17. Religion

Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives on Religion

Religion may serve as a reference group for many people, but because of race, class, and gender, people may experience it differently.

Rabbi

a teacher or ordained interpreter and leader of Judaism.

Profane

the everyday, secular, or "worldly" aspects of life that we know through our senses.

Collective Representations

group-held meanings that express something important about the group itself.

Sacred Trinity

the Christian belief of "God the Three in One," comprising God the Father, Jesus the Son, and the Holy Spirit—a presence that lives within those who have accepted Jesus as savior.

Sacred

those aspects of life that exist beyond the everyday, natural world that we cannot experience with our senses in other words, those things that are set apart as "holy." People feel a sense of awe, reverence, deep respect, or fear for that which is considered sacred. Across cultures and in different eras, many things have been considered sacred, including invisible gods, spirits, specific animals or trees, altars, crosses, holy books, and special words or songs that only the initiated could speak or sing.

Monotheism

a belief in a single, supreme being or god who is responsible for significant events such as the creation of the world. Three of the major world religions—Christianity, Judaism, and Islam—are monotheistic.

Five Types of Religious Organizations

1. Ecclesia 2. Church 3. Sect 4. Denomination 5. Cult

Four Books of Torah

1. Exodus 2. Leviticus 3. Numbers 4. Deuteronomy The Torah, also known as the Pentateuch, is the sacred book of contemporary Judaism.

Three Key Components of Judaisim

1. God (the deity) 2. Torah (God's teachings) 3. Israel (the community or holy nation)

Major World Religions

1. Hinduism 2. Buddhism 3. Confucianism 4. Judaism 5. Islam (Muslims) 6. Christianity

Three Important Function of Religions

1. Meaning and Purpose 2. Social Cohesion and a Sense of Belonging 3. Social Control and Support for the Government

Cults (New Religious Movements)

(or NRM) is a loosely organized religious group with practices and teachings outside the dominant cultural and religious traditions of a society. Because the term cult has assumed a negative and sometimes offensive meaning because of the beliefs and actions of a few highly publicized cults, some researchers now use the term new religious movement (NRM) and point out that a number of major world religions (including Judaism, Islam, and Christianity) and some denominations (such as the Mormons) started as cults. Also, most cults or NRMs do not exhibit the bizarre behavior or have the unfortunate ending that a few notorious groups have had in the past.

Religion and Social Meaning

Religion provides social meaning for individuals as they learn about beliefs, rituals, and religious ideas from others. This learning process contributes to personal identity, which, in turn, helps people adjust to their surroundings.

Polytheism

a belief in more than one god.

Ethical Religion

a system of beliefs that calls upon adherents to follow an ideal way of life.

Karl Marx on Religion

For Marx,ideologies—systematic views of the way the world ought to be—are embodied in religious doctrines and political values. These ideologies serve to justify the status quo and restrict social change. The capitalist class uses religious ideology as a tool of domination to mislead the workers about their true interests. For this reason, Marx wrote his now-famous statement that religion is the "opiate of the masses." People become complacent because they have been taught to believe in an afterlife in which they will be rewarded for their suffering and misery in this life. Although these religious teachings soothe the masses' distress, any relief is illusory. According to Marx, religion unites people in a "false consciousness" that they share common interests with members of the dominant class.

Buddhism

In the second decade of the twenty-first century, research suggests that there are about 488 million Buddhists worldwide who reside primarily in Asia and the Pacific, especially China, Thailand, and Japan (Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, 2012a). However, when Buddhism first emerged in India some twenty-five hundred years ago, it was thought of as a "new religious movement," arising as it did around the sixth century B.C.E., after many earlier religions had become virtually defunct. Buddhism's founder, Siddhartha Gautama of the Sakyas (also known as Gautama Buddha), was born about 563 B.C.E. into the privileged caste. His father was King Suddhodana (who was more like a feudal lord than a king because many kingdoms existed on the Indian subcontinent during that era)..

Feminist Perspectives on Religion

Like other approaches in the conflict tradition, feminist perspectives focus on the relationship between religion and women's inequality. Some feminist perspectives highlight the patriarchal nature of religion and seek to reform religious language, symbols, and rituals to eliminate elements of patriarchy. As you will recall, patriarchy refers to a hierarchical system of social organization that is controlled by men. In virtually all religions, male members predominate in positions of power in the religious hierarchy, and women play subordinate roles in the hierarchy and in everyday life.

Orthodox Judaism

Orthodox Judaism follows the traditional practices and teachings, including eating only kosher foods prepared in a designated way, observing the traditional Sabbath, segregating women and men in religious services, and wearing traditional clothing.

Reform Judaism

Reform Judaism, which began in Germany in the nineteenth century, is based on the belief that the Torah is binding only in its moral teachings and that adherents should no longer be required to follow all of the Talmud, the compilation of Jewish law setting forth the strict rabbinic teachings on practices such as food preparation, rituals, and dress. In some Reform congregations, gender-segregated seating is no longer required. In the United States, services are conducted almost entirely in English, a Sunday Sabbath is observed, and less emphasis is placed on traditional Jewish holidays.

World's Populations of Hindus

Since the 1960s, the number of Hindus in North America has increased significantly, particularly as Asian Indian immigration grew rapidly in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Today, approximately 2.3 million Hindus reside in North America. In the United States, nearly half of all Asian Indian immigrants reside in California, New Jersey, New York, and Texas—also the states with the largest number of Hindu temples

Church

is a large, bureaucratically organized religious organization that tends to seek accommodation with the larger society in order to maintain some degree of control over it. Church membership is largely based on birth; typically, children of church members are baptized as infants and become lifelong members of the church. Older children and adults may choose to join the church, but they are required to go through an extensive training program that culminates in a ceremony similar to the one that infants go through. Churches have a bureaucratic structure, and leadership is hierarchically arranged. Usually, the clergy have many years of formal education. Churches have very restrained services that appeal to the intellect rather than the emotions. Religious services are highly ritualized; they are led by clergy who wear robes, enter and exit in a formal processional, administer sacraments, and read services from a prayer book or other standardized liturgical format. The Lutheran church and the Episcopal church are two examples.

Sects

is a relatively small religious group that has broken away from another religious organization to renew what it views as the original version of the faith. Unlike churches, sects offer members a more personal religion and an intimate relationship with a supreme being, depicted as taking an active interest in the individual's everyday life. Sects have informal prayers composed at the time they are given, whereas churches use formalized prayers, often from a prayer book.

Rituals

regularly repeated and carefully prescribed forms of behaviors that symbolize a cherished value or belief. Rituals range from songs and prayers to offerings and sacrifices that worship or praise a supernatural being, an ideal, or a set of supernatural principles.

Prosperity Gospel

which is based on the assumption that if you give your money to God, He will bless you with more money and other material possessions (such as a larger house and a luxury vehicle) that you desire. Several megachurches, including Joel Osteen's Lakewood in Houston, T. D. Jakes's Potter's House in south Dallas, and Creflo Dollar's World Changers near Atlanta, are partly based on teaching that suggests God wants people to be prosperous if they are "right" with Him.

Important Jewish Holidays

1. Rosh Hashanah (New Year) 2. Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) 3. Hanukkah (Festival of Lights) 4. Pesach (Passover)

Three Branches of Buddhism

1. Theravadin Buddhism 2. Mahayana Buddhism 3. Vajrayana Buddhism

Hinduism

We begin with Hinduism because it is believed to be one of the world's oldest current religions, having originated along the banks of the Indus River in Pakistan between 3,500 and 4,500 years ago. Hinduism began before written records were kept, so modern scholars have only limited information about its earliest leaders and their teachings. Hindu beliefs and practices have been preserved through an oral tradition and expressed in texts and hymns known as the Vedas (meaning "knowledge" or "wisdom"); however, this religion does not have a "sacred" book, such as the Judeo-Christian Bible or the Islamic Qur'an. Consequently, Hindu beliefs and practices emerged over the centuries across the subcontinent of India in a variety of forms, reflecting the influence of the various regional cultures. Because Hinduism has no scriptures that are thought to be inspired by a god or gods and is not based on the teachings of any one person, religion scholars refer it as to as an ethical religion.

The Ten Commandments

(or Decalogue), the covenant between God and human beings was given to Moses on top of Mount Sinai. The Ten Commandments and discussions of moral, ceremonial, and cultural laws are contained in four books of the Torah.

US Denominations that Identify as Christian

1. Catholic Church 2. Southern Baptist Convention 3. United Methodist Church 4. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints 5. Church of God in Christ 6. National Baptist Convention U.S.A. 7. Evangelical Lutheran Church in America 8. National Baptist Convention of America (2000) 9. Assemblies of God 10. Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) 11. African Methodist Episcopal Church 12. National Missionary Baptist Convention of America 13. Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod 14. Episcopal Church 15. Churches of Christ 16. Greek Orthodox Church 17. Pentecostal Assemblies 18. African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church 19. American Baptist Churches in the U.S.A. 20. Jehovah's Witnesses 21. United Church of Christ 22. Church of God (Cleveland, Tenn.) 23. Christian Churches/Churches of Christ 24. Seventh-Day Adventist Church 25. Progressive National Baptist

Three Branches of Judaism

1. Orthodox Judaism 2. Reform Judaism 3. Conservative Judaism

Clifford Geertz (1966)

According to him, religion is a set of cultural symbols that establishes powerful and pervasive moods and motivations to help people interpret the meaning of life and establish a direction for their behavior.

World's Population of Judaism

Judaism emerged between 1880 and 1914 with the arrival of many Jewish immigrants in the United States from countries such as Russia, Poland, Romania, and Austria. Seeking freedom and an escape from persecution, these new arrivals settled in major cities such as New York and Chicago, where they primarily became factory workers, artisans, and small shopkeepers.

Four Noble Truths of Buddhism

1. Life is dukkha—physical and mental suffering, pain, or anguish that pervades all human existence. 2. The cause of life's suffering is rooted in tanha—grasping, craving, and coveting. 3. One can overcome tanha and be released into Ultimate Freedom in Perfect Existence (nirvana). 4. Overcoming desire can be accomplished through the Eightfold Path to Nirvana. This path is a way of living that avoids extremes of indulgence and suggests that a person can live in the world but not be worldly. The path's eight steps are right view (proper belief), right intent (renouncing attachment to the world), right speech (not lying, slandering, or using abusive talk), right action (avoiding sexual indulgence), right livelihood (avoiding occupations that do not enhance spiritual advancement), right effort (preventing potential evil from arising), right mindfulness, and right concentration (overcoming sensuous appetites and evil desires).

Five Pillars of Islam

1. believing that there is no god but Allah 2. participating in five periods of prayer each day 3. paying taxes to help support the needy 4. fasting during the daylight hours in the month of Ramadan 5. making at least one pilgrimage to the Sacred House of Allah in Mecca.

Five Constant Relationships of Confucianism

1. ruler-subject 2. husband-wife 3. elder brother-younger brother 4. elder friend-junior friend 5. father-son In each of these pairs, one person is unequal to the other, but each is expected to carry out specific responsibilities to the other. Confucius taught that due authority is not automatic; it must be earned. The subject does not owe loyalty to the ruler or authority figure if that individual does not fulfill his or her end of the bargain.

Randall Collins (1982: 34)

According to him, "In rituals, it is the forms that count. Saying prayers, singing a hymn, performing a primitive sacrifice or a dance, marching in a procession, kneeling before an idol or making the sign of the cross—in these, the action must be done the right way."

Peter Berger (1967)

According to him, these questions are Who am I? Why am I here? How should I live? What happens when I die? Berger suggests that religion provides a system of meaning that connects people to society and provides them with a sense of purpose that transcends the ordinary realm of life.

World's Population of Buddhists

According to most scholars, some branches appeared as early as the 1840s, when Chinese immigrants arrived on the West Coast. Shortly thereafter, temples were erected in San Francisco's Chinatown; however, ethnic Buddhism in the United States expanded after the Civil War when Japanese immigrants arrived first in Hawaii (then a U.S. possession) and a decade later in California. The branch of Pure Land Buddhism brought by the Japanese probably had the greatest chance of succeeding in the United States because it most closely resembled Christianity. Pure Land Buddhism included teachings about God and His son, Jesus, who brought human beings to an eternal life in paradise. Buddhism went through the process of Americanization, which is reflected in the contemporary use of terms such as church, bishop, and Sunday school—terms previously unknown in this religion.

Social Control and Support for the Government

All societies attempt to maintain social control through systems of rewards and punishments. Sacred symbols and beliefs establish powerful, pervasive, long-lasting motivations based on the concept of a general order of existence. In other words, if individuals consider themselves to be part of a larger order that holds the ultimate meaning in life, they will feel bound to one another (and to past and future generations) in a way that might not be possible otherwise. Religion also helps maintain social control in society by conferring supernatural legitimacy on the norms and laws of a society. In some societies, social control occurs as a result of direct collusion between the dominant classes and the dominant religious organizations.

Social Cohesion and a Sense of Belonging

By emphasizing shared symbolism, religious teachings and practices help promote social cohesion. An example is the Christian ritual of communion, which not only commemorates a historical event but also allows followers to participate in the unity ("communion") of themselves with other believers. All religions have some form of shared experience that rekindles the group's consciousness of its own unity.

Hinduism Cont.

Central to Hindu teachings is the belief that individual souls (jivas) enter the world and roam the universe until they break free into the limitless atmosphere of illumination (moska) by discovering their own dharma—duties or responsibilities. According to Hinduism, individual jivas pass through a sequence of bodies over time as they undergo a process known as reincarnation (samsara)—an endless passage through cycles of life, death, and rebirth until the soul earns liberation. The soul's acquisition of each new body is tied to the law of karma (deed or act), which is a doctrine of the moral law of cause and effect. The present condition of the soul—how happy or unhappy it is, for example—is directly related to what it has done in the past, and its present thoughts and decisions are the ultimate determinants of what its future will be. The final goal of Hindu existence is entering the state of nirvana—becoming liberated from the world by uniting the individual soul with the universal soul (Brahma).

Judaism

Central to contemporary Jewish belief is monotheism, the idea of a single god, called Yahweh, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The Hebrew tradition emerged out of the relationship of Abraham and Sarah, a husband and wife, with Yahweh. According to Jewish tradition, the God of the Jews made a covenant with Abraham and Sarah—His chosen people—that He would protect and provide for them if they swore Him love and obedience. When God appeared to Abraham in about the eighteenth century B.C.E., He encouraged Abraham to emigrate to the area near the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea (what is now Israel), leaving behind the ancient fertile crescent of the Middle East (present-day Iraq).

Christianity

Christianity follows the Abrahamic tradition, tracing its roots to Abraham and Sarah. Although Jews and Christians share common scriptures in the portions of the Bible known to Christians as the "Old Testament," they interpret them differently. The Christian teachings in the "New Testament" present a worldview in which the old covenant between God and humans, as found in the Old Testament, is obsolete in light of God's offer of a new covenant to the followers of Jesus, whom Christians believe to be God's only son.

Confucianism

Confucianism—which means the "family of scholars"—started as a school of thought or a tradition of learning before its eventual leader, Confucius, was born (Wei-ming, 1995). Confucius (the Latinized form of K'ung Fu-tzu) lived in China between 551 and 479 B.C.E. and emerged as a teacher at about the same time that the Buddha became a significant figure in India. Confucius—whose sayings are collected in the Analects—taught that people must learn the importance of order in human relationships and must follow a strict code of moral conduct, including respect for others, benevolence, and reciprocity (Kurtz, 1995). A central teaching of Confucius was that humans are by nature good and that they learn best by having an example or a role model. As a result, he created a junzi ("chun-tzu"), or model person, who has such attributes as being upright regardless of outward circumstances, being magnanimous by expressing forgiveness toward others, being directed by internal principles rather than external laws, being sincere in speech and action, and being earnest and benevolent. Confucius wanted to demonstrate these traits, and he believed that he should be a role model for his students. The junzi's behavior is to be based on the Confucian principle of Li, meaning righteousness or propriety, which refers both to ritual and to correct conduct in public. One of the central attributes exhibited by the junzi is ren (jen), which means having deep empathy or compassion for other humans.

Conservative Judaism

Conservative Judaism emerged between 1880 and 1914 with the arrival of many Jewish immigrants in the United States from countries such as Russia, Poland, Romania, and Austria. Seeking freedom and an escape from persecution, these new arrivals settled in major cities such as New York and Chicago, where they primarily became factory workers, artisans, and small shopkeepers. Conservative Judaism, which became a middle ground between Orthodox and Reform Judaism, teaches that the Torah and Talmud must be followed and that Zionism—the movement to establish and maintain a Jewish homeland in Israel—is crucial to the future of Judaism. In Conservative synagogues, worship services are typically performed in Hebrew. Men are expected to wear head coverings, and women have roles of leadership in the congregation; some may become ordained rabbis. Despite centuries of religious hatred and discrimination, Judaism persists as one of the world's most influential religions.

Religion as a Reference Group

For many people, religion serves as a reference group to help them define themselves. For example, religious symbols have meaning for large bodies of people. The Star of David holds special significance for Jews, just as the crescent moon and star do for Muslims and the cross does for Christians. For individuals as well, a symbol may have a certain meaning beyond that shared by the group.

Conflict Perspectives on Religion

From a conflict perspective, religion tends to promote conflict between groups and societies. According to conflict theorists, conflict may be between religious groups (for example, anti-Semitism), within a religious group (for example, when a splinter group leaves an existing denomination), or between a religious group and the larger society (for example, the conflict over religion in the classroom). Conflict theorists assert that in attempting to provide meaning and purpose in life while at the same time promoting the status quo, religion is used by the dominant classes to impose their own control over society and its resources.

Islam (Muslim)

Islam is a religion in the Abrahamic tradition; both religions arose through sons of Abraham—Judaism through Isaac and Islam through Ishmael. Islam, whose followers are known as Muslims, is based on the teachings of its founder, Muhammad, who was born in Mecca (now in Saudi Arabia) in about 570 C.E. According to Muhammad, followers must adhere to the five Pillars of Islam. The Islamic faith is based on the Qur'an—the holy book of the Muslims—as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the Angel Gabriel at the command of God. According to the Qur'an, it is up to God, not humans, to determine which individuals are deserving of punishment and what kinds of violence are justified under various conditions.

Meaning and Purpose

Religion offers meaning for the human experience. Some events create a profound sense of loss on both an individual basis (such as injustice, suffering, or the death of a loved one) and a group basis (such as famine, earthquake, economic depression, or subjugation by an enemy). Inequality may cause people to wonder why their own situation is no better than it is. Most religions offer explanations for these concerns. Explanations may differ from one religion to another, yet each tells the individual or group that life is part of a larger system of order in the universe. Some (but not all) religions even offer hope of an afterlife for persons who follow the religion's tenets of morality in this life. Such beliefs help make injustices easier to endure.

Rational Choice Perspectives on Religion

Religious persons and organizations, interacting within a competitive market framework, offer a variety of religions and religious products to consumers, who shop around for religious theologies, practices, and communities that best suit them.

World's Population of Confucianism

Some analysts place the number at about 6.3 million worldwide. However, it is difficult to provide an accurate answer to this question because some people view Confucianism as a set of ethical teachings rather than as a religion. However, many immigrants from China and Southeast Asia adhere to the teachings of Confucius, although perhaps mixed with those of other great Eastern religious philosophers and teachers. Neo-Confucianism, which emerged on the West Coast, is heavily influenced by Buddhism and Taoism.

Functionalist Perspectives on Religion

The functionalist perspective on religion finds its roots in the works of early sociologist Emile Durkheim, who emphasized that religion is essential to the maintenance of society. He suggested that religion is a cultural universal found in all societies because it meets basic human needs and serves important societal functions.

World's Population of Muslims

The majority (63 percent) of the 1.6 billion adherents worldwide of this religion reside in the Asia-Pacific region. However, the Middle East-North African region has an overwhelmingly Muslim population (93 percent). Other large populations of Muslims are located in Indonesia, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Driven by recent waves of migration and a relatively high rate of conversion, there has been a significant increase in the number of Muslims, making the estimated population in North America about 3.5 million (Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, 2012a). In the United States the states with the largest Muslim populations include California, New York, Illinois, New Jersey, Indiana, Michigan, Virginia, Texas, Ohio, and Maryland. Muslims in the United States have experienced prejudice and discrimination because of fears that Muslims are terrorists.

World's Population of Christians

Today, about half of all Christians are Catholic (50 percent), followed by 37 percent who identify with the Protestant tradition. The largest proportion of the Christian population is found in the Americas (37 percent), followed by Europe (26 percent), sub-Saharan Africa (24 percent), and Asia and the Pacific (13 percent). Although the majority of the world's Christians reside in the Americas and Europe, extensive growth has occurred in the Christian population in sub-Saharan Africa and the Asia-Pacific region over the past century. In the United States the percentage of American adults identifying themselves as Christians dropped from a high of 86 percent in 1990 to 77 percent in 2012.

Max Weber's Response to Marx

Whereas Marx believed that religion restricts social change, Weber argued just the opposite. For Weber, religion could be a catalyst to produce social change. In The Protestant Ethicand the Spirit of Capitalism (1976/1904-1905), Weber asserted that the religious teachings of John Calvin are directly related to the rise of capitalism. Calvin emphasized the doctrine of predestination—the belief that even before they are born, all people are divided into two groups, the saved and the damned, and only God knows who will go to heaven (the elect) and who will go to hell. Because people cannot know whether they will be saved, they tend to look for earthly signs that they are among the elect. According to the Protestant ethic, those who have faith, perform good works, and achieve economic success are more likely to be among the chosen of God. As a result, people work hard, save their money, and do not spend it on worldly frivolity; instead, they reinvest it in their land, equipment, and labor.

Theism

a belief in a god or gods who shape human affairs.

Faith

a confident belief that cannot be proven or disproven but is accepted as true. Religious beliefs require faith because religion provides answers for seemingly unanswerable questions that underlie human existence.

Denominations

a large organized religion characterized by accommodation to society but frequently lacking in ability or intention to dominate society. Denominations have a trained ministry, and although involvement by lay members is encouraged more than in the church, their participation is usually limited to particular activities, such as readings or prayers. Denominations tend to be more tolerant and are less likely than churches to expel or excommunicate members. This form of organization is most likely to thrive in societies characterized by religious pluralism—a situation in which many religious groups exist because they have a special appeal to specific segments of the population. Perhaps because of its diversity, the United States has more denominations than any other nation.

Religion

a social institution composed of a unified system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals—based on some sacred or supernatural realm—that guides human behavior, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into a community. Based on this definition, religion is a stable institution that exists independently from individuals who attend religious services or officials (such as priests, pastors, or other clergy) in the administrative hierarchy. Religion is sometimes thought of as a platform for the expression of spirituality.

Vajrayana Buddhism

incorporates the first two branches along with some aspects of Hinduism; it emerged in Tibet in the seventh century (Albanese, 2007). Like Hinduism, the teachings of this type of Buddhism—and specifically those of the Dalai Lama, the Tibetan Buddhist leader—emphasize the doctrine of ahimsa, or nonharmfulness, and discourage violence and warfare.

Transcendent Idealsim

is a belief in sacred principles of thought and conduct. Principles such as truth, justice, affirmation of life, and tolerance for others are central tenets of transcendent idealists, who seek an elevated state of consciousness in which they can fulfill their true potential.

Secularization Theory

is a belief that as nations progress through various stages, such as modernization and rationalization, religion increasingly loses its authority in all aspects of social life and governance.

Ecclesia

is a religious organization that is so integrated into the dominant culture that it claims as its membership all members of a society. Membership in the ecclesia occurs as a result of being born into the society, rather than by any conscious decision on the part of individual members. The linkages between the social institutions of religion and government are often very strong in such societies. Although no true ecclesia exists in the contemporary world, the Anglican church (the official church of England), the Lutheran church in Sweden and Denmark, the Roman Catholic church in Italy and Spain, and the Islamic mosques in Iran and Pakistan come fairly close.

Fundamentalism

is a traditional religious doctrine that is conservative, is typically opposed to modernity, and rejects "worldly pleasures" in favor of otherworldly spirituality. In the past, traditional fundamentalism primarily appealed to people from lower-income, rural, southern backgrounds; however, newer fundamentalist movements have had a much wider appeal to people from all socioeconomic levels, geographical areas, and occupations in the United States. One reason for the rise of fundamentalism has been a reaction against modernization and secularization. Around the world, those who adhere to fundamentalism—whether they are Muslims, Christians, or followers of one of the other world religions—believe that sacred traditions must be revitalized.

Rational Choice Theory

is based on the assumption that religion is essentially a rational response to human needs; however, the theory does not claim that any particular religious belief is necessarily true or more rational than another. The rational choice perspective views religion as a competitive marketplace in which religious organizations (suppliers) offer a variety of religions and religious products to potential followers (consumers), who shop around for the religious theologies, practices, and communities that best suit them.

Mahayana Buddhism

is centered in Japan, China, and Korea, and primarily focuses on meditation and the Four Noble Truths.

Animism

is the belief that plants, animals, or other elements of the natural world are endowed with spirits or life forces that have an impact on events in society. Although these spirits or life forces play a part in everyday life, they are not worshiped by humans. Animism is associated with early hunting and gathering societies and with many Native American societies, in which everyday life is not separated from the elements of the natural world.

Jihad

meaning "struggle"—is a core belief. The Greater Jihad is believed to be the internal struggle against sin within a person's heart, whereas the Lesser Jihad is the external struggle that takes place in the world, including violence and war. The term jihad is typically associated with religious fundamentalism. Despite the fact that fundamentalism is found in most of the world's religions, some social analysts believe that Islamic fundamentalism is uniquely linked to the armed struggles of groups such as Hamas, an alleged terrorist organization, and the militant Islamic Jihad, which is believed to engage in continual conflict. In the second decade of the twenty-first century, when violence anywhere in the world is allegedly perpetrated by individuals or groups thought to be identified with Muslim- or Islamic-fundamentalist beliefs and values, an immediate outcry goes up to bring the perpetrators to justice. An effort is made to identify specifically how their conduct is related to Islamic fundamentalism and possibly other "sleeper cells" that might bring even further harm to people and physical structures. Although some terrorist attacks are perpetrated by angry religious fundamentalists, many others may have roots in terrorism that is not related to Islamic or other forms of religious fundamentalism.

Secular Humanism

the belief that human beings can become better through their own efforts rather than through belief in God and a religious conversion.

Simple Supernaturalism

the belief that supernatural forces affect people's lives either positively or negatively. This type of religion does not acknowledge specific gods or supernatural spirits but focuses instead on impersonal forces that may exist in people or natural objects.

Qur'an

the holy book of the Muslims—as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the Angel Gabriel at the command of God.

Secularization

the process by which religious beliefs, practices, and institutions lose their significance in society and nonreligious values, principles, and institutions take their place. Used in this context, secularization has two components: (1) a decline in religious values and institutions in everyday life and (2) a corresponding increase in nonreligious values or principles and greater significance given to secular institutions.

Spirituality

the relationship between the individual and something larger than oneself, such as a broader sense of connection with the surrounding world. As such, spirituality involves the individual's inner, subjective feelings and experiences rather than the act of giving devotion to external beliefs, rituals, and deities that are set forth in established creeds or religious communities.

Civil Religion

the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that makes sacred the values of the society and places the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning. Civil religion is not tied to any one denomination or religious group; it has an identity all its own.

Theravadin Buddhism

which focuses on the life of the Buddha and seeks to follow his teachings, gained its strongest foothold in Southeast Asia.

Robert Bellah (1967)

who has studied civil religion extensively, argues that civil religion is not the same thing as Christianity; rather, it is limited to affirmations of loyalty and patriotism that adherents of any religion can accept. However, Bellah's assertion does not resolve the problem for those who do not believe in the existence of God or for those who believe that true religion is trivialized by civil religion.