040 - Chapter 40 - Political Ideologies and Philosophy

John Locke (1632-1704)

1. English philosopher who wrote "The Second Treatise of Government" 2. Viewed humans as basically rational beings who learn from experience 3. Formulated the theory of natural rights, arguing that people are born with basic rights to "life, liberty, and property" 4. Insisted that governments are formed to protect natural rights 5. Stated that the governed have a right to rebel against rulers who violate natural rights

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

1. Enlightened thinker best known for writing "The Social Contract" and "Emile" 2. Believed that since "law is the expression of the general will," the state is based on a social contract 3. Emphasized the education of the whole person for citizenship 4. Rejected excessive rationalism and stressed emotions, thus anticipating the romantic movement Rousseau, whose philosophy was instrumental in the French Revolution, had a more optimistic view of human nature than Hobbes.

Karl Marx

1818-1883. 19th-century philosopher, political economist, sociologist, humanist, political theorist, and revolutionary. Often recognized as the father of communism. Analysis of history led to his belief that communism would replace capitalism as it replaced feudalism. Believed in a classless society. German philosopher who wrote The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital;

How many waves of feminism has there been?

3 {Explanation - There have been three waves. The current wave is the third wave. The first wave commenced in the late 19th Century and the second wave in the 1960s.}

For Thomas Aquinas, what was a natural law?

A human inclination which could be ignored, but shouldn't be.

Enlightenment

A movement in the 18th century that advocated the use of reason in the reappraisal of accepted ideas and social institutions.

What's the best explanation of liberalism?

A set of political and economic philosophies that centers around core values of liberty, equality, economic freedom, the rule of law, and limited and democratic government {Explanation - Remember that in the world of political thought, the term liberal means something different than affiliation with a democratic party or progressives.}

What's the best explanation of political ideology?

A set of related beliefs about political theory and policy {Explanation - Political ideology is a set of beliefs that relate to each other and help form the basis for one's view of politics and policy.}

What's the best explanation of communism?

A social and economic philosophy that seeks to create equality by the elimination of private property. {Explanation - Communism is not against democracy and in fact advocates for democratic decision-making. It does, however, believe that private ownership of property creates inequality and oppression and is therefore hostile to it and capitalism.}

Which of the following is the best explanation of socialism?

A social and economic philosophy that seeks to reduce inequality through creating a more equal distribution of society's resources {Explanation - Socialism does not necessarily lead to the end of private property or the complete nationalization of industry.}

Socialism

A system in which society, usually in the form of the government, owns and controls the means of production. Citizens and private groups are able to own a part of the economy that generates profit. However, the theory proposes that in the socialist model, the sharing of wealth will be so abundant that citizens will not feel a need for private ownership.

Communism

A theory or system of social organization based on the holding of all property in common, actual ownership being ascribed to the community as a whole or to the state. Citizens and private groups are not able to own a part of the economy that generates profit. There is no such thing as private industry in a communist society. All industry is communally owned and controlled and distributed by a central government.

What is the best definition of a philosopher king?

A wise but also moral leader who leads a society for the best interest of the society. {Explanation - A philosopher king is someone that rules society with the best interests of society in mind.}

Which of the following statements would be INCORRECT?

ALL INCORRECT: Communism is an undemocratic theory Socialism is incompatible with democratic governance Socialism cannot function in a capitalistic environment Communism requires an authoritarian government structure {Explanation - All of these answers are INCORRECT statements regarding socialism and communism}

Which of the following statements about socialism are TRUE?

ALL TRUE: - A large role for government - Public ownership of resources - A comprehensive social service program - Compatibility with democratic governance

Just War (Aquinas)

According to Aquinas, war was only just if it: Was authorized by a legitimate political authority Sought to achieve a common good, rather than personal gain Was intended to ultimately create greater peace

Which of the following statements is incorrect?

Communism is an undemocratic theory Communism requires an authoritarian government structure Socialism is incompatible with democratic governance Socialism cannot function in a capitalistic environment {Explanation - All of these answers are incorrect statements regarding socialism and communism}

Liberal feminism

generally considered to be within the mainstream. Liberal feminism concedes that there are differences between men and women but argues that men and women should have equal social, political and economic opportunities.

Thomas Hobbes

held a dark view of humans, which was likely influenced by the chaotic political events he witnessed in England during his life. Hobbes believed that in nature, individuals had to do whatever was necessary to survive. But he also believed that people were still likely to fight with each other for three reasons: competition, distrust, and glory.

Many thinkers who argue social contract theory is flawed believe that

individuals are often selfish and incapable of compromising.

Liberalism

one of the major political ideologies of the world. It focuses on individualism, self-reliance, personal responsibility, equality before the law, and limited government. You should understand that liberalism encompasses both American-style liberalism and American-style conservatism.

Locke's view of government was ultimately based upon his desire to:

protect natural rights and the contract formed between the government and the people;

social contracts

provide the framework for how people and governments interact.

Socialists

see the state as a means of helping people develop and have no problem with the state owning a large share of a society's resources in order to accomplish this through providing social services, including such things as retirement pensions, health care, unemployment compensation and free higher education.

Harm Principle (John Stuart Mill)

the actions of individuals should only be limited to prevent harm to other individuals;

City of God

the first systematic Christian philosophy of history

eternal laws

they could not be disobeyed because they were not a matter of choice: they were instinct;

Nordic Model of Socialism

utilized in some Scandinavian countries and blends the economics of capitalism with the values of socialism. This model works well because of a social partnership between workers and employers. There are certain guidelines in terms of unions and legislations that were created and agreed upon by both parties of the labor Nordic model. There are high levels of social safety, strong property rights, and low levels of corruption in the societies that use this model, but there are high personal taxes.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

was the one to really bring Aristotelian philosophy in line with Christian teachings, emphasizing that all things have a divine nature, purpose, or essence which was evident through natural inclinations; Wrote Summa Theologica

Thomas Hobbes believed human beings:

would always fight, no matter the circumstances

Examples of Socialist Countries

Cuba's original capitalist model, with support from the U.S., fell to Fidel Castro in 1959 with the ideology of revolution toward ''human progress.'' However, after implementing a centralized government that controls all aspects of production and civilian life, the country's policy looked more like communism. China was a socialist society in 1978, but its ultimate goal was to transition to communism. The idea was to create a society that utilized market socialism and the market economy is strong. However, the market is still run and interfered with primarily by the state. The inequality among Chinese citizens is stark and its classification of a socialist society is incorrect.

Of the philosophers discussed, who made the case that all individuals were equal and that social contracts were unnecessary?

David Hume

Liberals

believe in relatively limited government and governmental regulation. Property should be held privately and the government should leave economic activity pretty much alone. He's suspicious of government and wants it organized in a way to prevent abuse of its power.

In basic social contract theory terms, nature is:

brutal and dangerous

Marxist feminism

combines feminism with Marxism and argues that the inequality and oppression of women stem from capitalism and its system of private property.

St. Augustine of Hippo

a bishop in Roman Algeria, who lived from 354 to 430 CE. St. Augustine was not a strict political theorist; what we have on his political ideas was taken from larger writings but mostly revolves around the concept of the Two Cities.

Feminism

a group of social theories, moral philosophies and related political movements that advocates social, political and economic equality between the sexes.

Conservatism

a political ideology that values the creation and maintenance of stable societies based upon a hierarchy of power lodged in a traditional class of leaders and deep respect for traditional values and institutions. Conservatism isn't suspicious of the power of the state nor does it seek to limit its power. Traditional institutions, such as government and religion, along with traditional values are to be respected. Consequently, conservatism is suspicious of change, and if a change is required, it seeks an evolutionary approach rather than a revolutionary approach.

Industrial capitalism

an economic system in which business leaders use profits to expand their companies; describes a system of ownership where means of industrial production, and its capital, are owned privately by a certain number of elite individuals.

Socialist feminism

argues for the end of capitalist patriarchy, which it believes will reduce oppression and exploitation based not just upon sex but also race, age and religion.

Radical feminism

argues that men and the dominant patriarchal, or male dominated, society oppress women.

Which one of these is an example of the influence of a philosopher king concept on modern-day government?

Giving the President certain powers, such as vetoing and negotiating on behalf of the country (even if needing ultimate legislative approval); {Explanation - While we do not have a monarchy in the United States, we also do not have a complete lack of an executive.}

What did Plato believe about democracy?

He believed it would lead to mob rule; {Explanation - Like Socrates, Plato believed democracy would ultimately lead to mob rule, its own form of tyranny.}

Downsides of Socialism

Higher taxes to support socialist programs Economic growth can be slow Potential for a lack of motivation due to no competitive drive Fewer entrepreneurial opportunities Hinders private business expansion and development

Which of the following is INCORRECT about conservatism?

INCORRECT: It fears government power. {Explanation - Conservatism is not suspicious of state power. It views the State as an institution that helps conserve the traditions and values of society.}

Which of the following is INCORRECT about liberalism?

INCORRECT: It's a unified movement with no dissension {Explanation - Liberalism is a broad movement and a set of different theories. Conflict does exist within the school of thought. For example, the legitimacy of the concept of positive rights permitting government intervention to correct perceived social problems is the subject of a major divide between liberals.}

Which of the following is INCORRECT about liberalism?

INCORRECT: It's a unified movement with no dissension. {Explanation - Liberalism is a broad movement and a set of different theories. Conflict does exist within the school of thought. For example, the legitimacy of the concept of positive rights permitting government intervention to correct perceived social problems is the subject of a major divide between liberals.}

rule of law

No one is above the law; a proposition that law should not be arbitrary and must be applied fairly to all.

social contract theory

The belief that people are free and equal by natural right, and that this in turn requires that all people give their consent to be governed; espoused by John Locke and influential in the writing of the declaration of independence.

What concept defined St. Augustine's political worldviews?

The belief that the world is imperfect.

the modern feminist movement can be broken down into three distinct waves:

The first wave was from the 19th to early 20th-century and was focused primarily on basic political, social and economic rights, including the right to vote, education, private property and marriage reform. The second wave commenced in the 1960s and added reproductive rights to the movement's goals. The third wave is the current manifestation of the feminist movement, characterized by diffused interests pursued by different groups at the grassroots level.

Natural Laws/Rights

An ethical system that judges the morality of an action based on how well it adheres to broadly accepted rules, regardless of the action's actual consequences.

Earthly City

Augustine contrasts the City of God

Which of the following characteristics is common to both socialism and communism?

Both seek to lessen inequality {Explanation - Both communism and socialism seek to eliminate socioeconomic inequality. Social democratic systems actually work within capitalism by providing comprehensive social welfare programs financed through taxation.}

Market Socialism

Capital is communally owned, but distribution is based on the rules of the market, such as product, labor, capital. This is an example of a socialist model that is compatible with democratic governances.

What's an alternative term that can be used to define traditional American conservative ideology?

Classical liberalism {Explanation - Most American conservatives identify with an ideology known as classical liberalism, the ideology of the Founding Fathers of the United States, which values individual liberty and securing it through limited government.}

Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)

Collaborator with Karl Marx. Engels was a textile factory owner and supplied Marx with the hard data for his economic writings, most notably Das Kapital (l867).

Conservatism can be traced back to which of the following?

Edmund Burke {Explanation - We can trace modern conservatism to British philosopher Edmund Burke and his book "Reflections on the Revolution in France."}

Socialism and liberalism have which of the following in common?

Equality before the law {Explanation - Both systems stress the importance of equality before the law. They do differ on the degree of help individuals should receive in pursuing their individual development with socialism advocating more assistance from the community and liberalism focusing on self-reliance.}

Why is political ideology important to understand?

It's a major factor in policy development {Explanation - Political ideologies are beliefs and values that help shape an individual's view about appropriate and inappropriate government action. For example, if you believe in individual self-reliance, then you will tend to be hostile to expansive public services as contrary to your ideology.}

Both Thomas Aquinas and St. Augustine believed strongly in which concept?

Justice

Which of the following form of feminism is generally considered to be within 'the mainstream?'

Liberal feminism {Explanation - Liberal feminism is generally considered to be in the mainstream and is characterized by a focus on seeking equal rights within the context of established society and institutions.}

What is a dominant ideology in the United States?

Liberalism {Explanation - Remember that so-called liberals and conservatives in the United States both adhere to liberalism.}

Which philosopher is often considered the author of the first book on liberalism?

Locke {Explanation - Locke's "Two Treatises of Government" is considered by many to be the foundational text of liberalism.}

contractual theory of government

Locke's contractual theory of government outlines his ideal for a modern society. People had to willingly do things like pay taxes and serve in the military, but in return, the government had to listen to their desires and provide for their needs. Locke challenged the idea that a king was to rule unquestioned.

Which of the following is a major thinker in communism?

Marx and Engels {Explanation - Marx and Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto.}

Which of the following is NOT true about the influence of conservatism in the West today?

NOT: It's the dominant ideology in all Western democracies. {Explanation - While the conservatism articulated by Burke is not the dominant ideology today, some of its core values, such as a respect for traditional values and suspicion of change, sometimes act as a counterbalancing force to liberal movements. We can see this in the United States on issues such as abortion rights and gay marriage; conservatism, especially in terms of the use of military force may also have an impact on foreign policy.}

For both St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, which of the following actions was NOT morally just?

NOT: Letting violence occur by refusing to act violently

American style conservatives will tend to disagree with conservatism as described in the lesson on which of the following issues?

The legitimate scope of government power; {Explanation - Unlike the political theory of conservatism espoused by Burke, American conservatives usually have a deep distrust of government and seek to limit it to protecting the individual rights of citizens.}

What is a cause of tension and conflict between liberals today?

Positive rights {Explanation - While all liberals support the notion of negative rights - the right to be left alone and not be coerced by others, especially the government, liberals disagree on the appropriateness of positive rights, which is the right for others to receive help from a government to achieve the ends of liberty and other core values of liberalism.}

Which type of feminism argues that the biggest causes of female oppression are men and institutional patriarchy?

Radical feminism {Explanation - This is a characteristic of radical feminism that believes that patriarchal society must be overthrown before women can free themselves from oppression and gain equality.}

Which of the following made a pivotal contribution to the economic theory behind liberal thought?

Smith {Explanation - Adam Smith and his work 'The Wealth of Nation' argued that free and competitive markets are the best way for society to create economic growth and prosperity. This became a major tenet of liberalism.}

green socialism

Socialism that aims to invoke green politics, which looks at creating an ecologically sustainable society, because the belief is that capitalism contributes to the destruction of the plant.

Democratic Socialism

Socialism that believes its goals can be met through democratic processes and the state owns some of the economic industry.

libertarian socialism

Socialism that strongly rejects notions of governmental control and citizens are meant to be liberated from all control.

Utopian Socialism

Socialism with utilization of local co-operatives to have capitalists relinquish control to the people of the market.

Which type of feminism draws from both Marxism and radical feminism?

Socialist feminism {Explanation - Socialist feminism takes elements from both radical feminism, with its focus on the problems of patriarchy, and Marxism, with its focus on problems of capitalism.}

The 'Big Three Philosophers' - Aristotle, Socrates and Plato - were connected how?

Socrates taught Plato and Plato taught Aristotle {Explanation - Because Socrates taught Plato who then taught Aristotle, while each of these philosophers have differences in their teachings, some of their ideas were most probably influenced by the previous teachers.}

What was the role of St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas in formulating just war theory?

St. Augustine introduced the idea, but Thomas Aquinas defined it

What is deductive reasoning?

Starting with general statements and building up to a conclusion; {Explanation - Deductive reasoning starts with smaller statements and builds up to a conclusion. For example, 'All construction workers wear hard hats, Bill is a construction worker, therefore Bill wears a hard hat.'}

American Conservatism

Support for the US constitution, classical Liberal institutions, especially limited government and separation of church and state; preserve values relating to family and public morality. There are unintended consequences of major changes.

Christian Socialism

The Bible is used to blend socialism and Christianity because capitalist tendencies can be considered anti-Christian.