. POTUS uses Windows PC. Heartbleed was a vuln in which open SSL (majority of sites rely on this for security) was exploited. There has been a series of vulns discovered in open SSL. Open SSL is free open source. Commercial software used a lot in commercial settings.

Authentication systems

1. Authentication: The process of identifying an individual, usually based on a username and password. 2. In security systems, authentication is distinct from authorization , which is the process of giving individuals access to system objects based on their identity. Authentication merely ensures that the individual is who he or she claims to be, but says nothing about the access rights of the individual. 3. Zittrain suggests that one way to reduce pressure on institutional and technological gatekeepers is to make direct responsibility more feasible. Forthcoming piecemeal solutions to problems such as spam take this approach. ISPs are working with makers of major PC e-mail applications to provide for forms of sender authentication.

History

Evolution of social networks: - Personal web pages to Friendster to MySpace to Facebook - Computerized Bulletin Board System (CBBS) - Usenet - Web forums

1. BBS (bulletin board system): dates to 1970s/1980s. Run by someone with a computer in their basement. You would make a call to connect. There was a chat facility. Only one modem, so could only be connected to one person at once. 2. BBS led to Usenet which led to Forums 3. The Internet also helped led to Usenet. The Internet also led to personal webpages which led to MySpace, which in turn led to Facebook. The Internet also led to blogs which led to Twitter. 4. Personal web pages also helped lead to Twitter. Each Component Explained: 1. Usenet: distributed protocol. Usenet servers would chat with each other. Each was like a discussion forum. 2. Forums: web-based that function like newsgroups. 3. Personal webpages: were hard to make. Came along to make it easier. 4. MySpace: started out as a way to make personal web pages. Started to take on a more social aspect. 5. Facebook: more private than Twitter. 6. Blogs: blog were more personal and social as opposed to professionalized blogs today. Blogs would also have one way link to other blogs. 7. Twitter: like early blogs, people discussing discrete posts: also friendship non-symmetric not as in Facebook.

Evolution of Networking

1. BBS led to Usenet which led to Forums 2. The Internet also helped led to Usenet. The Internet also led to personal webpages which led to MySpace, which in turn led to Facebook. The Internet also led to blogs which led to Twitter. 3. Personal web pages also helped lead to Twitter.

Why is Net Neutrality Such a Prominent Issue?

1. Because of the stakes. 2. But also because of its centrality - in terms of the issues and players -- to the information policy field. A. Cybersecurity - deep packet inspection critical to CALEA rules & protection of networks and lay behind implementation of smart-pipe incentives B. Intellectual property - ISPs increasingly focus of rights-holders (graduated response) - deep packet inspection crucial, but may jeopardize safe-harbor status C. Privacy - Elimination of commercial neutrality would increase incentive for ISP information-gathering on subscriber behavior D. Digital divide - 2010 Berkman Report: best predictor of broadband penetration is whether country has common carriage requirements (fair access of competitors to last-mile networks).

Universal Circuit, Software, and Programming

1. Big advantage of coupling universal circuit with memory is that you don't need to design circuit for every purpose, as you just need to change the inputs 2. This is the idea of software and programming: you can decide later what you want it to do

BitTorrent (2nd half of semester)

1. BitTorrent is a protocol for the practice of peer-to-peer file sharing that is used to distribute large amounts of data over the Internet. BitTorrent is one of the most common protocols for transferring large files. 2. Powerful new modes of stealing and distributing... • Lots occurs without digital intervention (e.g. as late as 2007, 90% of cinema theft result of filming movies in theatres - often distributing it on tape; 60% of losses to film industry from "hard-goods" piracy)* • But ever more powerful means of distributing digital files on line (BitTorrent) • Issues: - How long should it last? - Should renewal be automatic or by application?

Bitcoin - Mechanisms (mining, transactions, block chains) - Exchanges - Satoshi Nakamoto

1. Bitcoin is a consensus network that enables a new payment system and a completely digital money. It is the first decentralized peer-to-peer payment network that is powered by its users with no central authority or middlemen. 2. Mechanisms: Technical background Digital signatures, linked pair of keys (i.e. numbers) 1. Secret signing key 2. Public verification key You use public signing key to sign a message. Anyone can use the verification key to verify the signature. How Bitcoin Works (Simplified) 1. Ownership of coins: each coin belongs to some public verification key known as an "address." 2. Transaction: consumes coins, creates new coins of equivalent value (with new owners) Need one more thing to make this work 3. The block chain: a global history of all transactions ever. Rule: "if it's not in the block chain, it didn't happen." Block Chain Hard part to implement is blockchain. You need to reach global consensus on wealth of millions of anonymous people. This was thought to be impossible before Bitcoin. Before Bitcoin, a central authority would publish blockchain for cryptocurrencies. Key problem: how to agree on block chain Key move: "mining" 1. Create a mathematical equation that is very difficult to solve 2. Only approach: guess and see if it works 3. If you find solution first: A) you announce solution, B) you add one block to blockchain (includes transactions), C) you get 25 new Bitcoins (about $8k), then new solution is created. Not obvious why this is better. This is like a voting system. System has not proven to be incentive compatible. It could be possible to game this system. Thus far this mechanism has induced people to behave in a cooperative way. Stability of Bitcoin has yet to be explained. Bitcoin Exchange Markets 1. Currently around 14 million Bitcoins in existence 2. Can trade BTC (Bitcoin) for $: A) current price: ~$240/BTC B) total value ~$3.5 Billion

How Twitter differs from a blog

1. Blogs and Twitter do have some things in common, such as sharing information online. In fact, Twitter is a form of blogging -- microblogging, that is. Microblogging is a shorter form of blogging, but Twitter and blogs are still vastly different. 2. Post Length: One of the primary differences between a blog and a Twitter profile is the length of posts. Twitter posts, which are called "tweets," are limited to 140 characters. Blog posts have no character or length limit and depend entirely on the preference of the blogger. Blog posts can range from a couple of sentences to multiple pages, or even longer. One of the common uses of Twitter is including links to your blog posts in your tweets. 3. Hosting Twitter profiles are hosted on Twitter, meaning the profile information is on Twitter's server and the profile URL is an extension of Twitter's URL. For example, a Twitter profile has the URL "http://www.twitter.com/username." Blogs, on the other hand, have a lot more variety when it comes to hosting. You can use a blogging service to host your blog, such as Blogger, Tumblr, WordPress.com and Typepad. When you host your blog on a blogging service, you can use an extension URL like a Twitter profile or you can use your own URL. You can also self-host blogs, meaning they are on the server you purchased for your domain name or website. 4. Format: In basic terms, blogs are fully customizable -- like websites -- and Twitter profiles are not. You can customize your profile to some degree on Twitter, changing background and colors, but not nearly on the same level as a blog. You can have as many pages as you like, different types of layouts, sidebars, menus, ads, banners and pretty much whatever you want on your blog. Your Twitter profile is restricted to your Tweets, followers and other information pertinent to Twitter. 5. Profiles Profiles on Twitter let you upload one photo, include your name and location, write a description of yourself in 89 characters or less and post one link to a website or blog. If you use a blog-hosting service, you usually have the ability to create an online profile that is fairly limited, but still includes more information than Twitter. If you have a self-hosted blog, you can create your own "About Me" page and include however much information you want.

Developments in code necessary for the takeoff of e-commerce? (browsers, javascript, cookies)

1. Browser:a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web 2. Javascript: the programming language of the Web 3. Cookies: information (a small text file) that a site saves to your computer using your web browser. Cookies make the personalization of your web experiences possible. •Commercial applications would require a user-friendly graphical interface - i.e. a "browser" -Tim Berners-Lee invented first browser at CERN in 1989 -Mark Andreesen released Mosaic in 1993 at Univ. Illinois - commercialized as Netscape -Thomas Reardon built Internet Explorer (on Spyglass), IE bundled with Windows, takes over world (95% of market) temporarily •Javascript (Netscape 1994; IE 1996) and cookies (Netscape 1994) for individualization & transactions

GNU Project

1. Build a GPL licensed "clone" of UNIX 2. NB: UNIX: Pronounced yoo-niks, a popular multi-user, multitasking operating system developed at Bell Labs in the early 1970s. Created by just a handful of programmers, UNIX was designed to be a small, flexible system used exclusively by programmers. 3. Operating systems consists of a kernel as well as utilities. The kernel is the core of the OS, while utilities make the OS useful. 4. Stallman was an amazing programmer, but while the utilities were good, the kernel was bad.

2 ways that content providers can speed delivery without running afoul of net neutrality rules

1. Build their own backbone 2. Build content delivery network (CDN): a large distributed system of servers deployed in multiple data centers across the Internet. The goal of a CDN is to serve content to end-users with high availability and high performance. Content providers such as media companies and e-commerce vendors pay CDN operators to deliver their content to their audience of end-users.

Appliances solve the problem of protecting intellectual property.

1. But so did television in the 1970s. 2. Benkler: "The battle over the institutional ecology of the digitally networked environment is waged ... over how many individual users will continue to participate in making [that] environment, and how [many] will continue to sit on the couch..."

Piracy or Competitive Changes due to the Shift to Digital Media Have Produced Creative Destruction in a Series of Industries

1. CDs 2. Newspapers 3. Bookstores 4. Universities

Defining the Problem

1. Call center attrition is high and costly 2. evolv worked with companies to predict turnover 3. evolv said distance from call center determined turnover 4. Distance also correlated with ethnicity: also possibly true with SES, race 5. evolv told Xerox not to take this into consideration. Data used is often a convenience sample

Implications of Mobile Technology

1. Cameras everywhere: changes journalism, civilian-police relations 2. Kids can talk to friends always 3. Breakdown of wall between business and personal computing

Implications of Being Able to Build Circuits

1. Can do arithmetic: because we take arithmetic and express it as logic 2. Binary (base 2) representation: in base 2, each digit is either 0 or 1. Thus 1011011 = 64 + 16 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 91 Addition and subtraction work the same in binary. 3. Can represent text: each letter represented by a number: 1 = a, 2 = b, 3 = c etc. Want more for capitals, punctuation, other languages. In general, can represent many things in many formats. Almost anything that can be represented as a symbol can be represented as a number.

Capital-Enhancing vs. Recreational Uses

1. Capital-enhancing A. Personal finance B. Education C. Work D. Government E. Health F. News G. Politics H. Science 2. Recreational A. Sports B. Music and arts C. Television or movies D. Games E. Humor F. Sex sites G. Hobbies H. Cooking

CPU

1. Central processing unit. 2. Sometimes referred to simply as the central processor, but more commonly called processor, the CPU is the brains of the computer where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system.

Circuits

Stakeholders: The Pros

1. Civil liberties groups - vibrant public square (ACLU, Common Cause, Public Knowledge, American Library Association) 2. Social movement groups - MoveOn, Christian Coalition (at first) 3. Content and service providers (Google, eBay, Amazon, Yahoo, Skype, Netflix) A. Want to avoid new fees and hold-ups by ISPs B. Recognize that ISPs have interest in downgrading services (VoIP, streaming movies) that compete with their own.

Basic approaches of Clinton, Bush and Obama administrations to digital divide

Collaborative filtering

1. Collaborative filtering (CF) is a technique used by some recommender systems. 2. Collaborative filtering has two senses, a narrow one and a more general one. In general, collaborative filtering is the process of filtering for information or patterns using techniques involving collaboration among multiple agents, viewpoints, data sources, etc. 3. In the newer, narrower sense, collaborative filtering is a method of making automatic predictions (filtering) about the interests of a user by collecting preferences or taste information from many users (collaborating).

New Online News Magazines Producing More Original Content

1. Combination of investors (Vice, .Mic, the Awl) and parent companies (Quartz, Verge) 2. Combination of paid staff (often former journalists at top papers) and "bloggers" or "volunteers" 3. Strong emphasis on click-metrics (page views, tweets, favorites) delivered to newsroom in real time 4. Tension over definition of "good journalism" as both serious and popular 5. Variation in resources allocated to reporting 6. Specialization (Vice: Hip, International; Quartz: Business; .Mic: Youth; The Awl: Culture)

Without Strong Net Neutrality Rules, What Future Could Look Like

1. Comcast Lowers Usage Caps: Netflix Shares Plummet 2. AG OKs Google/AT&T Merger: New firm promises to bring faster broadband to more Americans 3. Cablezon Offers Prime Customers Quick Access to Over 1000 Websites for $150 a Month: Offer Available with 3-year Cable, Voice, Kindle & Home Security Contract

Communities of limited liability

1. Communities of limited liability: no one community or identity absorbs all roles 2. In past, humans lived in communities of total commitment

Communities as places vs. communities as networks

1. Community as Place of Family and Neighbors 2. Community as Network of Ties that Provide Intimacy, Support, Assistance, Information, Sociability - but less Constraint

From Structural to Functional Definitions of Community

1. Community as Place of Family and Neighbors 2. Community as Network of Ties that Provide Intimacy, Support, Assistance, Information, Sociability - but less Constraint

Compulsory licensing

1. Compulsory licensing is when a government allows someone else to produce the patented product or process without the consent of the patent owner. 2. A Notable Thing about U.S. IP Policy: Compulsory licensing rare, which increases uncertainty and transaction costs - musical compositions and TV programming vs. design, plays, films, books, etc. 3. Orphan works: Why should a play be harder than a radio show? Compulsory licensing is: - Means of reducing transaction costs - Makes material more readily available and -Ensures collection of fees for creators

Stuxnet (continued)

1. Computer worm spread over Windows 2. Contained four "zero-day" vulnerabilities. #of days since issuance of patch to fix vulnerability (vuln). This vuln had not been fixed. 1. First stage: not until all vulns fixed 2. Second stage: looked for particular configuration of Siemens control 3. Manipulated industrial controller. Controllers connected to centrifuges, which separated heavier isotopes from lighter ones. Software would cause the centrifuge to overheat and come apart. It would also take out neighboring centrifuges as well as it spun out of control. In short, it destroyed equipment. This set back the Iranian nuclear program by years. This caused damage airstrike would have caused: that is to say, it had "kinetic effects." Stuxnet started spreading outside plant until antivirus companies noticed it and pieced together what was going on.

Results I: Internet Use Increased Earnings

1. Controlling for lagged hourly earnings, Internet users had significantly higher earnings than non-users. 2. The effects were strongest for workers who currently used the Internet on the job, especially if they used it in both 2000 and 2001, and especially if they also used it at home ($1.74/hr. more with controls for median earners). But it was also the case for workers who A. Used the Internet only at work, but not at home ($1.03/hr.) B. Used the Internet at home, but not at work ($.61/hr.) C. Used the Internet in 2001, but not 2000 3. Indicating that results (a) not just human capital & (b) not artifacts of employer selection effects

Overlapping Rights in Software

1. Copyright in code: covers the expression, but not "how it works": in practice, difficult to separate expression from function 2. Patent: covers "how it works" 3. Trade secret: for stuff you want to keep proprietary NB: This is distinctive to software: not true, for instance, in pharma and film industry These protections might cover the same thing at the same time

IP Law Responds to the Internet

1. Creative destruction 2. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) 3. Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) 4. Universal City Studios v. Corley (2001) 5. Eldred v. Ashcroft (2003) 6. MGM v. Grokster (2005) 7. Pro IP Act (2008) 8. PROTECT-IP and SOPA Bills (2011-12)

Digital vault

1. Critical data needs to be stored in a secure location, and should be visible only to those with the rights to see it. 2. Another key factor in identifying a Digital Vault should be its ability to mimic all existing security processes and procedures in the organisation for handling sensitive information.

Bitcoin Exchange Markets

1. Currently around 14 million Bitcoins in existence 2. Can trade BTC (Bitcoin) for $: A) current price: ~$240/BTC B) total value ~$3.5 Billion Merchants can be set up to accept Bitcoin. Satoshi Nakamoto was a pseudonym for some unknown person. Satoshi owns large quantities of Bitcoin. Satoshi used to be active on forums. Around 2011 or 2012, Satoshi went silent. Satoshi said I'm not the person identified by Newsweek.

DNS tampering - filtering and redirection

1. DNS tampering involves falsifying the response that is returned by the DNS server, either through intentional conguration or DNS poisoning. The server may lie about the associated IP address, any CNAMEs related to the domain, the authoritative servers for the domain, or any combination of the three. 2. Filtering consists in modifying the normal resolution of a name on a server to an IP address, either by blocking the response, or by replying with an error message, or by returning the address of another server generally indicating that access to the website in question is prohibited. 3. DNS redirection is the controversial practice of serving a Web page to a user that is different from either the one requested or one that might reasonably be expected, such as an error page. Typically, an ISP serves an ad-based page, rather than a 404 error message, when the user mistypes a URL.

Upcoming Policy Choices

1. Deadline May 31 (or May 20, when Congress adjourns). has to do with USA Patriot Act passed in wake of 9/11. Act has sunset date. Congress has repeatedly extended sunset date with few changes. A. Patriot Act sunset. Only in last week of April that bills have been introduced. a. Key area of debate: Section 215. Used to get mass communication/metadata. FBI/intelligence agencies can demand from private companies info on ongoing terrorist activities: gives them access to phone and Net data. This is a twisting of legislative intent, as bill was intended to allow targeted collection of data. 2. "Going dark"/"backdoors". Comey, director of FBI, argues that companies changing their products so that it's tough for law enforcement to get access. If police get warrant to search iPhone, they can't get data off of phone. Apple says that it wants to protect consumers from theft or loss of phone. Comey says phones are "going dark." Data on phone, he says, is a law-free zone. This leads to idea of a backdoor. Idea is that when law enforcement gets warrant, they have a key to access data. You need to have some kind of backdoor that is not used inappropriately. Yahoo has said we don't know how to give US a key that won't be used by others. There's a big debate in the Obama administration about this.

How Data Mining Can Discriminate

1. Defining the target variable 2. Training data a. Data collection b. Labeling examples 3. Feature selection a. Coarseness and comprehensiveness b. Proxies 4. Masking

Outline (privacy lecture)

1. Definitions of privacy 2. Concepts that "privacy" entails and/or pre-supposes 3. Privacy protection - from whom? 4. Privacy protection - Legally required? Possible? Necessary? 5. What do Americans say and do about privacy?

Deliberative democracy v. consumer democracy (Sunstein)

1. Deliberative democracy: In this system, representatives would be accountable to the public at large, but there was also supposed to be a large degree of reflection and debate, both within the citizenry and within government itself. The system of checks and balances — evident in the bicameral system, the Senate, the Electoral College and so forth — had, as its central purpose, a mechanism for promoting deliberation within the government as a whole. 2. Consumer democracy:free choice of goods and free movement of capital is paramount to other social goals. This ideal has infected the web, as commerce dominates in the form of shopping, advertising, and consumers' discussions of products.

Key Protocol: TCP/IP

Things that have been Disintermediated

1. Destroyers (examples) A. eBay B. eTrade C. Google books/Amazon D. Cdbaby, Soundcloud E. Kayak.com F. Netflix G. Google, Wikipedia 2. Victims A. Antiques specialists B. Walk-in brokerages C. Libraries/ book stores D. Record companies E. Travel agencies F. Video stores G. Reference books

Business Relationships

1. Device branding A. user has a contract with the carrier i. Individual or family/group plan: family group/plan has roots in days when family would purchase landline for home. In early days of iPhone, iPhone closely associated with Apple and only sold at Apple stores. 2. Typically device sold roughly $200 below cost A. consumer is locked into 2 year monthly. NB: The phone discount is made up for with higher network costs. This contract structure disincentivizes switching and carriers offer contracts that extend into the future. It's also difficult to switch out of this model. There's sticker shock when phone priced at $800-900. The FCC is constantly trying to decide when customers can get out of their contracts.

What is Different About Mobile?

1. Device is moving around 2. Device is small 3. Device is always on (a legacy of traditional phone and unlike laptop, which is often asleep) and usually networked 4. battery-powered 5. uses radio spectrum 6. lots of sensors, especially the camera 7. in developed world, one per person 8. also a phone

DiMaggio and Hargittai's findings on the predictors of patterns of Internet use likely to enhance users' human capital or social capital (lecture)

1. DiMaggio 2004: A. Years of schooling had a positive impact on capital enhancing use and negative impact on recreational use B. GSS aptitude proxy has significant effect only for capital enhancing use, not recreational use 2. Added Explanatory Power of SES Measures Over Race, Age, Gender and Hours/Wk Online 3. When one adds skill (2000, 2002 and 2004) and social support (2000, 2002) measures: A.R2 increases markedly. Skill is highly significant in all years; social support in 2000. B.The gender disadvantage declines by 25-50 percent when both skill & social-support are included C.The effect of education is robust (declining by 23% in 2000, just 5% in 2002)

The Dialectic of Freedom and Constraint

1. Dialectic: the tension between freedom and unfreedom: not just an opposition, as you come out with third thing that is better and transcends both 2. This is both the challenge and the hope

Solutions

1. Did it work? A. Diekmann et al. >2/3 of buyers gave feedback and B. Positive feedback increased chance of sale (for new phones & DVDs) and also increases the price commanded for the same item 2. Issues A. Reciprocal or one-way? B. Problems of vengeance, perfidy, and identity? C. How much information?

"Quality of Service"

1. Different applications have different needs.10 For example, Internet telephony is very sensitive to delay, but does not care about occasional packet loss. By contrast, e-mail is very sensitive to packet loss, but does not care about some delay. 2. So you could imagine a network that treats packets belonging to different applications differently, depending on their needs. 3. For example, a network could give low-delay service to Internet telephony packets, but best-efforts service to e-mail packets. 4. A network that offers different types of service to different data packets is a network that offers "Quality of Service."

Concentrated Interests Almost Always Trump Diffuse Interests

1. Diffuse vs. Diffuse: Inaction e.g. Infotech vouchers: 2. Diffuse vs. Concentrated: Concentrated wins e.g. most intellectual property issues 3. Concentrated vs. Diffuse: Concentrated wins e.g. Media Concentration (Comcast/NBC merger) 4. Concentrated vs. Concentrated: Gridlock Or Compromise e.g. Net neutrality/Open Internet

DRM software

1. Digital Rights Management (DRM) technologies attempt to control what you can and can't do with the media and hardware you've purchased. e.g. Bought an ebook from Amazon but can't read it on your ebook reader of choice? That's DRM. 2. Corporations claim that DRM is necessary to fight copyright infringement online and keep consumers safe from viruses. DRM has proliferated thanks to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 (DMCA), which sought to outlaw any attempt to bypass DRM

Analog vs. digital

1. Digital describes electronic technology that generates, stores, and processes data in terms of two states: positive and non-positive. 2. Prior to digital technology, electronic transmission was limited to analog technology, which conveys data as electronic signals of varying frequency or amplitude that are added to carrier waves of a given frequency

Difference between digital divide and digital inequality

1. Digital divide: inequality between "haves" and "have-nots" differentiated by dichotomous measures of access to or use of the new technologies 2. Digital inequality, by which refers not just to differences in access, but also to inequality among persons with formal access to the Internet

Search engine functions (crawling, caching, indexing, ranking)

1. Distributed web crawling is a distributed computing technique whereby Internet search engines employ many computers to index the Internet via web crawling. 2. Caching: retaining a copy of a web page after indexing it 3. Indexing: The web is like an ever-growing public library with billions of books and no central filing system. Google essentially gathers the pages during the crawl process and then creates an index, so we know exactly how to look things up. Much like the index in the back of a book, the Google index includes information about words and their locations. When you search, at the most basic level, our algorithms look up your search terms in the index to find the appropriate pages. 4. Ranking: Once search engine has selected the relevant documents, it ranks the search results, that is puts them in order. Ranking makes the search useful.

Policy Issues for Social Media

1. Do social networking sites pose a threat to young people - from sexual predators, bullies, or voyeurs? To adults (threats, flamers)? 2. Do social media sites represent a threat to their user's privacy? 3. Are social media creating a serious problem of "internet addiction"? 4. Do on-line communities lead to balkanized social networks and more provincial people?

Associated Ideas: Intimacy

1. Domestic sphere as realm of private emotions and sentiments - notion that people have an inner life that is shared only with intimates. 2. Usher in private moment. (Note: "I don't mind" is a song about the division between public and private sphere.)

Even Investigative Journalists...

1. Don't turn off browser cookies 2. Don't clear browser history 3. Don't turn off geolocation 4. Don't use social media privacy settings

Reasons for caring about privacy (economic, relational intimacy, reputation)

1. Economic: To avoid economic victimization 2. Relational: To manage relationships by selectively revealing or withholding information about oneself 3. Intimacy: Domestic sphere as realm of private emotions and sentiments - notion that people have an inner life that is shared only with intimates. 4. Reputation: Reputation as the public understanding of the self. Initially viewed as a reflection of intrinsic character. With rise of public relations, came to be seen subject to strategic manipulation. Associated with nationalization of the market system: Credit agencies (1840s) summarized information about business credit-worthiness and reputation. Reputation as possessing economic value. Economic value provides basis for legal defense of reputation. Risk of identity theft combines threats to self with economic risk

Control through Markets: Creating incentives

1. Eliminating sales tax for on-line retail activity. 2. Why did Amazon drop opposition to permitting states to tax online sales?Amazon can handle red tape easier than the competition: thus competition hurt more by sales tax than Amazon

Eric Raymond and Richard Stallman

1. Eric Raymond: great programmer made famous by book Cathedral and the Bazaar 2. Stallman had a moral argument that many programmers didn't buy 3. Raymond provided this clever metaphor of cathedral and bazaar in which open source is commercial, entrepreneurial. 4. Stallman had been top-down, rigid, moral like the cathedral. Raymond popularized the term "Open Source."

Is Privacy Possible?

1. Eric Schmidt & Jared Cohen, The New Digital Age, 2013, pp. 54-55: "The option to `delete' data is largely an illusion - lost files, deleted e-mails and erased text messages can be recovered with minimal effort. Data is rarely erased on computers; operating systems end to remove only a file's listing from the internal directory, keeping the file's contents in ... Cloud computing only reinforces the permanence of information, adding another layer of remote protection for users and their information...This [is] the first generation of humans to have an indelible record." 2. Eric Schmidt on CNBC, Dec. 9, 2009: "If you have something that you don't want anyone to know, maybe you shouldn't be doing it in the first place."

Honeywell video

1. Expectations of technology are socially embedded: you're going to be able to shop online, you can monitor your kids, the man will pay the bills for the woman of the house 2. Necessity of 3 screens unclear 3. Also Honeywell video messes up prediction of family organization in the future

Social Media & Youth: The Drama

1. Facebook et al. as sites for verbal aggression, gossip, support of peers 2. Visibility on Facebook: Most kids do not segregate networks 3. Ambiguous posts may secure some privacy 4. Is drama "cyber-bullying" by another name? Other research 1. Leslie Jones, Princeton sr. thesis: Facebook as a group activity - w/ privacy implications 2. Jeff Lane, P.U. diss. On urban youth and social media - Facebook & Twitter

Generic Model: Impact of Technology Access on Life Chances

1. Family, SES Cohort, Education. Income. Gender, Race Occupation, Industry, Region Rural/urban all influence Hardware & software, Skill & Autonomy, and Social Support. 2. Hardware & software, Skill & Autonomy and Social Support all influence Extent of use and Quality of use 3. Extent of use and Quality of use both influence Social and human capital

Silk Road Forums

1. Fascinating claims made there: some 1.6 million posts 2. Forums are public 3. Vendors' concerns hinge on buyer nonpayment and desire to remain anonymous 4. Buyers worry about not getting high quality drugs. Use the forums to assess vendors. Need to combine vendors' identity claims with forum posts. 5. Vendors need to maintain a good reputation. Like on Amazon, you add items to your cart. 6. Silk Road people emphasize plausible deniability: this is not a successful defense. 7. Money is placed in an escrow account. After agreeing to purchase, buyers are asked to give feedback e.g. Heisenberg sells pure cocaine and meth. 8. Vendors refer to as the best whose money doesn't go to unappealing groups such as FARC. Most vendors position themselves as businessmen with excellent shipping and delivery. These identity claims increase vendors' appeal. 9. Buyers need to know about a vendor's reputation. Heisenberg is often spoken of in glowing terms. Some vendors tried to coerce buyers into giving good scores. Buyers don't know when they would get on blacklist and get off it. 10. The Dread Pirate Roberts targeted the blacklist as part of his overhaul in 2013. Feedback and ratings skew to the positive. On Reddit and forums, easy to verify vendors' claims. Packaging was often ingenious. In forums, norm was not to give away details of packaging. Harm reduction advocates like the feedback, as it isn't available for street deals. Vendors work hard to resolve negative feedback. Some vendors asked buyers how they could improve. 11. Vending on Silk Road is more lucrative than dealing to friends. Vendors are very paranoid about state authorities. Through forums, people would get to know each other e.g. book clubs. Doctors would also go online to help people. 12. Price was not as important as on the street. Low price looked on with suspicion. Very hard for vendors to get away with fraud. Silk Road's reputation system works. Silk Road and others like it experienced rapid growth. Total transaction value in excess of $100 million. Busts are not working and are taking down subpar businesses. 13. These markets can die early in first due to hacking or operator giving up. Tenure of operational team matters: the longer you're in a marketplace, the more at risk it is from law enforcement. Other risk is operators quitting. This is an exit scam. The closer they feel law enforcement gets, they do this. 14. Online marketplace is perfect business model: highly resilient, though operators are often worrying. 15. Now a whole set of organized crime groups are getting into online drug marketplaces. People will soon order drugs from their smartphone.

Impacts of Internet on financial markets (Economides): Faster and wide flow of information, globalization, disintermediation, less price discrimination more price competition, greater importance of network externalities

1. Faster and wide flow of information: The need for information filtering is critical, so people don't fall back on brands 2. Globalization: The global nature of the Internet brings to the fore a number of conflicts in business law, as well as of intellectual property and privacy laws of various countries. Moreover, by its nature, the Internet has created new products that span borders. How national and international laws will deal with them is uncertain. 3. Disintermediation: one of the direct effects of the Internet is the elimination of the middleman. When brokers that used to intermediate between customers and markets are eliminated and orders go directly to market, there are two important consequences. First, the specialized information that was available from brokers exclusively to their large clients is no longer available just to large clients. Large clients typically lose an advantage. Second, the products offered in markets tend to be standardized, and this increases liquidity further. Moreover, often the existence of the network brings together two markets of similar products that used to be traded under different specifications, which now become a single market of higher liquidity and increased standardization. 4. Less price discrimination: the Internet's ability to allow for the collection of pricing information from dozens of sellers reduces search costs immensely, intensifies price competition among different providers, and all but eliminates geographically-based price discrimination by the same provider. 5. More price competition: in network markets, and markets facilitated by the Internet,intensification of competition goes hand-in-hand with increasing market concentration. Under intense competition, small competitors are forced to innovate to avoid being completely squeezed out of the market. 6. Greater importance of network externalities: A market exhibits network effects (or network externalities) when the value to a buyer of an extra unit is higher when more units are sold, everything else being equal. In a traditional network such as the Internet, network externalities arise because a typical subscriber can reach more subscribers in a larger network. Economic theory and empirical observation have shown that markets with strong network effects, such as financial exchange markets and many others facilitated by the Internet, are "winner-take-most" markets when the product offerings of firms are differentiated. That is, in these markets, there is extreme market share and profits inequality.

Case-by-case regulation vs. brightline standards

1. Felten: Declaring a vague standard rather than a bright-line rule can sometimes be good policy, especially where the facts on the ground are changing rapidly and it's hard to predict what kind of details might turn out to be important in a dispute. Still, by choosing a case-by-case approach, the FCC left us mostly in the dark about where it would draw the line between "reasonable" and "unreasonable". 2. van Schewick: A second set of proposals recognizes that some forms of differential treatment will be socially harmful, while others will be socially beneficial, but assumes that it is impossible to distinguish among them in advance. Therefore, these proposals suggest adopting standards that specify criteria that will be used to judge discrimination in the future. Whether certain discriminatory conduct meets these criteria would be determined by the regulatory agency in future case-by case adjudications. 3. As the paper shows, both approaches are flawed. Banning all discrimination is overinclusive and restricts the evolution of the network more than necessary to protect the values that network neutrality rules are designed to protect. Allowing all discrimination is underinclusive and effectively makes the rule against blocking meaningless.

Cass Sunstein: Deliberative Democracy v. Consumer Democracy

1. First, people should be exposed to materials that they would not have chosen in advance. Unplanned, unanticipated encounters are central to democracy itself. "In a democracy deserving the name, people often come across views and topics that they have not specifically selected." 2. "Second, many or most citizens should have a range of common experiences. Without shared experiences, a heterogeneous society will have a much more difficult time in addressing social problems... Common experiences, emphatically including the common experiences made possible by the media, provide a form of social glue." 3. Deliberative democracy vs. consumer democracy

Incumbents challenged by competence-destroying technologies:

1. Fleeing from change: •Imagine the new technology through the lens of the old: AOL c. 1997 •Use monopoly power: Cable industry has tried to impose contracts that prevent providers from selling content to Internet providers •Use local monopoly power over home Internet service to degrade competition (illegal under net neutrality rules) •Use monopoly power to hike cable fees as high as possible 2. Adapting to change: •Use monopoly power to make ISP revenues compensate for lost cable revenues •Spin off content properties through Internet outlets •Collaborate with platforms like Facebook, Snapchat and Youtube to air content, with sharing of ad revenues

Patterns of broadband availability and adoption

1. For Americans with Internet Service at Home, Broadband has Replaced Dial-Up: between 2000 and 2013, home broadband went from 3% of population to 70% of population 2. Those with more education more likely to have home broadband access

Control through Code: A Non-Internet Example (from Karen Levy's dissertation)

1. For decades, truckers have kept track of their work hours - which are limited by federal regulations to prevent fatigue-related accidents - using paper logbooks, which are easily falsified by drivers eager to maximize their driving time (and thus pay). 2. New regulations would mandate that drivers' time be automatically monitored by electronic devices that integrate into trucks themselves and send information back to centralized online portals in real time, thus attempting to compel drivers' compliance with the timekeeping rules. 3. Karen Levy considers how these legal rules and the technological capacities of the devices themselves, are co-evolving to shape enforcement practices, as well as the ways in which social relationships among employees, employers, and law enforcement officers are reconfigured when such systems are used. 4. Drawing together concepts from legal studies, organizational sociology, and the sociology of technology, the project aims to reframe our understanding of regulation and discretion for the age of ubiquitous computing, and to contribute to broad social debates about the role of technological surveillance in legal rulemaking and in social life.

Coursera

1. For-profit with $67 M in venture capital 2. April 2012 launch 3. 93 institutions 4. 500+ courses 5. 5+ million Courserians

Three Trends

1. From communities of propinquity to communities of shared interest 2. From community of total commitment to communities of limited liability (no one community or identity absorbs all roles) 3. From unified identities to multiple identities based on A. Work B. Religious or political values C. Hobbies or Leisure Pursuits D. Lifestyle choices

Basic trends in digital divide by gender, age, region, educational attainment, and race.

1. Gender gap has declined/disappeared 2. Age gap has shrunk except for oldest (cohort not age is issue) 3. Regional differences have diminished (though South still behind) 4. Educational inequality persists 5. Racial inequality persists

Data Mining

1. Generally, data mining (sometimes called data or knowledge discovery) is the process of analyzing data from different perspectives and summarizing it into useful information - information that can be used to increase revenue, cuts costs, or both. 2. Data mining software is one of a number of analytical tools for analyzing data. It allows users to analyze data from many different dimensions or angles, categorize it, and summarize the relationships identified. Technically, data mining is the process of finding correlations or patterns among dozens of fields in large relational databases.

"How to Fix Software Patents" by Eric Goldman

1. Goldman is more optimistic about solutions that the PTO or judges can unilaterally and immediately implement without any statutory changes. 2. He thinks a combination of Profs. Lemley's, Rai's and Duffy's proposals are especially promising. 3. By re-characterizing the appropriate level of acceptable abstractness, requiring more proof from patent applicants, and then screening out innovations that multiple inventors all achieve around the same time, the PTO would kill most of the least appropriate patents, and judges could finish off any unmeritorious patents that somehow get through the PTO. 4. He also thinks marketplace solutions, like the DPL and IPA, hold promise, but they aren't likely to solve the problems on their own.

Two Views of Jurisdiction

1. Goldsmith and Wu: "[The] Internet [may]...promise a ...version of legal hell: a world of Singaporean free speech, American tort law, Russian commercial regulation, and Chinese civil rights." 2. Joel Reidenberg: "Internet enthusiasts embrace the wonder of the Internet's global electronic reach, but often reject the burden and responsibility of a global presence. The defenses for hate, lies, drugs, sex, gambling, and stolen music, are in essence that technology justifies the denial of personal jurisdiction, the rejection of an assertion of applicable law by a sovereign state, and the denial of the enforcement of decisions..." This constitutes a "denial of service attack" against national sovereignty.

Mobile Technology

1. Good example of path-dependence: way things are influenced by history 2. Mobile computing evolved out of telephone system 3. Smartphones evolved out of feature phones 4. There are implications from the fact that mobile computing developed from the phone industry 5. For one, development closely regulated by the FCC 6. Another thing to note: because this path-dependency, country differences have to do with differing state regimes of regulating telephony e.g. regulated state-owned monopolies were source of tax revenue that governments didn't want to lose 7. Another example of path-dependency is number portability. The FCC decreed that if you switch carrier, you can keep number. This is still the case. 8. Implications: 1) mobile phone number is de facto identifier. It's the new social security number. 2) Disconnect between phone number and location. Before FCC decree, one's phone number was closely tied to one's geographical location. When traveling, you would've had to let people know where you're going to be when and how to reach you.

AdWords

1. Google AdWords is an online advertising service that places advertising copy above, below, or beside the list of search results Google displays for a particular search query, or it displays it on their partner websites. 2. The choice and placement of the ads is based in part on a proprietary determination of the relevance of the search query to the advertising copy. 3. AdWords has evolved into Google's main source of revenue.

Territorial Principle

1. Governments have the exclusive right to enforce their laws on conduct that (wholly or to a large extent) takes place within their borders. 2. This jurisdiction extends to ships or aircraft chartered by the state and in international waters or airspace ("the floating principle").

The Territorial Principle of Jurisdiction

MGM v. Grokster

1. Grokster and other companies distributed free software that allowed computer users to share electronic files through peer-to-peer networks. In such networks, users can share digital files directly between their computers, without the use of a central server. Users employed the software primarily to download copyrighted files, file-sharing which the software companies knew about and encouraged. The companies profited from advertising revenue, since they streamed ads to the software users. A group of movie studios and other copyright holders sued and alleged that Grokster and the other companies violated the Copyright Act by intentionally distributing software to enable users to infringe copyrighted works. The district court ruled for Grokster, reasoning that the software distribution companies were not liable for copyright violations stemming from their software, which could have been used lawfully. 2. n a unanimous opinion delivered by Justice David Souter, the Court held that companies that distributed software, and promoted that software to infringe copyrights, were liable for the resulting acts of infringement. • MGM vs. Grokster - Peer to peer companies can be held liable for copyright violations

Litigating Ham Sandwiches

1. Ham and cheese sandwich with mustard is covered by claim 2. But if deadly poison put in ham sandwich, not covered by claim 3. The claim still applies if you add extra stuff 4. Ham and cheese quesadilla: could be sued for infringing claim. This would also hinge on definition of bread i.e. does tortilla fall into bread category? 5. You can prevent infringement by creating a design-around with a ham and cheese wrap

"Why Most Facebook Users Get More than they Give: The Effect of Facebook `Power Users' on Everybody Else" by Hampton, Keith, Lauren Goulet, Cameron Marlow, and Lee Rainie

1. Hampton et al. describe patterns of Facebook use and the role of "power users." 2. The average Facebook user gets more from their friends on Facebook than they give to their friends. Why? Because of a segment of "power users," who specialize in different Facebook activities and contribute much more than the typical user does.

Forms of information-technology inequality among Internet users (Hargittai & Hsieh; Lecture).

1. Hargittai 2010 on skill: A. Experience matters a lot, but B. Family educational background, gender, and racial/ethnic differences persisted. 2. DiMaggio 2004: A. Years of schooling had a positive impact on capital enhancing use and negative impact on recreational use B. GSS aptitude proxy has significant effect only for capital enhancing use, not recreational use 2. Added Explanatory Power of SES Measures Over Race, Age, Gender and Hours/Wk Online 3. When one adds skill (2000, 2002 and 2004) and social support (2000, 2002) measures: A.R2 increases markedly. Skill is highly significant in all years; social support in 2000. B.The gender disadvantage declines by 25-50 percent when both skill & social-support are included C.The effect of education is robust (declining by 23% in 2000, just 5% in 2002)

A Skewed Set of Examples: StreetBump

1. He described a program called "Street Bump" in Boston that detected pot-holes using sensors in smartphones of citizens who had downloaded an app. The program inadvertently directed repair crews to wealthier neighborhoods, where people were more likely to carry smartphones and download the app. The city later fixed the app. 2. "The lesson here is that we need to pay careful attention to what unexpected outcomes the use of big data might lead to, and how to remedy any unintended discrimination or inequality that may result," Podesta said at the workshop.

Angie's List: Producing Trust on a High-Stakes Recommendation Site

1. High Stakes A. Pay for membership B. Big ticket items so risk high 2. Primary challenge: Creating trust in recommendations that are basis for reputations A. No anonymous reviews B. Investigation of reviewers to avoid shills 3. Secondary challenge: Creating trust in claims about trustworthiness A. Personification: i) owner as face of company ii) heavy TV marketing B. Endorsement: i) investigation by major auditing firm ii) reference to media coverage C. Guarantees i) helpline ii) complaint adjudication Nonetheless, Angie's list has been accused of failing to post negative reviews of companies that advertise on its site

"Bitcoin is down 60 percent this year. Here's why I'm still optimistic" by Timothy B. Lee

1. History suggests that open platforms like Bitcoin often become fertile soil for innovation. Think about the internet. It didn't seem like a very practical technology in the 1980s. But it was an open platform that anyone could build on, and in the long run it proved to be really useful. 2. The internet succeeded because Silicon Valley have created applications that harness the internet's power while shielding users from its complexity. You don't have to be an expert on the internet's TCP/IP protocols to check Facebook on your iPhone. 3. Bitcoin applications can work the same way. There are already some Bitcoin applications that allow customers to make transactions over the Bitcoin network without being exposed to fluctuations in the value of Bitcoin's currency. That basic model should work for a wide variety of Bitcoin-based services, allowing the Bitcoin payment network to reach a mainstream audience.

New Technologies, New Divides

1. Home Broadband: BA or more ahead of some college ahead of HS grad ahead of some HS 2. Mobile On-Line: same as above 3. Has Smart Phone: same as above

Homenet Study

1. Homenet Study (Kraut & Kiesler, 1998) Internet use associated with anxiety and depression; estrangement from friends and family 2. Homenet Study: Authors found early "effects" dissipated a year later

But that research was quickly debunked

1. Homenet Study: Authors found early "effects" dissipated a year later A. Selection effects (for families behind the curve)? B. Rich-get-richer effect for users with strong social networks 2. Stanford Study never replicated: WebTV? 3. Bowling: Putnam was speculating (...but press didn't care)

Foresight is limited by getting things wrong

1. Honeywell 316 - 1969: Used to process Arpanet messages and other things a 16-bit computer could do. 2. Then Honeywell tried to find a new market: The first home computer, 1969: The only application Honeywell's marketers could think of was managing recipes. So they pitched it to women as a kitchen appliance. $10,600 at Neiman Marcus. (Price included 2-week programming course.). No units were sold.

Implications of ICTs for network diversity, social movements and political mobilization

1. Hussain and Howard argue that in every single case, the inciting incidents of the Arab Spring were digitally mediated in some way. 2. Youmans and York, however, contend that the information policies of the firms behind social media can inhibit activists and empower authoritarian regimes. Analysis of Facebook's response to Egypt's ''We Are All Khaled Said'' group, YouTube's policy exemption for videos coming from Syria, Moroccan loyalist response to the online presence of atheists, and the activities of the Syrian Electronic Army illustrate how prohibitions on anonymity, community policing practices, campaigns from regime loyalists, and counterinsurgency tactics work against democracy advocates. These problems arise from the design and governance challenges facing large-scale, revenue-seeking social media enterprises.

Addressing

1. IP address is a 32-bit number, so roughly 4 billion possible addresses. There's a scarcity of IP addresses. IP addresses are allocated administratively and not always fairly. UCSD used to have more IP addresses than China. 2. Addresses allocated administratively e.g. Princeton allocated IP addresses. IP address can be independent of location. IP address is like a phone number: can be called on, no matter where you are.

IP blocking

1. IP blocking is a form of security used on mail, Web or any other Internet servers to block connections from a specific IP address or range of addresses that are considered undesirable or hostile. 2. For example, a Web site forum administrator who sees spam or unwanted posts from a user may block that user's IP address to prevent them from using the discussion board.

Theory of Skill-Biased Technological Change

1. If educated workers are available, it pays for employers to invest in technology and workers who can use it. 2. Technology use boosts worker productivity; and 3. More productive workers earn more money.

Reverse engineering prohibition

1. In October 1998, the U.S. Congress enacted the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). Among other things, it substantially limits reverse engineering of technical measures used to protect copyrighted digital content, such as motion pictures, sound recordings, videogames, computer software, and "e-books." One rule forbids circumvention of technical measures used to control access to such content. A second outlaws technologies primarily designed to circumvent technical measures. A third outlaws alteration or removal of copyright management information (CMI), such as digital watermarks. 2. Although the DMCA rules are not explicitly cast as restrictions on reverse engineering, that is their essential nature. Just as it is impossible to reverse engineer object code without decompiling or disassembling it, it is impossible to reverse engineer a technical protection measure without circumventing it and impossible to reverse engineer a digital watermark without removing or altering information that it contains. Someone who reverse engineers a technical protection measure will also generally need a tool in order to perform such reverse engineering activities, so by outlawing the making of circumvention technologies, the law indirectly forbids reverse engineering

Denial of service attacks

1. In a denial-of-service (DoS) attack, an attacker attempts to prevent legitimate users from accessing information or services. 2. By targeting your computer and its network connection, or the computers and network of the sites you are trying to use, an attacker may be able to prevent you from accessing email, websites, online accounts (banking, etc.), or other services that rely on the affected computer.

Fair use

1. In its most general sense, a fair use is any copying of copyrighted material done for a limited and "transformative" purpose, such as to comment upon, criticize, or parody a copyrighted work. 2. Such uses can be done without permission from the copyright owner. In other words, fair use is a defense against a claim of copyright infringement. If your use qualifies as a fair use, then it would not be considered an illegal infringement.

Predictive data mining

1. In pattern-based analysis, investigators use statistical probabilities to seek predicates in large data sets. This type of analysis seeks to find new knowledge, not from the investigative and deductive process of following specific leads, but from statistical, inductive processes. 2. Because it is more characterized by prediction than by the traditional notion of suspicion, we refer to it as "predictive data mining."

"Best efforts"

1. In the original Internet, the network provides a single best-effort service. 2. That is, the network does its best to deliver data packets, but does not provide any guarantees with respect to delay, bandwidth or losses. 3. Thus, the network operates like the default service offered by the postal service, which does not guarantee when a letter will arrive or whether it will arrive at all. Contrary to the postal service, which lets users choose services other than the default service like two-day shipping, the original Internet provides only best-effort service.

Networked Individualism (Wellman)

1. In their book Networked, Lee Rainie and Barry Wellman show how the large, loosely knit social circles of networked individuals expand opportunities for learning, problem solving, decision making, and personal interaction. 2. The new social operating system of "networked individualism" liberates us from the restrictions of tightly knit groups; it also requires us to develop networking skills and strategies, work on maintaining ties, and balance multiple overlapping networks.

Associated Ideas: "Publicity"

1. In traditional society, there may be secrets, but there is no "privacy" 2. Privacy exists as the counterpart of publicity, which assumes a division of society into "public" and "private" spheres 3. "Private sphere" associated with domesticity and the home. 4. Privacy as respect for the sanctity of what goes on in the home (Warren & Brandeis's "right to be left alone")

Conclusions

1. Inequality in access by socioeconomic status and race persists and will continue to persist unless public policies intervene. 2. There is substantial socioeconomic inequality among users in ease and quality of use - leading to expectation of unequal returns to use - but some signs that this has eased with broader diffusion. 3. Effects of Internet use on life chances - Body of evidence points to positive effects on earnings, quality of work life, consumer sovereignty and social participation. 4. The Internet is protean - business strategies & public policies structure inequality in access and shape the way people use the technology.

The Universal Circuit

1. Inputs entering the circuit from the left: information specifying which circuit the universal circuit is to emulate and inputs to the circuit that the universal circuit is supposed to emulate 2. Output exiting from the right side of the universal circuit: what emulated circuit would do, given the provided input

Bern Convention of 1891

1. International protection for intellectual property began with the Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property ("Paris Convention"), signed in 1883 and dealing with patents and trademarks. That same year, the Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale, inaugurated work on an agreement for international copyright registration, which was signed three years later in Berne, Switzerland ("Berne Convention" or "Berne"). 2. In 1891, building on the foundation of the Paris Convention, several European nations entered into the Madrid Agreement ("Madrid"), which permitted unified filing of trademark applications among its members. 3. As a young nation anxious to import culture, the United States had very little interest in affording adequate protection to foreign authors. Publishers in the United States routinely pirated the works of English authors including Dickens and Trollope. Only after the formation of the Berne Union, under the Berne Convention, did the United States subscribe to national treatment, the central tenet of international protection of intellectual property. This step forward, accomplished in the Chace Act of 1891, was accompanied not only by formalities11 rejected by Berne in the Berlin revision of 190812 but also by the overtly protectionist "manufacturing provision" that denied copyright protection to foreign works unless they were printed in the United States. (Lecture Notes) 1. History Question: What Nation was the major home of IP Piracy in the 19th Century? 2. The United States. 3. The U.S. adopted International Copyright Treaty (Bern Convention) in 1891. 4. Adoption encouraged shift from Cooper and Twain to James and Wharton

"Usage caps"

1. Internet data caps are monthly limits on the amount of data you can use over your Internet connection. 2. When an Internet user hits that limit, different network operators engage in different actions, including slowing down data speeds, charging overage fees, and even disconnecting a subscriber. These caps come into play when a user either uploads or downloads data. Caps are most restrictive for wireless Internet access, but wired Internet access providers are also imposing these caps.

Bandwidth caps

Interoperability

1. Interoperability: devices can "talk to each other." 2. Need agreement on how to say what you want and rules of passing information.

Key Internet Concepts

1. Interoperability: devices can "talk to each other." Need agreement on how to say what you want and rules of passing information. 2. Protocol: a technical standard that allows interoperability. This is like the voicemail menu. Design of protocols allows different networks to work together

2011: Preventing Real Online Threats to Economic Creativity and Theft of Intellectual Property Act (PROTECT IP Act), Stop On-Line Piracy Act (SOPA)

1. Introduced in 2011; 1/28/12 - Wikipedia, Reddit, Mozilla and other sites shut down for 24 hours in Protest of SOPA and consideration was suspended. 2. Would have permitted U.S. AG to get injunction against foreign website and compel Internet advertisers, search engines, and financial transaction providers to prevent access to the website 3. Interested party could have sued under law to require DNS servers, advertisers, search engines and financial sites to take similar action against a domestic or foreign website. 4. Under SOPA but not PROTECT-IP private takedown notices without court order could be served on financial sites, etc. 5. Immunized financial sites from lawsuit for good-faith actions

Policy Overview

1. Issues 2. Arenas 3. Modalities of Control 4. Values 5. Stakeholders 6. Politics

Tiering (reL open internet)

1. It was not until fairly recently after the merger of two major telecom (telecommunications) companies AT&T and SBC communications where talks of "tiering" the internet came into light. 2. These companies proposed that there should be a high-speed "tier" to their networks where some services would be favored over others. Sites that choose to pay for this service will then get faster and more reliable service. The desire to stop tiering from taking place is the main reason that interest in net neutrality legislation has ballooned in the last few years.

Classic Network Effects: The Telephone

1. John F. Parkinson, the first person to get telephone service in Palo Alto, California 2. Parkinson was a builder, real estate speculator, and politician 3. Next: The newspaper editor and the doctors. 4. Then: The pharmacist - with a "pay" phone in a special room. 5. Every new subscriber added a little to the service's value.

Blacksburg Electronic Village

1. Kavanagh/Patterson, VPI. A. Set up list-servs and provided server space for local B. businesses and nonprofits C. Grants for organizations to develop web sites D. High-speed access points around community 2. Results: Internet availability increases participation in civic activities but...It only does so for people who are active in their communities already

Findings of Blacksburg Electronic Village study re: effects of Internet on civic engagement

Types of Attacks

1. Kinetic e.g. Stuxnet: can be acts of war under international law. 2. Offensive action e.g. Sony: cause harm, disrupt. 3. Denial of service: Chinese government did this to Github. Makes particular site unavailable. 4. Information gathering e.g. POTUS e-mail. These an be done as separate acts or as complements to traditional military action. Israel used both against Syria.

"How the Feds Took Down the Silk Road Drug Wonderland" by Kim Zetter

1. Last month, the FBI was able to find and arrest Ross Ulbricht, the man behind Darknet ecommerce site (and popular online drug trafficking haven) Silk Road, and Wired has published a detailed post-mortem on how it all went down. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the raid on Ulbricht (along with nearly a dozen well-known Silk Road vendors) was a plan years in the making — built on the backs of smaller, low-profile arrests. 2. And, it seems like they aren't done: Law enforcement told Wired that they're not only looking to take down more Silk Road sellers, but also those who offer Bitcoin currency conversion services as "unregistered money transmitters".

Latency sensitivity

1. Latency is the delay from input into a system to desired outcome 2 A latency-sensitive application, also called a "real-time" application, is one in which there is very little tolerance for any kind of network latency in the millisecond range; more typically microseconds are the unity of measure. Common applications in this arena are VoIP

Four Kinds of Enforcement

1. Law 2. Code A. Defensive B. Offensive 3. Law + Code

International Marketplace

1. Leadership in Cellular Development A. Europe for 2G (GSM) B. Asia for 3G (WCDMA) C. US for 4G (LTE) 2. Many leading companies based in US: some e.g. Huawei bigger outside US 3. Manufacturing mostly outside US: handsets and components 4. International agreement on standards 5. Business trends often start outside US: lower role of device subsidies, two-sided pricing

Mobile leapfrogging (Napoli & Obar)

1. Leapfrogging refers to the process in which new Internet users are obtaining access by mobile devices and are skipping the traditional means of access: personal computers. This leapfrogging of PC-based Internet access has been hailed in many quarters as an important means of rapidly and inexpensively reducing the gap in Internet access between developed and developing nations, thereby reducing the need for policy interventions to address this persistent digital divide. 2. While greater access to mobile technologies suggests the possibility of a leapfrog effect, the lack of 3G adoption suggests that mobile phones are not yet acting as functionally equivalent substitutes for personal computers. Also illustrate a number of important relative shortcomings in terms of memory and speed, content availability, network architecture, and patterns of information seeking and content creation amongst users.

Demo

1. Lightbeam shows how sites track you, Princeton.edu included. 2. Facebook.com/.net, Google analytics and cloudfront.net. Each of these four sites established a session ID. After ESPN, Washington Post. Sites able to connect the dots by using 3rd party cookies.

Cathedral vs. bazaar

1. Linux overturned much of what I thought I knew. I had been preaching the Unix gospel of small tools, rapid prototyping and evolutionary programming for years. But I also believed there was a certain critical complexity above which a more centralized, a priori approach was required. I believed that the most important software (operating systems and really large tools like the Emacs programming editor) needed to be built like cathedrals, carefully crafted by individual wizards or small bands of mages working in splendid isolation, with no beta to be released before its time. 2. Linus Torvalds's style of development - release early and often, delegate everything you can, be open to the point of promiscuity - came as a surprise. No quiet, reverent cathedral-building here - rather, the Linux community seemed to resemble a great babbling bazaar of differing agendas and approaches (aptly symbolized by the Linux archive sites, who'd take submissions from anyone) out of which a coherent and stable system could seemingly emerge only by a succession of miracles. The fact that this bazaar style seemed to work, and work well, came as a distinct shock

Lossless vs. lossy

1. Lossless and lossy compression are terms that describe whether or not, in the compression of a file, all original data can be recovered when the file is uncompressed. With lossless compression, every single bit of data that was originally in the file remains after the file is uncompressed. All of the information is completely restored. This is generally the technique of choice for text or spreadsheet files, where losing words or financial data could pose a problem. The Graphics Interchange File (GIF) is an image format used on the Web that provides lossless compression. 2. On the other hand, lossy compression reduces a file by permanently eliminating certain information, especially redundant information. When the file is uncompressed, only a part of the original information is still there (although the user may not notice it). Lossy compression is generally used for video and sound, where a certain amount of information loss will not be detected by most users. The JPEG image file, commonly used for photographs and other complex still images on the Web, is an image that has lossy compression. Using JPEG compression, the creator can decide how much loss to introduce and make a trade-off between file size and image quality.

Weaker communities?

1. Louis Wirth, University of Chicago Sociologist, "Urbanism as a Way of Life" (1938): Urbanization produces a "Substitution of secondary for primary contacts, the weakening of bonds of kinship, the declining social significance of the family, the disappearance of neighborhood and the undermining of traditional basis of social solidarity" 2. Claude Fischer, UC-Berkeley Sociologist, To Dwell Among Friends, 1982; The Urban Experience, 1984: A. Studied networks of urbanites and reviewed many other studies. B. Community strong in cities if you measure if by size of personal networks C. Urban networks rooted less in propinquity, more in shared interests D. Urban nets less dense and less multiplex - and urbanites like it that way.

Influences on Richard Stallman and the GNU Manifesto

1. MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab: This is the place where the early work on AI was done. First programs that could take instructions were created there. In those days, computers were super expensive. MIT lab was the first place where a critical mass of programmers existed and developed a culture there. In the 1980s, the hacker community in which Stallman lived began to fragment. To prevent software from being used on their competitors' computers, most manufacturers stopped distributing source code and began using copyright and restrictive software licenses to limit or prohibit copying and redistribution. Such proprietary software had existed before, and it became apparent that it would become the norm.In 1980, Stallman and some other hackers at the AI lab were not given the source code of the software for the Xerox 9700 laser printer (code-named Dover), the industry's first. The hackers had modified the software on the other printers, so it electronically messaged a user when his job was printed, and messages all logged-in users when a printer was jammed. Not being able to add this feature to the Dover printer was a major inconvenience, as the printer was on a different floor, then all the users. This one experience convinced Stallman of the ethical need to require free software. At that time, it became clear that he wanted people to discard proprietary software. 2. UNIX/Bell Labs: If MIT AI lab supplied the culture, UNIX Bell Labs, where basic research and applied computer science were done, supplied the technology (UNIX).

The Daily Me

1. MIT technology specialist Nicholas Negroponte prophecies the emergence of "the Daily Me"—a communications package that is personally designed, with each component fully chosen in advance 2. Worries Cass Sunstein

How To Get Information From A to B

1. Make a "packet" Schematic representation of a packet To: <net address> From: <net address> <contents> Packet size less than or equal to 1000 bytes, and a byte is 8 bits 2. Give packet to the network 3. Network delivers packet to its destination 4. Large messages get "packetized" into pieces and assembled at destination

implications of machine learning for privacy

1. Many machine learning applications will be bad for privacy 2. e.g. Netflix, NYC taxi

Onion routing

1. Messages are wrapped in several layers of encryption and then routed through intermediate nodes each of which peels oﬀ a layer of encryption and then forwards them in random order to the next node. 2. This process is repeated until all layers are removed. The way messages are wrapped (which determines their path through the network) can either be ﬁxed or can be chosen by each sender for each message.

Metadata

1. Metadata is data that describes other data. 2. The NSA, local police, and others have taken advantage of uncertain legal protections for metadata (descriptive information about our communications and activities) to sweep up vast amounts of data about innocent Americans without a warrant. And new technology is demonstrating just how sensitive metadata can be: how friend lists can reveal a person's sexual orientation, purchase histories can identify a pregnancy before any visible signs, and location information can expose individuals to harassment for unpopular political views or even theft and physical harm.

Solutions?

1. Might say let's get rid of cookies, but there are other ways of identifying users e.g. fingerprinting. 2. EFF's Panopticlick tells how unique and trackable your browser is. A site can uniquely identify your browser even without cookies.

App & Carrier: Network-Unfriendly Apps

1. Misbehaving apps overload the network A. Chatty: wasting signaling resources B. Unfair: consuming excessive bandwidth C. Inefficient: poor catching wastes bandwidth 2. Challenging to address A. Large number of developers B. Naivete about app impact on the network 3. Aligned incentives A. Educate developers (e.g. ATT&T ARO tool) B. Benefit users (e.g. less bandwidth and battery)

Apps & OS: App Stores

1. Mobile app distribution A. Balancing trust, functionality, convenience B. App review by platform provider C. Semi-sandboxed execution environment 2. Policies affecting openness A. Installation mechanisms (app store required) B. Screening policies (performance, security) C. Revenue-sharing agreements (e.g. 20-30%) D. App-store navigation (promotion, categories) 3. Longer-term: HTML5

Facebook: History

1. Modeled after Harvard's Facebook 2. Early on, photo and name and descriptive info 3. In early site, people could provide info on relationship status, political views 4. First rolled out at Harvard, then other "Ivies." Then other universities, then public universities. This release strategy was interesting. Friendster was doing something similar.

Stallman's Position

1. Morally wrong to prevent someone from modifying or sharing software 2. Okay to get paid for stuff, but have to allow people to modify and share software Stallman sees software as being similar to science in that it needs to be advanced 3. Stallman's Economic Argument: software has high fixed costs and zero marginal costs: if it's free to give it to people, you should. 4. Stallman embedded this idea in term "free software." Free has 2 meaning: free speech and free beer. Software is free as in speech not as in beer. Free also known as "libre." One can also call it FOSS (Free and open-source software) or FLOSS (free/libre and open-source software). Stallman was the first to reach this position, and still believes in it strongly.

"Reasonable network management"

1. More formally, to qualify as reasonable network management, the practice would have to further a legitimate network management purpose and be narrowly tailored to address that purpose. In the context of network neutrality rules, the term "network management" refers to technical measures whose purpose is "to maintain, protect, and ensure the efficient operation of a network." 2. Network management includes, e.g., managing congestion or protecting the security of a network.

Research on Internet & Community: Summary

1. More/More: Internet use is positively associated with other kinds of socializing and activity; and with less TV and less sleep 2. Internet as affordance: When communities are wired for Internet, users A. Know more (and more distant) neighbors & visit them more B. Are more active in their communities C. But relationships only hold for people inclined to use the Internet in this way already (socially engaged people, community activists) D. Strongest in middle-class communities with lots of kids E. Weakest among young single people and high-income older people 3. Glocalization: No tradeoff between local vs. long-distance connections - Internet (e-mail and social media) associated with more of both

MPEG

1. Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG): A working group of ISO/IEC with the mission to develop standards for coded representation of digital audio and video and related data. 2. Since 1988 when it has been established, the group has produced standards that help the industry offer end users an ever more enjoyable digital media experience.

Are we just picking up the usual effects of computer use?

1. NO: When we added separate dummies for computer use (and then for computer use at home and at work), they were not significant and had little effect on the coefficient for Internet use. 2. Interpretation: Computer use without the Internet may have increased wages in the past (and past increases would be reflected in the lagged earnings term). But in 2001, it was networked computer use that was responsible for the effect.

Implications of smartphone growth for digital divide and digital inequality (Napoli & Obar; Pew study)

1. Napoli & Obar: show that while greater access to mobile technologies suggests the possibility of a leapfrog effect, the lack of 3G adoption suggests that mobile phones are not yet acting as functionally equivalent substitutes for personal computers. Also illustrate a number of important relative shortcomings in terms of memory and speed, content availability, network architecture, and patterns of information seeking and content creation amongst users. 2. Pew study: Groups that have traditionally been on the other side of the digital divide in basic internet access are using wireless connections to go online. Among smartphone owners, young adults, minorities, those with no college experience, and those with lower household income levels are more likely than other groups to say that their phone is their main source of internet access.

"digitally enabled political change"

1. Narrative of "digitally enabled" political change: The most successful cases of sustained and peaceful protest, with deposed despots, were Tunisia and Egypt. Both cases exemplified a pattern that can be seen, with different degrees of strength, across the region: a preparation phase, involving activists' use of digital media across time to build solidarity networks and identification of collective identities and goals; an ignition phase, involving symbolically powerful moments which ruling elites and regimes intentionally or lazily ignored, but which galvanized the public; a protest phase, where, by employing offline networks and digital technologies, small groups strategically organized on large numbers; an international buy-in phase, where digital media networks extended the range of local coverage to international broadcast networks; a climax phase, where the regime maneuvered strategically or carelessly to appease public discontent through welfare packages or harsh repressive actions; and finally, a follow-on information warfare phase, where various actors, state-based and from international civic advocacy networks, compete to shape the future of civil society and information infrastructure that made it possible. 2. Though generalizable to many Arab Spring cases, does not account for some important technology-related factors that were in play as well.

Summation

1. Net neutrality is about neither free expression or network management, but about a struggle between two sectors of the corporate community to define the architecture of an emerging industrial field. 2. The debate's complexity reflects its technical complexity and the interest of participants in masking the interests that underlie the debate. 3. The timing of the debate reflects the development and widespread implementation of deep-packet inspection technologies, themselves produced in response to the interest of the world's governments in controlling populations and defending their territories. 4. As a result, "net neutrality" has moved to the Center of the Internet Policy space, representing a unique point of intersection among such issues as intellectual property, digital inequality, privacy and cybersecurity.

Privacy and Big Data

1. Netflix wants a lot of people to watch its stuff. Netflix has a recommendation engine. Netflix wanted to fine-tune its recommendation engine, so they invited the public to improve the algorithm. Netflix replaced user IDs with random anonymized identifiers. There was a list of which movies users had watched on which dates. 2. Two researchers showed you could reidentify users through imdb.com. They looked at cases where IMDB users rated movies at roughly the same time as Netflix users. This is weak evidence, but with enough of this weak evidence, you can match a substantial number of users. Netflix got in a lot of trouble for this. This study showed 1) power of using external data to reidentify, and 2) power of using lots of data, even if the data are low quality. 3. NYC Taxi Data. NYC released supposedly anonymized data on 173 million taxi rides. This led to trouble. The way the taxi ID and driver ID were released was bad: they did plausibly sound but technically bad way of anonymizing ID. You can link these data to many things e.g. celebrities getting out of cabs. Can tell you this person went to partner's apartment in the evening and did not come back until the morning. Also can figure out who tipped and how much. People also figured out which drivers were observant Muslims. Those drivers will idle their taxis at 5 Muslim prayer times. 4. The lesson of these data releases: very difficult to release data set without privacy implications for someone. Nevertheless, socially useful stuff did come out of the NYC data.

Network externalities (defined)

1. Network externality has been defined as a change in the benefit, or surplus, that an agent derives from a good when the number of other agents consuming the same kind of good changes. 2. A network has positive externalities if the value of that network increases as a function of the number of persons (or nodes of any kind) that it includes.

Conclusions (end of Rexford)

1. Network neutrality is a complex issue A. What is "openness"? B. What best enables "competition"? C. What is the best way to foster openness? 2. Issue goes far beyond service providers A. Applications, operating systems, devices B. Beyond the purview of the FCC 3. Going forward, need ways to encourage: transparency, education, and competition

Sunstein's Proposal to Advance Deliberative Democracy

1. New "fairness doctrine" for Internet 2. Internet "deliberative domains" 3. Require web sites to host random rotating links to sites with opposing viewpoints 4. Subsidy of web sites committed to sharing multiple viewpoints

Change over Time -- Paradox

1. New adopters are less elite than early adopters BUT 2. Inequality with respect to education, income, and race, has not declined

Smart Phones as Main Portals

1. Not true for Whites, but definitely for Blacks or Hispanics 2. Smart Phone Main Internet Use: BA or more less than some college less than HS grad

Most Americans are OK with Government Monitoring their own Communications

1. Of people who use technologies, percent at least somewhat concerned about government monitoring ranges from 37% for mobile app use to 42% for search engine use. 2. In other words, attitudes towards spying vary little by technology - about 3/5 of public is fine with all kinds of spying, whereas about 2/5 object to it. 3. How do these groups vary in how they believe government uses this information - and, more broadly, in trust in government? (We don't know.)

Spectrum is very scarce

1. Officially, spectrum belongs to the public 2. Spectrum licensed by the FCC 3. In recent decades, a move toward "ownership" of spectrum, as economists, starting in the 1950s, argued that it was silly to allocate spectrum administratively. 4. Exception: unlicensed spectrum, which was to be used for mundane tasks like opening garage doors. But then WiFi was invented and WiFi uses unlicensed spectrum and is now insanely profitable. Why Spectrum is Scarce It's very difficult to reassign spectrum, and most spectrum was allocated in the 1950s to fit 1950s technology. For instance, TV was given way more spectrum than it needs today. Also to be a mobile carrier, need to buy spectrum

Old v. New Equilibrium

1. Old Equilibrium: •High advances •High promotion costs •Performing (in stadiums) promoted records •Distribution expensive - unsold records returned •CD in black at 500,000 units •Artists care a lot about IP •Winner take all reward structure •Artists burn out from touring, sue labels 2. New Equilibrium: •Low or no advances •Promotion online, often viral •Performing (in clubs) is major revenue source for band; merch important too •Distribution virtually costless •Matador etc.: Profit at 25,000 units; CD sales at concerts; CD purchase c. donation •Artists don't care much about IP •More equal returns •Can artists afford to stay in the game?

U.S. National Broadband Plan

1. On March 16, 2010, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) released Connecting America: The National Broadband Plan. 2. The National Broadband Plan (NBP) identified significant gaps in broadband availability and adoption in the United States, and in order to address those gaps and other challenges, the NBP set specific goals to be achieved by the year 2020. Goals were set for next generation broadband service; universal broadband service; mobile wireless broadband innovation and coverage; broadband access of Community Anchor Institutions; a nationwide, wireless, interoperable broadband public safety network; and broadband for tracking energy consumption.

PROTECTIP and SOPA Acts (proposed legislation, 2011-12) and their fates

1. On May 12, 2011, Senator Leahy introduced S. 968, the Preventing Real Online Threats to Economic Creativity and Theft of Intellectual Property Act (PROTECT IP Act), that would allow the Attorney General to seek an injunction from a federal court against a domain name used by a foreign website that engages in, enables, or facilitates infringement; such court order may then be served on U.S.-based domain name servers, Internet advertisers, search engines, and financial transaction providers, which would be required to take actions such as preventing access to the website or suspending business services to the site. IP rights holders may also sue to obtain a cease and desist order against the operator of an Internet site dedicated to infringement (whether domestic or foreign) or the domain name itself. There has been considerable public debate about the PROTECT IP Act and SOPA. Critics claim these measures amount to "Internet censorship" and that they would impair free speech. There are also concerns that the legislation will disrupt the technical integrity of the Internet. Supporters of the bills argue that in order to reduce digital piracy and online counterfeiting, new enforcement mechanisms are vital for U.S. economic growth and needed to protect public health and safety. After intense lobbying against the legislation, Senator Reid on January 20, 2012, postponed a cloture vote that had been scheduled for the PROTECT IP Act. 2. On October 26, 2011, Representative Lamar Smith introduced H.R. 3261, the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA). SOPA is similar to the PROTECT IP Act yet is broader in scope by including several provisions not found in S. 968, such as those that increase the criminal penalties for online streaming of copyrighted content, create criminal penalties for trafficking in counterfeit drugs, and require the appointment of dedicated IP personnel in U.S. embassies. Introduced in 2011; 1/28/12 - Wikipedia, Reddit, Mozilla and other sites shut down for 24 hours in Protest of SOPA and consideration was suspended. Private Action after SOPA: •Credit card companies deny financial services to pirate sellers •2012: Google downranks sites base on IP-infringement claims •2013: ISP Graduated Response: based on private BitTorrent monitoring, all major ISPS agree to deny service to repeat offenders •2013: ICANN makes registrars add anti-infringement language to contracts: Industry pressures ICANN to take down offenders

Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)

1. On the Internet, a distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack is one in which a multitude of compromised systems attack a single target, thereby causing denial of service for users of the targeted system. 2. The flood of incoming messages to the target system essentially forces it to shut down, thereby denying service to the system to legitimate users.

Associated Ideas: The Self

1. Once one distinguishes the private from the public sphere, selves become more complicated 2. Oliver Wendell Holmes's "The Three Johns" (1858) A. John as he imagines himself B. John as others know him C. "The real John, known only to his Maker" 3. Charles Cooley, "The Looking Glass Self," 1902 A. Feedback loop from public to private self) B. Privacy as the right to shelter intimate information about one's self

Limitations of data mining

1. One limitation is that although data mining can help reveal patterns and relationships, it does not tell the user the value or significance of these patterns. These types of determinations must be made by the user. 2. A second limitation is that while data mining can identify connections between behaviors and/or variables, it does not necessarily identify a causal relationship.

Differing Perspectives

1. One person's mash-up is another person's (corporation's) cybercrime. 2. One person's democracy is another person (or state's) insurrection. 3. From many perspectives, the Internet is wracked by crime e.g. Biggest Piracy Case in U.S. History Gets Its First Conviction, as The Justice Department on Friday announced it has won its first conviction in its long-running criminal complaint against Kim Dotcom and his Megaupload.com for providing pirated access to TV shows and movies. MPAA has been trying to get state AGs to sue Google. Mississippi filed lawsuit. And as much as people try hard to improve the security of the internet and internet devices, iPhone 5s fingerprint sensor hacked within 3 days of launch. Hackers are always a step ahead in the arms race. And hackers have infiltrated over 100 banks in several countries, stealing millions of dollars in possibly the largest bank theft the world has seen. And the Sony Hack is the Poster Child For A New Era Of Cyber Attacks, as what made the Sony breach unique is the combination of four common tactics into a single orchestrated campaign designed to bend a victim to the will of the attackers. Obama had big cybersecurity summit on February 13 for both geopolitical and economic security. Security issues are getting worse

Added Explanatory Power of SES Measures

1. Over Race, Age, Gender and Hours/Wk Online 2. SES strongly accounts for capital enhancing use

Trend in Russian Internet censorship policies

1. Over the past two years, systematic Internet regulation has increased more in Russia than anywhere else in the world. 2. A series of progressively more restrictive legislative developments between the summer of 2012 and the summer of 2014 have increased the power of the Russian Prosecutor General's Office and federal agency Roskomnadzor to block or take down websites for a wide range of alleged infractions. 3. New legislation has also mandated the registration of bloggers with the federal government and greatly increased Russian law enforcement access to user data, among other changes.

How Bitcoin Works (simplified)

1. Ownership of coins: each coin belongs to some public verification key known as an "address." 2. Transaction: consumes coins, creates new coins of equivalent value (with new owners) Need one more thing to make this work 3. The block chain: a global history of all transactions ever. Rule: "if it's not in the block chain, it didn't happen."

Page rank

P2P networks

1. Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a decentralized communications model in which each party has the same capabilities and either party can initiate a communication session. 2. Unlike the client/server model, in which the client makes a service request and the server fulfills the request, the P2P network model allows each node to function as both a client and server.

Peering ( inc. multihoming & secondary peering)

1. Peering: Where one internet operation connects directly to another, so that they can trade traffic. This could be a connection between an ISP such as Comcast and an internet backbone provider such as Level 3. But it could also be a direct connection between an ISP and a content provider such as Google. 2. Multihoming: regional ISPs have begun to connect to more than one backbone, a practice known as multihoming 3. Secondary peering: Regional ISPs that did not have sufficient volume to peer with the tier-1 backbones also began to find that they did have sufficient volume to peer with other regional ISPs, a practice known as secondary peering.

Personal jurisdiction

1. Personal jurisdiction concerns the power of a court to decide a case between the parties. 2. In order for a court to exercise jurisdiction there must be a statutory or common law source of jurisdiction, which does not surpass the limitations imposed by constitutional due process.

Personally identifiable information

1. Personally identifiable information (PII) is any data that could potentially identify a specific individual. PII can be sensitive or non-sensitive. 2. Non-sensitive PII is information that can be transmitted in an unencrypted form.

Who Cares about Privacy on Facebook?

1. Pew: in 2010, 71% of 18-29 year olds had changed privacy settings. 2. A history of privacy tussles - Why does Facebook want to minimize user privacy? 3. Boyd & Hargittai - college students on Facebook A. 2009-2010: period of big change in Facebook settings B. Data set with detailed measurement of user sophistication C. 2/3 of frequent users and almost half of occasional users changed privacy settings >1 in study period D. Women attended to privacy more than men; high-skill more than low-skill users.

Types of crowds on Twitter (Smith et al.)

1. Polarized Crowd: Polarized discussions feature two big and dense groups that have little connection between them. The topics being discussed are often highly divisive and heated political subjects. In fact, there is usually little conversation between these groups despite the fact that they are focused on the same topic. Polarized Crowds on Twitter are not arguing. They are ignoring one another while pointing to different web resources and using different hashtags. 2. Tight Crowd: These discussions are characterized by highly interconnected people with few isolated participants. Many conferences, professional topics, hobby groups, and other subjects that attract communities take this Tight Crowd form. 3. Brand Clusters: When well-known products or services or popular subjects like celebrities are discussed in Twitter, there is often commentary from many disconnected participants: These "isolates" participating in a conversation cluster are on the left side of the picture on the left). Well-known brands and other popular subjects can attract large fragmented Twitter populations who tweet about it but not to each other. The larger the population talking about a brand the less likely it is that the participants are connected to one another. Brand-mentioning participants focus on a topic, but tend not to connect to each other. 4. Community Clusters: Some popular topics may develop multiple smaller groups, which often form around a few hubs, each with its own audience, influencers, and sources of information. These Community Clusters conversations look like bazaars with multiple centers of activity. Global news stories often attract coverage from many news outlets, each with its own following. That creates a collection of medium-sized groups—and a fair number of isolates (the left side of the picture above). 5. Broadcast Network: Twitter commentary around breaking news stories and the output of well-known media outlets and pundits has a distinctive hub and spoke structure in which many people repeat what prominent news and media organizations tweet. The members of the Broadcast Network audience are often connected only to the hub news source, without connecting to one another. In some cases there are smaller subgroups of densely connected people— think of them as subject groupies—who do discuss the news with one another. 6. Support Network: Customer complaints for a major business are often handled by a Twitter service account that attempts to resolve and manage customer issues around their products and services. This produces a hub-and-spoke structure that is different from the Broadcast Network pattern. In the Support Network structure, the hub account replies to many otherwise disconnected users, creating outward spokes. In contrast, in the Broadcast pattern, the hub gets replied to or retweeted by many disconnected people, creating inward spokes.

III: What Difference Does it Make?

1. Policy efforts to bridge the digital divide are premised on the notion that Internet access provides opportunities for better lives and more active social participation. 2. Many ways it can make a difference: A. Opportunities for dispersed minorities (Rheingold) B. Facilitates political action and community participation for those already inclined to participate - boost social capital where social capital is already high (Wellman, Hampton) C. Reduce market disadvantages for women and minorities (Morton, Zettelmeyer, Silva-Russo) D. Makes some markets run more smoothly for everyone (Brown and Goolsbee) E. As organizations substitute online for street-level service provision, it becomes necessary for full participation (Fountain)

Theories and models of the internet's effect on inequality: - Price model vs. Information-Demand model of Internet's effects on inequality - The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis (readings and lectures)

1. Price Model: Internet lowers the cost of information. Cheaper information means that low-income people consume more of it, thus leveling the playing field. 2. A. The advantaged also benefit from cheaper information B. Moreover: a. they may have higher demand for information; b. and they may be able to exploit it more productively.

Universal Service in the Telecommunications Act of 1996

FCC's Universal Service Fund

1. Prior to the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the Universal Service Fund (USF) operated as a mechanism by which interstate long distance carriers were assessed to subsidize telephone service to low-income households and high-cost areas. The Communications Act of 1934 stated that all people in the United States shall have access to rapid, efficient, nationwide communications service with adequate facilities at reasonable charges. 2. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 expanded the traditional definition of universal service - affordable, nationwide telephone service to include among other things rural health care providers and eligible schools and libraries. Today, FCC provides universal service support through four mechanisms: A. High Cost Support Mechanism provides support to certain qualifying telephone companies that serve high cost areas, thereby making phone service affordable for the residents of these regions. B. Low Income Support Mechanism assists low-income customers by helping to pay for monthly telephone charges as well as connection charges to initiate telephone service. C. Rural Health Care Support Mechanism allows rural health care providers to pay rates for telecommunications services similar to those of their urban counterparts, making telehealth services affordable. D. Schools and Libraries Support Mechanism, popularly know as the "E-Rate," provides telecommunication services (e.g., local and long-distance calling, high-speed lines), Internet access, and internal connections (the equipment to deliver these services) to eligible schools and libraries.

Properties we want to add to this system

1. Privacy 2. No trusted third party i.e. banks These are 2 arguments for better forms of electronic currency

Diffuse and Concentrated Interests in (one part of) the Intellectual Property Domain

1. Pro: Intellectual Property. Diffuse: General interest in encouragement of creativity and fair return; public and artists Concentrated: Media conglomerates, Recording Industry, Book publishers, Music publishers, Software manufacturers 2. Pro: Information Commons Diffuse: Public interest in fair use, access to information and ability to use information in creative works. Concentrated: Electronics industry, File-sharing services, Google (mostly), Libraries, schools, Universities (to a point)

Functional claiming (Lemley in Goldman)

1. Prof. Lemley argued that many software patents use "functional claiming," which is patenting a software function (basically, the problem that needs to be solved) rather than a specific way to implement that function (the innovator's solution to the problem). 2. For example, currently we allow patent claims in the form "a computer programmed to achieve this result" or "a computer programmable/capable of achieve a result" (his research identified 11,000 patents using the "capable of" language). Prof. Lemley argued that we should prevent functional claiming in software, allowing patents only on methods of achieving the function, not the function itself.

UNIX

1. Pronounced yoo-niks, a popular multi-user, multitasking operating system developed at Bell Labs in the early 1970s. 2. Created by just a handful of programmers, UNIX was designed to be a small, flexible system used exclusively by programmers. 3. UNIX was one of the first operating systems to be written in a high-level programming language, namely C. This meant that it could be installed on virtually any computer for which a C compiler existed. 4. This natural portability combined with its low price made it a popular choice among universities. (It was inexpensive because antitrust regulations prohibited Bell Labs from marketing it as a full-scale product.) 5. Bell Labs distributed the operating system in its source language form, so anyone who obtained a copy could modify and customize it for his own purposes. By the end of the 1970s, dozens of different versions of UNIX were running at various sites.

The Shift from Stallman to Raymond

1. Raymond rejects Stallman's moral argument 2. "Free software" becomes "open source" software 3. Open source is good business: this is Raymond's argument. Many economists scoffed at this, but there's been a reconsideration in light of the success of Linux and others.

Paradox: In real life & in lab people free ride less than economists expect

1. Real life: A. Voting B. Not embezzling C. Open source D. Volunteering E. Giving to charities 2. Laboratory A. Less free riding than expected B. In "trust game" A usually gives about half of $$ to B; and B usually gives a little more back. And it often doesn't take many altruists to create a public good, even if most people free ride.

Walled garden

1. Refers to a network or service that either restricts or makes it difficult for users to obtain applications or content from external sources. Cable TV and satellite TV are walled gardens, offering a finite number of channels and programs to their subscribers. When AOL was king of the Internet providers, it did an excellent job of keeping users on AOL-affiliated sites. 2. In 2007, Apple's iPhone was a walled garden with a basic set of applications. Soon after, Apple opened the iPhone, encouraging third-party developers to write apps as long as they were approved by Apple. Thus, the wall was broken, but not entirely, because Apple can disapprove any app that is submitted to its online store (see jailbreaking). Google Play (formerly Android Market) accepts all apps as long as they are not xxx rated.

Switch

1. Represented by a house with inward slanted walls with an antenna looking thing on top 2. Electricity comes in from the left, and when the gate is open, flows out through the right

Wires

1. Represented by a straight line 2. Wire has 2 states: on and off 3. States have to do with the number of electrons 4. It is digital, as there are only 2 levels we care about. The device tries to stay near one state or the other. As such, it is able to deal with errors or corruptions by rounding off. This is not the case with analog technology.

Reputation

1. Reputation as the public understanding of the self Initially viewed as a reflection of intrinsic character 2. With rise of public relations, came to be seen subject to strategic manipulation 3. Associated with nationalization of the market system: 4. Credit agencies (1840s) summarized information about business credit-worthiness and reputation 5. Reputation as possessing economic value 6. Economic value provides basis for legal defense of reputation 7. Risk of identity theft combines threats to self with economic risk

Associated Ideas: Reputation

Findings on effects of Internet use on educational and occupational outcomes (Hargittai and Hsieh review)e

1. Researchers have noted that, as the volume and variety of information and sources accessible online continue to expand, the ability to search, process, and use information critically will become an increasingly important skill 2. DiMaggio and Bonikowski (2008) empirically examined whether Internet use is related to Americans' earnings, finding that Internet use at work and at home -- independent of computer use -- was associated with higher earnings when controlling for a host of social and demographic factors including prior year earnings. Looking at a similar question, but using a different unit of analysis, Forman and colleagues (2009) found that, at the regional level, level, between 1995 and 2000, only the US counties with the most wealthy, highly educated workforce, and most IT-intensive industry saw substantial wage growth.

Information-technology barriers of lower-income Latino youth in Laura Robinson's Study

1. Respondents explain that although it is often difficult, they attempt to obtain access either in public venues or by using social networks. 2. They report having to make choices because the school's single formal lab facility provides insufficient connectivity for the sheer numbers of students eager to use the terminals during breaks, lunch, and the one hour that the facility is open after school. Respondents without home access describe their experiences jockeying to get computer access at school as carrying significant opportunity costs. Using the internet at the public library also carries significant opportunity costs, especially in terms of time spent on public transportation and time 'wasted' waiting in line. 3. Repeatedly, these respondents report a domino effect caused by a lack of autonomy associated with physical movement, which is part of a larger scarcity of spatial-temporal resources. Because they do not have home access, they must invest time in transit to public access and in waiting to use public terminals once they are there. Here we see that respondents' lack of both a private computer and a private vehicle exacts multiple temporal tolls, making their remaining time even more valuable and leading them to avoid time 'wasting' activities.Further, these respondents explain that because their time is in short supply, many cannot often afford the temporal cost of going to the library since they have to work after-school jobs to help their families.

The Wikipedia Experiment: Does peer approval motivate contributions?

1. Restivo & Van de Rijt, 2012 A. Wikipedia contributors can award "barnstars" to other contributors they value B. But lots of strong contributors don't get them Working with Wikipedia, the researchers give barnstars to 100 people randomly selected from the most active 1 percent of Wikipedia contributors (out of 140,000+ who had made one edit in previous month). C. Compared them to randomly selected 100 who did not get the stars. 2. What did they find? A. Treatment group members contributed 60 percent more than control group in the ninety days after the experiment B. They were also significantly more likely to get additional stars from other users (to an extent that cannot be explained by greater productivity)

Technology and Industrial Transformation (see Paul Starr, Tim Wu, Russ Neuman, Eli Noam)

1. Roads, canals and railroads: The Postal Service and local newspapers 2. Telegraph and Radio: The emergence of separate, national, private information and communications networks 3. Teletext and digital switches: Communications + Computing = Compunications (and end of regulated monopoly/oligopoly) 4. The Internet + Moore's Law= Convergence of Communications, Information, Computing, & Media= ?? The net neutrality debate is about the structure, mode of governance, regulation, and distribution of rents in this new industrial field.

Taste for the necessary (Robinson)

1. Robinson found that respondents without plentiful resources are doubly constrained in terms of both access and autonomy; as a result, these individuals develop a task-oriented information habitus in which they enact a 'taste for the necessary' in their rationing of internet use. 2. Experiencing temporal and emotional pressures, they eschew any activities that are not directly related to their schoolwork and the other online tasks that occupy their attention. 3. Yet, the enactment of this disposition is ultimately counterproductive. For, in working hard and avoiding what they perceive to be 'wasteful' activities with no immediate payoff, these respondents are denied the benefits that accompany open-ended roaming and browsing. In this feedback loop, 'playing seriously' and developing a 'taste for the necessary' create opposing forms of information habitus that engender further disadvantage.

Moore's Law (explained)

1. Rule of thumb 2. No theory as to why this should be the case 3. Has held true since roughly 1960 4. Cost of some unit of circuitry, memory etc. is cut in half every 18 months 5. Equivalently, capacity (this can mean anything) available at fixed cost doubles every 18 months. 6. This is incredibly fast growth 8. Cost of 50 GB of storage 1981: $15 million 1990: $500,000 2000: $500 2012: $5 2015: free at Box.com 9. This is power of Moore's Law: businesses now give away as a loss-leader at loss of 40-50 cents 10. There are cities full of engineers making technology better 11. People in the industry assume it will hold true 12. Moore's Law gives you the assumption that you'll get a new phone in 2 years

How the 2014 (2015?) Open Internet Policy differs from the 2010 Policy

1. Rules apply to mobile carriers 2. Broadband Internet access service reclassified as telecommunications service under Title II of the 1934 Communications Act. 3. Rules now apply to traffic coming into ISPs: interfering at the edge is also illegal.

What 2015 Open Internet rules add to 2010 rules

Segmented v. Integrated Social Networks

1. Segmented Social Networks: groups that have little connection between them. 2. Integrated Social Networks: highly interconnected people with few isolated participants Trend over time was from small, integrated communities to communities in which people segmented their social lives.

Is Privacy Desirable (Companies)

1. Seller/Consumer incentives aligned around experience-tailoring. 2. Incentives also aligned around privacy - data breaches cause embarrassment and liability. Incentives are mis-aligned around price discrimination (Amazon, 2001). 3. Risk of data falling into wrong hands e.g. the mob 4. Embarrassing ad targeting e.g. pregnant women

User & Carrier: Service Agreements

1. Service agreements and pricing plans A. Customers: clarity and flexibility B. Carriers: recoup costs and limit risk C. Unlimited, usage cap, usage-based pricing 2. Policies affecting openness A. Billing models (from unlimited to usage-based) B. Device locking (and the role of device subsidies) C. Restrictions on tethering D. Application restrictions (e.g. FaceTime) E. Zero-rating ("toll-free") trend outside the US

Jurisdiction: Where & Which Laws? Summing Up

1. Several principles of jurisdiction A. Cyber-libertarians prefer to restrict jurisdiction to state with the servers (if anywhere) (consistent with the "territorial principle" of sovereignty) B. Other standards include: • Significant harm (consistent with the "protective principle") • Targeting of national population (e.g. national language; quoting prices in local currency) • Interaction with servers • Any passage of bits 2. Standards have big implications for control of illegal commerce, personal privacy, government surveillance, and intellectual property. 3. Geo-location is the key technology that enables websites to comply with local rules - unless they lack the skill or resources to do so, or unless their business models only work if they violate local laws.

2000: The Yahoo Case (see Goldsmith & Wu)

1. Should responding to search by allowing users to contact a website trigger the Territorial Principle or the Protective Principle? 2. Much of the case rode on the issue of whether Yahoo could do anything about it - and on the finding that Yahoo could identify the origin of most IP addresses.

Silk Road

1. Silk Road was an anonymous, international online marketplace that operates as a Tor hidden service and uses Bitcoin as its exchange currency. Silk Road indeed mostly catered drugs (although other items were also available), that it consisted of a relatively international community, and that a large fraction of all items did not remain available on the site for very long. 2. Site took down by FBI, DEA, DHS, the IRS, U.S. Postal Inspection, U.S. Secret Service, and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives.

Third party tracking (lecture)

1. Site gets 3rd party presence in many places 2. Follows your "session" across those sites 3. Builds history of your browsing This started to happen in 1996.

Example of cookies

1. Site sends "Language = English (US)" 2. This allowed for online shopping carts. Cookies would expire after certain period of time. This was the original design of cookies for Netscape.

Data mining implications for social justice (small numbers problems; unrepresentative training data; target measures infected by prior discrimination; model feature selection)

1. Small numbers problems: With a relatively small number of attempts every year and only one or two major terrorist incidents every few years—each one distinct in terms of planning and execution—there are no meaningful patterns that show what behavior indicates planning or preparation for terrorism. 2. Unrepresentative training data: A) Skewed set of examples (problems with data collection), B) Uneven number of examples (problems with an inherent sample size disparity), C) Bad example (problems with the labeling of examples) 3. Target measures infected by prior discrimination: So long as prior decisions affected by some form of prejudice serve as examples of correctly rendered determinations, data mining will necessarily infer rules that exhibit the same prejudice therefore less interesting as targets of observation 4. Model feature selection: In catering to the demonstrated preferences of users, companies may unintentionally adopt the prejudices that guide users' behavior

Small Number of Big Players

1. Smartphone vendor shipments: Apple (38%), Samsung (29%), LG (10%) 2. Smartphone OS Market Share: Google Android (56%), Apple iOS (38%) 3. Mobile provider market share: Verizon (34%), AT&T (30%), Spring (16%), T-Mobile (12%) 4. Radio access equipment vendors: Ericsson (50%), Alacatel-Lucent (36%), Nokia-Siemens (10%) 5. Applications developers: Many, diverse, most make <$500/month, but a small fraction are very successful

"Mapping Twitter Topic Networks: From Polarized Crowds to Community Clusters" by Marc Smith, Lee Rainie, Ben Shneiderman and Itai Himelboim

1. Smith et al. (read the first 5 pages and just scan the rest) use data-science techniques to identify distinct patterns of interaction on Twitter, and map each to a particular kind of social group. 2. Conversations on Twitter create networks with identifiable contours as people reply to and mention one another in their tweets. These conversational structures differ, depending on the subject and the people driving the conversation. Six structures are regularly observed: divided, unified, fragmented, clustered, and inward and outward hub and spoke structures. These are created as individuals choose whom to reply to or mention in their Twitter messages and the structures tell a story about the nature of the conversation.

Social capital

1. Social capital refers to the collective value of all "social networks" [who people know] and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other ["norms of reciprocity"]. 2. Digital divide: Internet access facilitates political action and community participation for those already inclined to participate - boost social capital where social capital is already high (Wellman, Hampton)

How Software Is Made

1. Source code: textual, written by people (professionals). This is akin to the blueprint for a building. 2. After "compiling" or "building," the source code becomes machine code, which is binary and can run on the machine. 3. Open Source is a way of working with code. Open Source is contested, and it's contested whether we should even call it Open Source.

Open source

Spam

1. Spam is any kind of unwanted and unsolicited communication through an online medium. That could be unwanted email, instant message, text message, or social media message, among other forms of internet communication. Spam mails, junk mails, or unsolicited emails advertise products and services to a mailing list or newsgroup. This kind of spam is irritating yet harmless. 2. The online spam that is harmful is used as a way to steal one's identity, also known as phishing

Employers Seek to Control the Workplace

1. Spector 360: Employee Monitoring Software 2. A user activity monitoring solution that enables companies to log, retain, review and report on employee activity. Spector 360 creates a definitive record of an employee's digital activity, and in doing so provides organizations with the ability to see the context of user actions.

New Challenges and Opportunities

1. Standardization 2. Takedown notices 3. Creative Commons Licensing 4. Compulsory Licensing 5. Opt-In Copyright Extension

Early Research Stoked Fears of Technology

1. Stanford Study (Nie & Ebring, 2000) The more time on-line the less time spent socializing or talking with friends and the more time working 2. Homenet Study (Kraut & Kiesler, 1998) Internet use associated with anxiety and depression; estrangement from friends and family 3. "Bowling Alone" (Putnam, 2000) - Internet destroys "social capital"

Statistical discrimination

1. Statistical discrimination is a theory of inequality between demographic groups based on stereotypes that do not arise from prejudice or racial and gender bias. 2. When rational, information-seeking decision makers use aggregate group characteristics, such as group averages, to evaluate individual personal characteristics, individuals belonging to different groups may be treated differently even if they share identical observable characteristics in every other aspect. 3. Discrimination can be the agents' efficient response to asymmetric beliefs, or discriminatory outcomes may display an element of inefficiency: the disadvantaged group could perform better if beliefs were not asymmetric across groups (but beliefs are asymmetric because the disadvantaged are not performing as well as the dominant group).

Technical Background in Two Slides: TCP/IP Protocol

1. Step 1: The TCP Protocol breaks data into packets 2. Step 2: The packets travel from router to router over the Internet according to the IP protocol 3. Step 3: The TCP protocol reassembles the packets into the original whole

Definition of currency (stores value, medium of exchange, unit of account)

1. Store of value: Any form of commodity, asset, or money that has value and can be stored and retrieved over time. 2. Medium of exchange: An intermediary instrument used to facilitate the sale, purchase or trade of goods between parties. 3. Unit of account: a monetary unit or measure of value (as a coin) in terms of which accounts are kept and values stated

Hampton/ Wellman's "Netville" Study

Results of Hampton/Wellman Netville study

1. Study of "Netville" - new suburban housing development 2. Residents offered high-speed Internet access at move-in 3. Two thirds got it (semi-random allocation) 4. Compares those with Internet to those without Results from Netville: Wired residents 1. had more informal contact with neighbors than non-wired neighbors 2. knew 25 neighbors' names compared to 8 for nonwired 3. visited each other in their homes more 4. knew people further dispersed in the development 5. wired residents had more contact with friends and relatives outside Netville 6. "glocalization" (Wellman) 7. "portfolios of sociability" (Castells)

Stuxnet

1. Stuxnet was a 500-kilobyte computer worm that infected the software of at least 14 industrial sites in Iran, including a uranium-enrichment plant. Although a computer virus relies on an unwitting victim to install it, a worm spreads on its own, often over a computer network. 2. This worm was an unprecedentedly masterful and malicious piece of code that attacked in three phases. First, it targeted Microsoft Windows machines and networks, repeatedly replicating itself. Then it sought out Siemens Step7 software, which is also Windows-based and used to program industrial control systems that operate equipment, such as centrifuges. Finally, it compromised the programmable logic controllers. The worm's authors could thus spy on the industrial systems and even cause the fast-spinning centrifuges to tear themselves apart, unbeknownst to the human operators at the plant. (Iran has not confirmed reports that Stuxnet destroyed some of its centrifuges.) 3. Stuxnet could spread stealthily between computers running Windows—even those not connected to the Internet. If a worker stuck a USB thumb drive into an infected machine, Stuxnet could, well, worm its way onto it, then spread onto the next machine that read that USB drive. Because someone could unsuspectingly infect a machine this way, letting the worm proliferate over local area networks, experts feared that the malware had perhaps gone wild across the world.

What is Privacy?

1. The "right to be left alone" (Samuel Warren & Louis Brandeis, Harvard L. Rev. 1890) 2. The right to "civil inattention" (Erving Goffman, 1971) 3. Freedom from surveillance (in person or online)

An Example of Disintermediation

1. You used to need experts to: A. find the products B. create a market 2. Now eBay does it.

Why Facebook Won

1. Zuckerberg's team was better at tech. 2. Rollout strategy was key. 3. Facebook relies on the network effect. How to get people to join: their friends are on. What Facebook did was clever. Facebook found people who dense ties and were high-status e.g. Harvard students. Facebook branched out to where Harvard kids had other friends i.e. other Ivies.

Roughly what percentage of U.S. adults use the Internet at home according to the Current Population Survey?

71.7%

-*** HR2281 (House bill) & Senate counterpart at introduction: 3000 words long - *** HR2281 adopted in March by Judiciary Committee: >4000 words - *** DMCA act that passed Senate (99-0): ~10,000 words - *** House bill after Commerce Committee amendments: >12,000 words - *** Revised bill prepared for full House by Judiciary staffer: >25,000 - *** Bill that came out of Senate/House conference committee: 30,000 words!

Technology Facilitated Shift from Community as Place to Community as Network

...And Internet simply extends changes that other technologies (cars, planes, phone, fax) already permitted...

eBay's Dilemma (Diekmann et al.)

1.Enable buyers to establish phenomenological trust - to view site as legitimate and to default to trusting the competence and good will of the people who ran the site. 2.Enable buyers to "distinguish between trustworthy and non-trustworthy sellers" when they can't talk to seller or see goods 3.Encourage sellers to be trustworthy (secured trust) 4.Drive out untrustworthy sellers.

Is There a Right to Privacy?

4th Amendment: "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized." 1. "Right to privacy" is a derived right - derived from 4th Amendment but not mentioned in it - courts have struggled to define its extent 2. Not until 1877 did Supreme Court declare that opening and reading private mail was a violation of 4th Amendment protections 3. The status of the "right to privacy" remains murky in U.S. law

Roughly what percentage of Americans have home broadband according to Pew Internet and American Life project?

62% of American adults age 18+ have a high-speed broadband connection at h

Standardization: Making IP Law More Rational: Music services as a case in point

• 2002: U.S. Copyright Office sets rates at $.07 per song per listener - effectively ending Internet radio - Congress responds by lowering rates to zero then passing "Small Webcasters Settlement Act" providing for negotiated agreements... Compromise through 2005: stations paid 10% of revenue of 7% of expenses, whichever higher • 2004: U.S. Copyright Royalty Board created to help reduce uncertainty (and enable investment) in Internet Radio industry • 2007: U.S. Copyright Royalty Board sets rates for Webcasters at .0008 rising to .0019 by 2010 - Then sets lower rates for Satellite Radio. Digital Music Association (AOL, Yahoo, Napster, Pandora), supported by NPR, calls rates ruinous asks for new hearing... • Webcaster Settlement Act of 2008 enables webcasters to negotiate with Sound Exchange, nonprofit organization spun off by RIAA and designated by Royalty Board to collect royalties for record companies and artists - retroactive agreements permitted • Agreement reached 2009-2015: Sets Free Internet stations' royalty rates higher than rates for radio stations streaming online, pay services online, or Satellite radio - with some support for small start-ups • 2012 - Chafetz Bill would have require same rates for every service - opposed by broadcasters. • Also: Why did Pandora have the Beatles and Zappa before Spotify? Compulsory licensing doesn't apply to on-demand services....

Carving Up the Population

• Assessing people as individuals, not as members of a group or a type of person - At issue, really, is the coarseness and comprehensiveness of the criteria that permit distinction-making • The uneven rates at which different groups happen to be subject to erroneous determinations

Government's Panopticonic Aspirations

• At start of Civil War, War Department seized copies of all telegrams sent in previous 12 months from Western Union • After 9/11, plans long nurtured were activated: Total Information Awareness; Carnivore; NSA Data Stock-piling • Models of authorization 1. Collect only information for which warrant available 2. Store all information, but get warrant to access 3. Let private sector collect, but government can demand access with warrant 4. Let government collect and access all information

Three Faces of Copyright

• Theft • Fair use • Creative incorporation

"Regulation 3.0 for Telecom 3.0" by Eli Noam

1. A brief article by Eli Noam that highlights the implications for Internet policy of new technological developments 2. Telecommunications infrastructure goes through technology-induced phases, and the regulatory regime follows. Telecom 1.0, based on copper wires, was monopolistic in market structure and led to a Regulation 1.0 with government ownership or control. Wireless long-distance and then mobile technologies enabled the opening of that system to one of multi-carrier provision, with Regulation 2.0 stressing privatization, entry, liberalization, and competition. But now, fiber and high-capacity wireless are raising scale economies and network effects, leading to a more concentrated market. At the same time, the rapidly growing importance of infrastructure, coupled with periodic economic instabilities, increase the importance of upgrade investments. All this leads to the return for a larger role for the state in a Regulation 3.0 which incorporates many elements (though using a different terminology) of the traditional regulatory system—universal service, common carriage, cross-subsidies, structural restrictions, industrial policy, even price and profit controls. At the same time, the growing role of telecommunications networks of carriers of mass media and entertainment content will also lead to increasing obligations on network providers to police their networks and assure the maintenance of various societal objectives tied to mass media. These are predictions, not recommendations.

"Cloud TV: Toward the next generation of network policy debates" by Eli Noam

1. A brief article by Eli Noam that highlights the implications for Internet policy of new technological developments 2. We are entering the 4th generation of TV, based on the online transmission of video. This article explores the emerging media system, its policy issues, and a way to resolve them. It analyzes the beginning of a new version of the traditional telecom interconnection problem. The TV system will be diverse in the provision of technology, standards, devices, and content elements. For reasons of interoperation, financial settlements, etc., this diversity will be held together by intermediaries that are today called cloud providers, and through whom much of media content will flow. Based on their fundamental economic characteristics, the cloud operators will form a concentrated market structure. To protect pluralism and competition among clouds and of providers of specialized elements requires the protection of interoperation. This can be accomplished by a basic rule: by the principle of an a la carte offering of service elements.

Gateway

1. A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. 2. On the Internet, a node or stopping point can be either a gateway node or a host (end-point) node. Both the computers of Internet users and the computers that serve pages to users are host nodes. The computers that control traffic within your company's network or at your local Internet service provider (ISP) are gateway nodes.

"GNU Manifesto" by Richard Stallman

1. A manifesto that heralded the open-source software movement 2. Richard Stallman's GNU Manifesto outlines his desire to create a new computer operating system and disseminate it for free. Both an intervention in creative software design and open access, once GNU is acquired, users are entitled to four freedoms: "The freedom to run the program as you wish; the freedom to copy the program and give it away to your friends and co-workers; the freedom to change the program as you wish, by having full access to source code; the freedom to distribute an improved version and thus help build the community."

Packet

1. A packet is the unit of data that is routed between an origin and a destination on the Internet or any other packet-switched network. 2. A packet is the unit of data that is routed between an origin and a destination on the Internet or any other packet-switched network. When any file (e-mail message, HTML file, Graphics Interchange Format file, Uniform Resource Locator request, and so forth) is sent from one place to another on the Internet, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) layer of TCP/IP divides the file into "chunks" of an efficient size for routing. Each of these packets is separately numbered and includes the Internet address of the destination. The individual packets for a given file may travel different routes through the Internet. When they have all arrived, they are reassembled into the original file (by the TCP layer at the receiving end).

Rootkit

1. A rootkit is a type of malicious software that is activated each time your system boots up. 2. Rootkits are difficult to detect because they are activated before your system's Operating System has completely booted up. A rootkit often allows the installation of hidden files, processes, hidden user accounts, and more in the systems OS. Rootkits are able to intercept data from terminals, network connections, and the keyboard.

"The Generative Internet" by Jonathan Zittrain

1. An influential essay by Jonathan Zittrain that emphasizes the tradeoff between security and freedom as the Internet develops 2. The generative capacity for unrelated and unaccredited audiences to build and distribute code and content through the Internet to its tens of millions of attached personal computers has ignited growth and innovation in information technology and has facilitated new creative endeavors. It has also given rise to regulatory and entrepreneurial backlashes. A further backlash among consumers is developing in response to security threats that exploit the openness of the Internet and of PCs to third-party contribution. A shift in consumer priorities from generativity to stability will compel undesirable responses from regulators and markets and, if unaddressed, could prove decisive in closing today's open computing environments. This Article explains why PC openness is as important as network openness, as well as why today's open network might give rise to unduly closed endpoints. It argues that the Internet is better conceptualized as a generative grid that includes both PCs and networks rather than as an open network indifferent to the configuration of its endpoints. Applying this framework, the Article explores ways - some of them bound to be unpopular among advocates of an open Internet represented by uncompromising end-to-end neutrality - in which the Internet can be made to satisfy genuine and pressing security concerns while retaining the most important generative aspects of today's networked technology.

"The Web is Dead. Long Live the Internet" by Chris Anderson and Michael Wolff

1. Authors Chris Anderson and Michael Wolff argued that the World Wide Web was "in decline" and "apps" were in ascendance. 2. They clearly forecast the rise of the mobile Web, but the debate they launched with the apps vs. Web formulation continues.

Bitnet

1. BITNET was an early world leader in network communications for the research and education communities, and helped lay the groundwork for the subsequent introduction of the Internet, especially outside the US. 2. BITNET was a "store-and-forward" network similar to the Usenet, and coincidentally invented at about the same time, in 1981, by Ira Fuchs and Greydon Freeman at the City University of New York (CUNY), and originally named for the phrase "Because It's There Net", later updated to "Because It's Time Net". 3. The network was designed to be inexpensive and efficient, and so was built as a tree structure with only one path from one computer to another, and like the early Usenet with low bandwidth telephone connections, typically at 9600 bps or about 960 characters a second. 4. The first BITNET connection was from CUNY to Yale University. By the early 90's, BITNET was the most widely used research communications network in the world for email, mailing lists, file transfer, and real-time messaging. 5. One of the most popular elements of BITNET was their mailing lists on every subject under the sun, from butterfly biology to theoretical physics, usually filtered and approved by a human moderator, and supported by the LISTSERV software. 6. A second network called BITNET II was created in 1987, in an effort to provide a higher bandwidth network similar to the NSFNET. However, by 1996, it was clear that the Internet was providing a range of communication capabilities that fulfilled BITNET's roles, so CREN ended their support and the network slowly faded away.

"A Declaration of Independence for Cyberspace" by John Perry Barlow

1. Barlow's brief statement of principle captures the cyberutopianism of the Internet's early days 2. statement of the core belief of many cyber-libertarians that governments should have no authority on the Internet. 3. call for sovereign nations to give up all claims of authority on the Internet

Circuit

1. Chips drive computers 2. Silicon has distinctive electrical properties 3. You can build switches by putting different impurities in silicon wafers 4. These wafers connected by small strings of wire are circuits Implications of Being Able to Build Circuits 1. Can do arithmetic: because we take arithmetic and express it as logic 2. Binary (base 2) representation: in base 2, each digit is either 0 or 1. Thus 1011011 = 64 + 16 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 91 Addition and subtraction work the same in binary. 3. Can represent text: each letter represented by a number: 1 = a, 2 = b, 3 = c etc. Want more for capitals, punctuation, other languages. In general, can represent many things in many formats. Almost anything that can be represented as a symbol can be represented as a number.

"The Emerging Field of Internet Governance" by Laura DeNardis

1. DeNardis demonstrates how technical decisions about networks have important implications for the distribution of power and about social values 2. this paper has conveyed how Internet governance functions carry significant public interest implications and how these functions are diffusely distributed among new institutional forms, the private sector, and more traditional forms of governance. Network management via deep packet inspection raises privacy concerns; Internet protocol design makes decisions about accessibility, interoperability, economic competition, and individual freedoms; critical resource administration has implications for the future of the Internet's architecture as well as the pace of access and economic development in the global south; governments use technologies such as filtering and blocking for censorship and surveillance.

Deep packet inspection technologies

1. Deep packet inspection (DPI) is an advanced method of packet filtering that functions at the Application layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model. The use of DPI makes it possible to find, identify, classify, reroute or block packets with specific data or code payloads that conventional packet filtering, which examines only packet headers, cannot detect. 2. Another example of complex relationship between commercial and state interests •Backdoors in pipes mandated under powers given the Justice Department under the Communications Assistance to Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) of 1994 •But backdoors can be used by ISPs to manage traffic and gain commercial advantage •They also make ISPS vulnerable to demands that they serve as IP law enforcement agents •Deep Packet Inspection can be used for: -Analyzing data flows -Responding to government information requests -Network security -Facilitating services like VoIP that require special treatment -(DPI and "packet sniffing") BUT! DPI also gives operators the opportunity to block content they don't like; block competing services; and gather data on customers.

TCP/IP

1. Designed in 1970s by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn 2. IP = "Internet Protocol." Device implements internet protocol, when it can connect to the internet. IP provides common language for networks to work together. 3. (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) The most widely used communications protocol. Developed in the 1970s under contract from the U.S. Department of Defense, TCP/IP was invented by Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn. This de facto Unix standard is the protocol of the Internet and the global standard for local area networks and wide area networks, the major exception being the traditional networks of the telephone companies. TCP/IP is commonly referred to as just "IP," which is the network layer of the protocol (see illustration below); thus, the terms "TCP/IP network" and "IP network" are synonymous. The TCP/IP suite provides two transport methods. TCP ensures that data arrive intact and complete, while UDP just transmits packets. TCP is used for data that must arrive in perfect form, and UDP is used for real-time applications such as voice over IP (VoIP) and video calling, where there is no time to retransmit erroneous or dropped packets. TCP/IP is a routable protocol, and the IP network layer in TCP/IP provides this capability. The header prefixed to an IP packet contains not only source and destination addresses of the host computers, but source and destination addresses of the networks they reside in. Data transmitted using TCP/IP can be sent to multiple networks within an organization or around the globe via the Internet, the world's largest TCP/IP network. Every node in a TCP/IP network requires an IP address (an "IP") which is either permanently assigned or dynamically assigned (see IP address and DHCP).

"The Structure of the Web" by David Easley and Jon Kleinberg

1. Easley and Kleinberg analyze the web as a network 2. we consider a different type of network, in which the basic units being connected are pieces of information, and links join pieces of information that are related to each other in some fashion. We will call such a network an information network. As we will see, the World Wide Web is arguably the most prominent current example of such a network, and while the use of information networks has a long history, it was really the growth of the Web that brought such networks to wide public awareness. While there are basic differences between information networks and the kinds of social and economic networks that we've discussed earlier, many of the central ideas developed earlier in the book will turn out to be fundamental here as well: we'll be using the same basic ideas from graph theory, including short paths and giant components; formulating notions of power in terms of the underlying graph structure; and even drawing connections to matching markets when we consider some of the ways in which search companies on the Web have designed their businesses.

"The Cathedral and the Bazaar" by Eric Raymond

1. Eric Raymond's shrewd mix of analysis and personal memoir 2. Anatomizes a successful open-source project, fetchmail, that was run as a deliberate test of some surprising theories about software engineering suggested by the history of Linux. Discusses these theories in terms of two fundamentally different development styles, the "cathedral" model of most of the commercial world versus the "bazaar" model of the Linux world. 3. Shows that these models derive from opposing assumptions about the nature of the software-debugging task. 4. Then makes a sustained argument from the Linux experience for the proposition that "Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow", suggests productive analogies with other self-correcting systems of selfish agents, and concludes with some exploration of the implications of this insight for the future of software.

IP addresses

1. Every machine on a network has a unique identifier. Just as you would address a letter to send in the mail, computers use the unique identifier to send data to specific computers on a network. Most networks today, including all computers on the Internet, use the TCP/IP protocol as the standard for how to communicate on the network. 2. In the TCP/IP protocol, the unique identifier for a computer is called its IP address.

"Access to Broadband Networks: The Net Neutrality Debate" by Angele Gilroy

1. Gilroy provides a neutral overview of the issues as Congress faces them 2. As congressional policy makers continue to debate telecommunications reform, a major discussion point revolves around what approach should be taken to ensure unfettered access to the Internet. The move to place restrictions on the owners of the networks that compose and provide access to the Internet, to ensure equal access and non-discriminatory treatment, is referred to as "net neutrality." While there is no single accepted definition of "net neutrality," most agree that any such definition should include the general principles that owners of the networks that compose and provide access to the Internet should not control how consumers lawfully use that network, and they should not be able to discriminate against content provider access to that network.

"Directed graph"

1. In a directed graph, the edges don't simply connect pairs of nodes in a symmetric way — they point from one node to another. 2. This is clearly true on the Web: just because you write a blog post and include a link to the Web page of a company or organization, there is no reason to believe that they will necessarily reciprocate and include a link back to the blog post.

CALEA (1994 Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act)

1. In response to concerns that emerging technologies such as digital and wireless communications were making it increasingly difficult for law enforcement agencies to execute authorized surveillance, Congress enacted CALEA on October 25, 1994. 2. CALEA requires a "telecommunications carrier," as defined by the CALEA statute, to ensure that equipment, facilities, or services that allow a customer or subscriber to "originate, terminate, or direct communications," enable law enforcement officials to conduct electronic surveillance pursuant to court order or other lawful authorization. 3. CALEA is intended to preserve the ability of law enforcement agencies to conduct electronic surveillance by requiring that telecommunications carriers and manufacturers of telecommunications equipment design and modify their equipment, facilities, and services to ensure that they have the necessary surveillance capabilities as communications network technologies evolve. 4. Deep-Packet Inspection: Another example of complex relationship between commercial and state interests •Backdoors in pipes mandated under powers given the Justice Department under the Communications Assistance to Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) of 1994 •But backdoors can be used by ISPs to manage traffic and gain commercial advantage •They also make ISPS vulnerable to demands that they serve as IP law enforcement agents

Middle mile

1. In the broadband Internet industry, the "middle mile" is the segment of a telecommunications network linking a network operator's core network to the local network plant, typically situated in the incumbent telco's central office that provides access to the local loop, or in the case of cable television operators, the local cable modem termination system. This includes both the backhaul network to the nearest aggregation point, and any other parts of the network needed to connect the aggregation point to the nearest point of presence on the operator's core network 2. You'll hear people say that debates over transit and peering have nothing to do with net neutrality, and in a sense, they are right: Net neutrality is a last-mile issue. But at the same time, these middle-mile deals affect the consumer internet experience, which is why there is a good argument that the back room deals make net neutrality regulations obsolete—and why people like Netflix's CEO are trying to define "strong net neutrality" to include peering decisions.

"Navigational links" vs. "transactional links"

1. In view of these considerations, it is useful to think of a coarse division of links on the Web into navigational and transactional, with the former serving the traditional hypertextual functions of the Web and the latter primarily existing to perform transactions on the computers hosting the content. 2. This is not a perfect or clear-cut distinction, since many links on the Web have both navigational and transactional functions, but it is a useful dichotomy to keep in mind when evaluating the function of the Web's pages and links.

Internet governance

1. Internet governance scholars, rather than studying Internet usage at the content level, examine what is at stake in the design, administration, and manipulation of the Internet's actual protocological and material architecture. 2. This architecture is not external to politics and culture but, rather, deeply embeds the values and policy decisions that ultimately structure how we access information, how innovation will proceed, and how we exercise individual freedom online. 3. "Governance" in the Internet governance context requires qualification because relevant actors are not only governments. Governance is usually understood as the efforts of nation states and traditional political structures to govern. Sovereign governments do perform certain Internet governance functions such as regulating computer fraud and abuse, performing antitrust oversight, and responding to Internet security threats. Sovereign governments also unfortunately use content filtering and blocking techniques for surveillance and censorship of citizens. Many other areas of Internet governance, such as Internet protocol design and coordination of critical Internet resources, have historically not been the exclusive purview of governments but of new transnational institutional forms and of private ordering.

Last mile

1. Last-mile technology is any telecommunications technology that carries signals from the broad telecommunication backbone along the relatively short distance (hence, the "last mile") to and from the home or business. 2. Or to put it another way: the infrastructure at the neighborhood level.

"Code 2.0" by Lawrence Lessig (Chapter 7)

1. Lessig presents a useful way to think about policy, to which we will return throughout the semester. 2. He argues that code, technology, law, and informal norms are alternative mechanisms for regulating on-line behavior and achieving policy objectives. 3. Much information technology policy, he argues, is a matter of deciding which mix of these mechanisms we wish to employ 4. That regulator could be a significant threat to a wide range of liberties, and we don't yet understand how best to control it. This regulator is what I call "code"—the instructions embedded in the software or hardware that makes cyberspace what it is. This code is the "built environment" of social life in cyberspace. It is its "architecture." And to see this new, salient threat, I believe we need a more general understanding of how regulation works—one that focuses on more than the single influence of any one force such as government, norms, or the market, and instead integrates these factors into a single account.

Malware

1. Malware is a category of malicious code that includes viruses, worms, and Trojan horses. 2. Destructive malware will utilize popular communication tools to spread, including worms sent through email and instant messages, Trojan horses dropped from web sites, and virus-infected files downloaded from peer-to-peer connections. Malware will also seek to exploit existing vulnerabilities on systems making their entry quiet and easy.

"Cell Internet Use 2013" by Maeve Duggan and Aaron Smith

1. Nearly two-thirds (63%) of cell phone owners now use their phone to go online, according to a new survey by the Pew Research Center's Internet & American Life Project. We call them "cell internet users" and define them as anyone who uses their cell phone to access the internet or use email. Because 91% of all Americans now own a cell phone, this means that 57% of all American adults are cell internet users. The proportion of cell owners who use their phone to go online has doubled since 2009. 2. Additionally, one third of these cell internet users (34%) mostly use their phone to access the internet, as opposed to other devices like a desktop, laptop, or tablet computer. We call these individuals "cell-mostly internet users," and they account for 21% of the total cell owner population. Young adults, non-whites, and those with relatively low income and education levels are particularly likely to be cell-mostly internet users.

Private ordering

1. Private ordering: the coming together of non-governmental parties in voluntary arrangements - as a central institutional form of law making and law applying. 2. The goal of this report is to describe the way in which the self-organized and selfregulating structures that govern today's global Internet—including the arrangements that enable ISPs to connect their networks to each other—have evolved naturally, over a period of roughly 35 years, according to principles that are deeply embedded in the Internet architecture. These structures are selforganized and self-regulating not because the Internet is an anachronistic "untamed and lawless wild west" environment, but because years of experience have shown that self-management is the most effective and efficient way to preserve and extend the uniquely valuable properties of the Internet.

Moore's Law

ISP

1. Short for Internet Service Provider, it refers to a company that provides Internet services, including personal and business access to the Internet. 2. For a monthly fee, the service provider usually provides a software package, username, password and access phone number. 3. Equipped with a modem, you can then log on to the Internet and browse the World Wide Web and USENET, and send and receive e-mail. For broadband access you typically receive the broadband modem hardware or pay a monthly fee for this equipment that is added to your ISP account billing. 4. In addition to serving individuals, ISPs also serve large companies, providing a direct connection from the company's networks to the Internet. ISPs themselves are connected to one another through Network Access Points (NAPs). ISPs may also be called IAPs (Internet Access Providers).

SSO technologies ["wallets" and "identity layer" of Internet])

1. Single sign-on (SSO)is a session/user authentication process that permits a user to enter one name and password in order to access multiple applications. 2. An online wallet is a program or web service that allows users to store and control their online shopping information, like logins, passwords, shipping address and credit card details, in one central place. It also provides a convenient and technologically quick method for consumers to purchase products from any person or store across the globe. Greater regulation has entailed a movement from anonymity and freedom to identity and accountability. e.g. Lessig's "Identity Layer" - Protocols that Authenticate Users (1996-2013) 1. Permanent IP addresses and caching of temporary addresses to tie users to sessions. 2. IP Mapping software to enable states to locate activity in space (essential for identifying violation of state or national laws; useful for retail) 3. Site specific security requiring public/private key encryption for sensitive websites 4. Permanent identities for particular domains (e.g., what you do at www.princeton.edu) 5. Stable identity within most of what you do online (Google, Facebook)

Stored program computer

1. Storage of instructions in computer memory to enable it to perform a variety of tasks in sequence or intermittently. 2. The idea was introduced in the late 1940s by John von Neumann, who proposed that a program be electronically stored in binary-number format in a memory device so that instructions could be modified by the computer as determined by intermediate computational results. 3. Other engineers, notably John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, contributed to this idea, which enabled digital computers to become much more flexible and powerful. 4. Nevertheless, engineers in England built the first stored-program computer, the Manchester Mark I, shortly before the Americans built EDVAC, both operational in 1949.

"Constitutive decisions" and "path dependence"

1. Technologies are "path dependent" 2. I.e. Early "constitutive decisions" (Starr) may shape later development in unanticipated ways

"Fact Sheet: Chairman Wheeler Proposes New Rules for Protecting the Open Internet" by Federal Communications Commission

1. The 2015 Fact Sheet summarizes the as yet unpublished proposed rules that the FCC will soon release 2. Chairman Wheeler is proposing clear, sustainable, enforceable rules to preserve and protect the open Internet as a place for innovation and free expression. His common-sense proposal would replace, strengthen and supplement FCC rules struck down by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit more than one year ago. The draft Order supports these new rules with a firm legal foundation built to withstand future challenges. The Chairman's comprehensive proposal will be voted on the FCC's February 26 open meeting.

General-purpose computer

1. The Big Intellectual Leap: going from a special purpose to general-purpose computer 2. This leap is due to Alan Turing in 1935/1936. Turing is 22 in Cambridge, UK. He's teaching and he has the idea of a general-purpose computer. His advisers are excited and tell him to go work with Alonzo Church at Princeton. Turing at Princeton from 1936-1938. Turing's idea is to build a circuit that emulates circuits, a so-called "universal circuit." The Universal Circuit 1. Inputs entering the circuit from the left: information specifying which circuit the universal circuit is to emulate and inputs to the circuit that the universal circuit is supposed to emulate 2. Output exiting from the right side of the universal circuit: what emulated circuit would do, given the provided input Turing's 1938 Paper Turing showed: 1. Universal circuit is possible 2. How to build it 3. Universal circuit is much simpler than you expect: if you couple universal circuit with memory, it could be simpler than the emulated circuit Universal Circuit, Software, and Programming 1. Big advantage of coupling universal circuit with memory is that you don't need to design circuit for every purpose, as you just need to change the inputs 2. This is the idea of software and programming: you can decide later what you want it to do Schema of Universal Circuit with Memory 1. Universal circuit produces outputs and data. The data enters the memory. Memory produces data, which, along with inputs and code, enters the universal circuit. The code and data come from the memory: the inputs do not. The universal circuit is the computer. 2. Turing proved the universality of this. Any logical computation that can be done can be done by this device. 3. Over decades, people figured out how to build this at low-cost. The light-switch in Robertson 002 probably has a general purpose computer in it. Universal circuits all over the place e.g. car has 20-30 computers in it. 4. Real computer e.g. laptop, mobile phone (computer has code that allows it to make calls) 5. Circuitry has many billions of switches, usually highly miniaturized; memory stores many billions of bits. 6. Recently, batteries have improved. Sensors like microphone, camera, accelerator (phone knows which way is up), barometer all embedded in phones.

The Clipper Chip and the stakes of encryption

1. The Clipper Chip is a cryptographic device purportedly intended to protect private communications while at the same time permitting government agents to obtain the "keys" upon presentation of what has been vaguely characterized as "legal authorization." The "keys" are held by two government "escrow agents" and would enable the government to access the encrypted private communication. While Clipper would be used to encrypt voice transmissions, a similar chip known as Capstone would be used to encrypt data. 2. The underlying cryptographic algorithm, known as Skipjack, was developed by the National Security Agency (NSA), a super-secret military intelligence agency responsible for intercepting foreign government communications and breaking the codes that protect such transmissions. The agency has played a leading role in the Clipper initiative and other civilian security proposals, such as the Digital Signature Standard. NSA has classified the Skipjack algorithm on national security grounds, thus precluding independent evaluation of the system's strength. 3. Cryptography contributes to commercial, political, and personal life in a surprising number of ways. Now that modern cryptographic techniques have put strong, perhaps uncrackable, cryptography within the reach of anyone with a computer or even a telephone, the use of strong cryptography is likely to increase further. 4. As a result, worried law enforcement and intelligence agencies have developed the Clipper Chip in order to retain their capability to eavesdrop on private electronic communications.

JPEG

1. The Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) committee has a long tradition in the creation of still image coding standards. 2. JPEG is a joint working group of the International Standardization Organization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). 3. Group of experts that develops and maintains standards for a suite of compression algorithms for computer image files.

Backbone

1. The National Science Foundation (NSF) created the first high-speed backbone in 1987. Called NSFNET, it was a T1 line that connected 170 smaller networks together. IBM, MCI and Merit worked with NSF to create the backbone and developed a T3 (45 Mbps) backbone the following year. 2. Backbones are typically fiber optic trunk lines. 3. Today there are many companies that operate their own high-capacity backbones, and all of them interconnect at various NAPs around the world. In this way, everyone on the Internet, no matter where they are and what company they use, is able to talk to everyone else on the planet. The entire Internet is a gigantic, sprawling agreement between companies to intercommunicate freely. 4. What happens before the last mile? Before internet traffic gets to your house, it goes through your ISP, which might be a local or regional network (a tier 2 ISP) or it might be an ISP with its own large-scale national or global network (a tier 1 ISP). There are also companies that are just large-scale networks, called backbones, which connect with other large businesses but don't interact with retail customers.

"America's First Information Revolution" by Paul Starr

1. The Starr reading focuses on the communications policy traditions in the U.S. 2. Here were some of the innovations that made up the first American revolution in information and communications: The United States established free speech as a constitutional principle, and the Constitution itself was written and published so that ordinary citizens could read it. It created a comprehensive postal network and assured postal privacy. It introduced a periodic census, published the aggregate results, and assured individuals anonymity. Primarily through local efforts, it extended primary schooling earlier to more of its population, including women. Protestantism and the market economy, however, cannot explain the United States moved ahead more quickly in communications than did the Protestant, commercial countries of Europe. The transformation of postal service, news, education, and the census followed in the wake of the American Revolution. Some of the key changes, such as the postal system, the census, and public education, critically involved law and policy and doubtless helped to make the United States more powerful. But the federal government promoted communications in part by desisting from the use of power: It conducted no surveillance of mail, refrained from using the census to maintain information about individuals, and helped to finance and stimulate the development of common schools at the local level, but did not control what the schools taught. The government promoted communications by making credible commitments not to control their content.

Application layer

1. The application layer is a layer in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) seven-layer model and in the TCP/IP protocol suite. It consists of protocols that focus on process-to-process communication across an IP network and provides a firm communication interface and end-user services. 2. The application layer is the seventh layer of the OSI model and the only one that directly interacts with the end user. Its major network device or component is the gateway.

Von Neumann architecture

1. The basic concept behind the von Neumann architecture is the ability to store program instructions in memory along with the data on which those instructions operate. 2. Until von Neumann proposed this possibility, each computing machine was designed and built for a single predetermined purpose. All programming of the machine required the manual rewiring of circuits, a tedious and error-prone process. If mistakes were made, they were difficult to detect and hard to correct. 3. Von Neumann architecture is composed of three distinct components (or sub-systems): a central processing unit (CPU), memory, and input/output (I/O) interfaces.

"The Mobile Revolution" by Lee Rainie and Barry Wellman

1. The chapter recounts the development of mobile phones into affordable, easily portable, multi-functional devices, from talking to texts to continuous Internet access. 2. One interesting survey finds that African Americans and Latinos are less likely than whites to be wired Internet users but more likely to access the Internet through their cell phones.

"Code 2.0" by Lawrence Lessig (Chapter 4-5)

1. The chapters in Lawrence Lessig's classic Code2.0 - first published in 1998 as Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace and then published in a second edition in 2006 as Code 2.0.— describe some paradigmatic online dilemmas 2. Ch. 4: Lessig describes the changes that could—and are—pushing the Net from the unregulable space it was, to the perfectly regulable space it could be. These changes are not being architected by government. They are instead being demanded by users and deployed by commerce. They are not the product of some 1984-inspired conspiracy; they are the consequence of changes made for purely pragmatic, commercial ends. 3. Ch. 5: COMMERCE HAS DONE ITS PART—FOR COMMERCE, AND INDIRECTLY, FOR governments. Technologies that make commerce more efficient are also technologies that make regulation simpler. The one supports the other. There are a host of technologies now that make it easier to know who someone is on the Net, what they're doing, and where they're doing it. These technologies were built to make business work better. They make life on the Internet safer. But the by-product of these technologies is to make the Net more regulable. More regulable.Not perfectly regulable.

Hypertext and why it matters that the web has a "hypertextual structure"

1. The decision to use this network metaphor also didn't arise out of thin air; it's an application of a computer-assisted style of authoring known as hypertext that had been explored and refined since the middle of the twentieth century. The motivating idea behind hypertext is to replace the traditional linear structure of text with a network structure, in which any portion of the text can link directly to any other part — in this way, logical relationships within the text that are traditionally implicit become first-class objects, foregrounded by the use of explicit links. In its early years, hypertext was a cause passionately advocated by a relatively small group of technologists; the Web subsequently brought hypertext to a global audience, at a scale that no one could have anticipated. 2. Why it matters that the web has a "hypertextual structure": the use of a network structure truly brings forth the globalizing power of the Web by allowing anyone authoring a Web page to highlight a relationship with any other existing page, anywhere in the world

DNS system

End-to-end principle

1. The end-to-end principle is one of the underlying system principles of the Internet, which states that network features should be implemented as close to the end points of the network -- the applications -- as possible. 2. This is commonly expressed by describing the system as a "dumb" network with "smart" terminals. Lawrence Lessig and Robert W. McChesney argue that the end-to-end principle is what has made the Internet such a success, since "All of the intelligence is held by producers and users, not the networks that connect them." 3. One of the most basic arguments in favor of Net Neutrality is that it is needed in order to preserve what is known as the "end-to-end principle."

Generativity vs. security (Zittrain)

1. The generative capacity for unrelated and unaccredited audiences to build and distribute code and content through the Internet to its tens of millions of attached personal computers has ignited growth and innovation in information technology and has facilitated new creative endeavors. 2. It has also given rise to regulatory and entrepreneurial backlashes. A further backlash among consumers is developing in response to security threats that exploit the openness of the Internet and of PCs to third-party contribution. 3. A shift in consumer priorities from generativity to stability will compel undesirable responses from regulators and markets and, if unaddressed, could prove decisive in closing today's open computing environments. 4. Zittrain explains why PC openness is as important as network openness, as well as why today's open network might give rise to unduly closed endpoints. 5. He argues that the Internet is better conceptualized as a generative grid that includes both PCs and networks rather than as an open network indifferent to the configuration of its endpoints. 6. Applying this framework, he explores ways - some of them bound to be unpopular among advocates of an open Internet represented by uncompromising end-to-end neutrality - in which the Internet can be made to satisfy genuine and pressing security concerns while retaining the most important generative aspects of today's networked technology.

State regulation of municipal wireless efforts

1. The lack of widely available, affordable broadband Internet access has spurred a movement in which municipalities are rolling out wireless broadband networks. 2. As cities use wireless broadband technology to enhance services to citizens, the growth of municipal wireless deployments has transitioned from linear to exponential. 3. In response, many states have passed laws to regulate and restrict cities' ability to own, operate, deploy, or profit from either telecommunications or information services.

Layering principle

1. The layering principle, as applied to networking, prescribes that a lower-layer protocol may not make any assumptions about the content or meaning of the message (or, more technically, protocol data unit) passed to it by a higher-layer protocol for delivery to its higher-layer protocol peer 2. The original architecture of the Internet was based on the layering principle and on the broad version of the end-to-end arguments.

John Perry Barlow Protocol

1. The leap to speaking about the decentralized routing protocols represents clearly the shared moral and technical order of geeks, derived in this case from the specific details of the Internet. 2. In the early 1990, this version of the technical order of the Internet was part of a vibrant libertarian dogma asserting that the Internet simply could not be governed by any land-based sovereign and that it was fundamentally a place of liberty and freedom. This was the central message of John Perry Barlow.

Internet layers: Physical, logical, content

1. The physical layer refers to the material things used to connect human beings to each other. These include the computers, phones, handhelds, wires, wireless links, and the like. 2. The content layer is the set of humanly meaningful statements that human beings utter to and with one another. It includes both the actual utterances and the mechanisms, to the extent that they are based on human communication rather than mechanical processing, for filtering, accreditation, and interpretation. 3. The logical layer represents the algorithms, standards, ways of translating human meaning into something that machines can transmit, store, or compute, and something that machines process into communications meaningful to human beings. These include standards, protocols, and software—both general enabling platforms like operating systems, and more specific applications. 4. A mediated human communication must use all three layers, and each layer therefore represents a resource or a pathway that the communication must use or traverse in order to reach its intended destination. In each and every one of these layers, we have seen the emergence of technical and practical capabilities for using that layer on a nonproprietary model that would make access cheaper, less susceptible to control by any single party or class of parties, or both.

Physical, logical, and content layers

"Mobile is eating the world" by Benedict Evans

1. The smartphone and tablet business is now nearly 50% of the global consumer electronics industry. 2. Smartphones will continue to be the online on-ramp of choice regardless of global region. As of 2014, there are 3B people online and 2B people using smartphones. Andreessen Horowitz's Benedict Evans predicts that by 2020 there will be 4B people online, all using smartphones. Global smartphone adoption will attain a global compound annual growth rate of 10.41% in the next seven years. By 2020, 80% of the adults on earth will own a smartphone. 3. Every smartphone sensor creates a new business. Sensors in smartphones are accelerating the next generation of analytics, applications, APIs, and fundamentally changing the smartphone user experience. Andreessen Horowitz's Benedict Evans predicts that there will be 2 - 3X more smartphones than PCs by 2020, and when they are multiplied by their many uses including sensor-based applications, the total opportunity grows 10 times in this time period. All of these factors are leading to a mobile leverage effect that reduces the costs of develop new mobile applications that have the potential to attract exponentially larger customer bases. The new iPhone CPU has 625 times more transistors than Intel INTC -1.49%'s Pentium processor produced in 1995. During the iPhone launch weekend earlier this year, Apple AAPL +0.64% sold 25X more CPU transistors than were in all the PCs on Earth in 1995. 4. The utility of mobile increases as income falls. 70% of Sub-Saharan Africa is under cellular coverage, with 20% having 3G coverage today increasing to 65% by 2019, attaining a CAGR of 21.71%. The most significant constraint to greater adoption is data pricing and the ability to charge a phone. Using this region's cellular adoption rates and economics as an example, Benedict vans shows how the rapid cost reductions in smartphone costs are fundamentally changing the Internet. 5. Mobile apps now dominate the proportion of time spent online. The time spent on mobile apps is greater than all the time spent on the Web in the U.S. today.

NSFnet

1. The term "NSFNET" refers to a program of coordinated, evolving projects sponsored by the National Science Foundation that was initiated in 1985 to support and promote advanced networking among U.S. research and education institutions. Participants in NSFNET projects began with the national supercomputer centers and the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) and continued over time with a partnership team including Merit Network, Inc., IBM, MCI, Advanced Network & Services, Inc., and the State of Michigan; regional networks; and many institutions in research and education. Projects included the construction of data networks as well as the outreach required to spur adoption of networking technologies by researchers and educators. 2. NSFNET is also the name given to a nationwide physical network that was constructed to support the collective network-promotion effort. That network was initiated as a 56 kbps backbone in 1985. The network was significantly expanded from 1987 to 1995, when the early version of NSFNET was upgraded to T1 and then T3 speeds and expanded to reach thousands of institutions. Throughout this period, many projects were associated with the NSFNET program, even as the backbone itself became widely known as "the NSFNET." 3. From its inception as a part of NSF's overall inventory of high speed computing and communications infrastructure development, the NSFNET program was a pioneering force in academic computing infrastructure development and in the enhancement of research efforts through advanced network services. The NSFNET backbone, in its support of the broader set of NSFNET programs, linked scientists and educators on university campuses nationwide to each other and to their counterparts in universities, laboratories, government agencies, and research centers throughout the world. 4. By design, the NSFNET backbone made high speed networking available to national supercomputer centers and to inter-linked regional networks, which in turn worked to extend network availability to other research and educational organizations. Previously, only specific communities in computer science had limited access to networks such as CSNET, BITNET, and ARPANET, so the introduction of the NSFNET backbone represented a significant development in creating a unified and more comprehensive network infrastructure. By combining high-speed networking and connection between the supercomputing centers and regional networks, NSF created a "network of networks" that served as the focal point of nationwide networking during a critical period of pivotal development and that laid the foundation for today's Internet. 5. The most fateful policy choice in the Internet's history was the Clinton administration's decision to place the web in private hands and open it to commercial enterprise.

Transistor

1. The transistor, invented by three scientists at the Bell Laboratories in 1947, rapidly replaced the vacuum tube as an electronic signal regulator. A transistor regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for electronic signals. 2. Transistors are the basic elements in integrated circuits (ICs), which consist of very large numbers of transistors interconnected with circuitry and baked into a single silicon microchip or "chip."

Reputation systems/ trust systems

ICANN

1. To reach another person on the Internet you have to type an address into your computer -- a name or a number. That address must be unique so computers know where to find each other. ICANN coordinates these unique identifiers across the world. Without that coordination, we wouldn't have one global Internet. 2. In more technical terms, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) coordinates the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) functions, which are key technical services critical to the continued operations of the Internet's underlying address book, the Domain Name System (DNS). The IANA functions include: (1) the coordination of the assignment of technical protocol parameters including the management of the address and routing parameter area (ARPA) top-level domain; (2) the administration of certain responsibilities associated with Internet DNS root zone management such as generic (gTLD) and country code (ccTLD) Top-Level Domains; (3) the allocation of Internet numbering resources; and (4) other services. ICANN performs the IANA functions under a U.S. Government contract.

Trusted systems

1. Trusted systems are systems that can be trusted by outsiders against the people who use them. In the consumer information technology context, such systems are typically described as "copyright management" or "rights management" systems, although such terminology is loaded. 2. As critics have been quick to point out, the protections afforded by these systems need not bear any particular relationship to the rights granted under, say, U.S. copyright law. Rather, the possible technological restrictions on what a user may do are determined by the architects themselves and thus may (and often do) prohibit many otherwise legal uses. An electronic book accessed through a rights management system might, for example, have a limitation on the number of times it can be printed out, and should the user figure out how to print it without regard to the limitation, no fair use defense would be available. Similarly, libraries that subscribe to electronic material delivered through copyright management systems may find themselves technologically incapable of lending out that material the way a traditional library lends out a book, even though the act of lending is a privilege - a defense to copyright infringement for unlawful "distribution" - under the first sale doctrine

"Network Neutrality and Quality of Service: What a Non-Discrimination Rule Should Look Like" by Barbara Van Schewick

1. Van Schewick makes the case for net neutrality regulations 2. Over the past ten years, the debate over "network neutrality" has remained one of the central debates in Internet policy. Governments all over the world, including the United States, the European Union, the United Kingdom, France and Germany, have been investigating whether legislative or regulatory action is needed to limit the ability of providers of Internet access services to interfere with the applications, content and services on their networks.Beyond rules that forbid network providers from blocking applications, content and services, non-discrimination rules are a key component of any network neutrality regime. Nondiscrimination rules apply to any form of differential treatment that falls short of blocking. Policy makers who consider adopting network neutrality rules need to decide which, if any, forms of differential treatment should be banned. Network neutrality proponents generally agree that network neutrality rules should preserve the Internet's ability to serve as an open, genera lpurpose infrastructure that provides value to society over time in various economic and noneconomic ways. There is, however, a lot of uncertainty on how to get from a high-level commitment to network neutrality to a specific set of rules. The decision for a non-discrimination rule has important implications: Non-discrimination rules affect how the core of the network can evolve, how network providers can manage their networks, and whether they can offer Quality of Service. Often, it is not immediately apparent how a specific non-discrimination rule affects network providers' ability to offer Quality of Service. At the same time, it is unclear which forms of Quality of Service, if any, a network neutrality regime should allow. This paper proposes a framework that policy makers and others can use to choose among different options for network neutrality rules and uses this framework to evaluate existing proposals for non-discrimination rules and the non-discrimination rule adopted by the FCC in its Open Internet Order. In the process, it explains how the different non-discrimination rules affect network providers' ability to offer Quality of Service and which forms of Quality of Service, if any, a non-discrimination rule should allow.

"Reputation Formation and the Evolution of Cooperation in Anonymous Online Markets" by Andreas Diekmann, Ben Jann, Wojtek Przepiorka and Stefan Wehrli

1. What are the secrets of online business? 2. There are several: another ingredient in many systems, especially auctions, is trust and reputation (Diekmann et al. 2014) 3. Theoretical propositions stressing the importance of trust, reciprocity, and reputation for cooperation in social exchange relations are deeply rooted in classical sociological thought. Today's online markets provide a unique opportunity to test these theories using unobtrusive data. Our study investigates the mechanisms promoting cooperation in an online-auction market where most transactions can be conceived as one-time-only exchanges.using a large dataset comprising 14,627 mobile phone auctions and 339,517 DVD auctions, our statistical analyses show that sellers with better reputations have higher sales and obtain higher prices. Furthermore, we observe a high rate of participation in the feedback system, which is largely consistent with strong reciprocity—a predisposition to unconditionally reward (or punish) one's interaction partner's cooperation (or defection)—and altruism—a predisposition to increase one's own utility by elevating an interaction partner's utility. Our study demonstrates how strong reciprocity and altruism can mitigate the free-rider problem in the feedback system to create reputational incentives for mutually beneficial online trade.

"The Economics of Giving it Away" by Chris Anderson

1. What are the secrets of online business? 2. There are several: giving things away for free (Anderson 2009) is a major tool. (Google provides free search, Facebook gives you a social network and tools to reach it; Pandora provides music while Spotify provides music and network services.) Another important element of many models is making users work for free, either producing value directly (Facebook) or through recommendation systems (Yelp, Amazon, eBay)

"Reachability"

1. When a directed graph is not strongly connected, it's important to be able to describe its reachability properties: identifying which nodes are "reachable" from which others using paths. 2. To define this notion precisely, it's again useful to draw an analogy to the simpler case of undirected graphs, and try to start from there. 3. For an undirected graph, its connected components serve as a very effective summary of reachability: if two nodes belong to the same component, then they can reach each other by paths; and if two nodes belong to different components then they can't. 4. All nodes within a strongly connected component can reach each other, and strongly connected components correspond as much as possible to separate "pieces," not smaller portions of larger pieces.

Two ways in which the Internet is a network (physical and hyperlinked)

1. When most people think of the Internet, the first thing they think about is the World Wide Web. Nowadays, the terms "Internet" and "World Wide Web" are often used interchangeably—but they're actually not the same thing. 2. The Internet is the physical network of computers all over the world. 3. The World Wide Web is a virtual network of websites connected by hyperlinks (or "links"). Websites are stored on servers on the Internet, so the World Wide Web is a part of the Internet.

Automatic updating

1. With automatic updating, the computer regularly checks - typically daily- for updates from the OS publisher and from the makers of any software installed on the PC. 2. With automatic updating, the OS and attendant applications become services rather than products. 3. Automatic updating works in concert with appliancization, allowing manufacturers to see when their software has been hacked or altered- and to shut down or reinstall the original OS when they have.

"Innovations in the Internet's Architecture that Challenge the Status Quo" by Christopher Yoo

1. aA paper by Yoo, a leading opponent of net neutrality, that provides a history of peering 2. The network no longer adheres to the rigid and uniform hierarchy that characterized the early Internet and its predecessor, the NSFNET. Packets can now travel along radically different paths based on the topology of the portion of the network through which they travel. This is the inevitable result of reducing costs and experimenting with new structures. At the same time that network providers are experimenting with new topologies, they are also experimenting with new business relationships. Gone are the days when networks interconnected through peering and transit and imposed allyou-can eat pricing on all end users. That fairly simple and uniform set of contractual arrangements has been replaced by a much more complex set of business relationships that reflect creative solutions to an increasingly complex set of economic problems. Again, these differences mean that the service that any particular packet receives and the amount that it pays will vary with the business relationships between the networks through which it travels. Although many observers reflexively view such deviations from the status quo with suspicion, in many (if not most) cases, they represent nothing more than the natural evolution of a network trying to respond to an ever-growing diversity of customer demands. Imposing regulation that would thwart such developments threaten to increase costs and discourage investment in ways that ultimately work to the detriment of the consumers that such regulation is ostensibly designed to protect.

"Bow-tie structure of the web"

1. the Web contains a giant strongly connected component 2. IN: nodes that can reach the giant SCC but cannot be reached from it — i.e., nodes that are "upstream" of it. 3. OUT: nodes that can be reached from the giant SCC but cannot reach it — i.e., nodes are "downstream" of it. 4. The "tendrils" of the bow-tie consist of (a) the nodes reachable from IN that cannot reach the giant SCC, and (b) the nodes that can reach OUT but cannot be reached from the giant SCC. 5. Disconnected: Finally, there are nodes that would not have a path to the giant SCC even if we completely ignored the directions of the edges. These belong to none of the preceding categories. 6. The bow-tie picture of the Web provides a high-level view of the Web's structure, based on its reachability properties and how its strongly connected components fit together. From it, we see that the Web contains a central "core" containing many of its most prominent pages, with many other nodes that lie upstream, downstream, or "off to the side" relative to this core. It is also a highly dynamic picture: as people create pages and links, the constituent pieces of the bow-tie are constantly shifting their boundaries, with nodes entering (and also leaving) the giant SCC over time. But subsequent studies suggest that the aggregate picture remains relatively stable over time, even as the detailed structure changes continuously.

"The long tail"

Network externalities

A network has positive externalities if the value of that network increases as a function of the number of persons (or nodes of any kind) that it includes.

"Issue domain"

A set of policies that 1. are linked by common values, interests and stakeholders; and 2. choices about each have implications for choices about the others Key Issue Domains: •Regulation of Markets •Intellectual Property •Equality and Access •Security •Privacy •Freedom of Expression •Governance •Sovereignty •eGovernment •Social Media

Memory

Computer memory: device that is used to store data or programs (sequences of instructions) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in an electronic digital computer. Computers represent information in binary code, written as sequences of 0s and 1s. Each binary digit (or "bit") may be stored by any physical system that can be in either of two stable states, to represent 0 and 1. Such a system is called bistable. This could be an on-off switch, an electrical capacitor that can store or lose a charge, a magnet with its polarity up or down, or a surface that can have a pit or not. Today capacitors and transistors, functioning as tiny electrical switches, are used for temporary storage, and either disks or tape with a magnetic coating, or plastic discs with patterns of pits are used for long-term storage.

Internet registries

3 characteristics of Web 2.0 (E&K citing Tim O'Reilly): (a) collective creation and maintenance of web content; (b) movement of people's personal online data from own computers to the cloud; (c) "growth of linking styles that emphasize online connections between people, not just between documents."

The increasing richness of Web content, which we've encountered through the distinction between navigational and transactional links, fueled a series of further significant changes in the Web during its second decade of existence, between 2000 and 2009. Three major forces behind these changes were (i) the growth of Web authoring styles that enabled many people to collectively create and maintain shared content; (ii) the movement of people's personal on-line data (including e-mail, calendars, photos, and videos) from their own computers to services offered and hosted by large companies; and (iii) the growth of linking styles that emphasize on-line connections between people, not just between documents. Taken together, this set of changes altered user experience on the Web sufficiently that technologists led by Tim O'Reilly and others began speaking in 2004 and 2005 about the emergence of Web 2.0

"Preserving the Open Internet" by Federal Communications Commission

This Report and Order establishes protections for broadband service to preserve and reinforce Internet freedom and openness. The Commission adopts three basic protections that are grounded in broadly accepted Internet norms, as well as our own prior decisions. 1. First, transparency: fixed and mobile broadband providers must disclose the network management practices, performance characteristics, and commercial terms of their broadband services. 2. Second, no blocking: fixed broadband providers may not block lawful content, applications, services, or non-harmful devices; mobile broadband providers may not block lawful Web sites, or block applications that compete with their voice or video telephony services. 3. Third, no unreasonable discrimination: fixed broadband providers may not unreasonably discriminate in transmitting lawful network traffic. These rules, applied with the complementary principle of reasonable network management, ensure that the freedom and openness that have enabled the Internet to flourish as an engine for creativity and commerce will continue. This framework thus provides greater certainty and predictability to consumers, innovators, investors, and broadband providers, as well as the flexibility providers need to effectively manage their networks. The framework promotes a virtuous circle of innovation and investment in which new uses of the network—including new content, applications, services, and devices—lead to increased end-user demand for broadband, which drives network improvements that in turn lead to further innovative network uses.

Findings of research on cooperation (Diekmann et al.)

eBay's Dilemma (Diekmann et al.) 1.Enable buyers to establish phenomenological trust - to view site as legitimate and to default to trusting the competence and good will of the people who ran the site. 2.Enable buyers to "distinguish between trustworthy and non-trustworthy sellers" when they can't talk to seller or see goods 3.Encourage sellers to be trustworthy (secured trust) 4.Drive out untrustworthy sellers. Solutions 1. Did it work? A. Diekmann et al. >2/3 of buyers gave feedback and B. Positive feedback increased chance of sale (for new phones & DVDs) and also increases the price commanded for the same item 2. Issues A. Reciprocal or one-way? B. Problems of vengeance, perfidy, and identity? C. How much information?

Brand X case

"Diffuse interests" vs. "concentrated interests" in the policy process

•Majorities often have less at stake than minorities ("diffuse interests" vs. "concentrated interests") •Majorities are harder to organize than small minorities •Organizations, not people, influence policy - mobilization is everything •"Money is the mother's milk of politics" - Jesse Unruh, 1966 •People vote for packages and personalities --- very few issues determine many people's votes... NB: It is common wisdom among those studying political influence is that diffuse interests are rarely well represented in the political process. Interests such as consumers, senior citizens, good government advocates, and women are spread widely throughout society and encompass diverse type of individuals with differing legislative priorities. Therefore, it is an extreme organizational and political challenge to mobilize any of these groups to compete effectively with narrow specialized interests in achieving legislative objectives

"Affordances" of technology vs. determinism

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