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Queen Liliuokalani/ Sanford B. Dole/ Republic of Hawaii

About the same time, the new Hawaiian ruler, Queen Liliuokalani, took the throne. In 1893, she called for a new constitution that would increase her power. It would also restore the political power of Hawaiians at the expense of wealthy planters. To prevent this from happening, a group of American business men hatched a plot to overthrow the Hawaiian monarchy. In 1893, Queen Liliuokalani was removed from power. In 1894, Sanford B. Dole, a wealthy plantation owner and politician was named president of the new Republic of Hawaii. The president of the new republic asked the United States to annex it. At first, President Cleveland refused. In 1898, however, the Republic of Hawaii was annexed by the United States. Liliuokalani was Hawaii's only queen and the last monarch of Hawaii. She bitterly regretted her brother's loss of power to American planters and worked to regain power for the Hawaiian monarchy. As queen, she refused to renew a treaty signed by her brother that would have given commercial privileges to foreign businessmen. It was a decision that would cost her the crown.

maji-maji/ Maji Maji Rebellion

Africans in German East Africa put their faith in a spiritual defense. African villagers resisted the Germans' insistence that they plant cotton, a cash crop for export, rather than attend to their own food crops. In 1905, the belief suddenly arose that a magic water (maji-maji) sprinkled on their bodies would turn the Germans' bullets into water. The uprising became known as the Maji Maji rebellion. Over 20 different ethnic groups united to fight for their freedom. The fighters believed that their war had been ordained by God and that their ancestors would return to life and assist their struggle. However, when resistance fighters armed with spears and protected by the magic water attacked a German machine-gun post, they were mowed down by the thousands. Officially, Germans recorded 75,000 resisters dead. But more than twice that number perished in the famine that followed. The Germans were shaken by the rebellion and its outcome. As a result, they made some government reforms in an effort to make colonialism more acceptable to the Africans.

Enfield rifles/ Delhi/ Sepoy Mutiny

As economic problems increased for Indians, so did their feelings of resentment and nationalism. In 1857, gossip spread among the sepoys, the Indian soldiers, that the cartridges of their new Enfield rifles were greased with beef and pork and fat. To use the cartridges, the soldiers had to bite off the ends. Both Hindus, who consider the cow sacred, and Muslims, who do not eat pork, were outraged by the news. A garrison commander was shocked when 85 of the 90 sepoys refused to accept the cartridges. The British handled the crisis badly. The soldiers who had disobeyed were jailed. On May 10, 1857, the sepoys rebelled. They marched to Delhi, where they were joined by Indian soldiers stationed there. They captured the city of Delhi. From Delhi, rebellion spread to northern and central India. Some historians have called this outbreak the Sepoy Mutiny. The uprising spread over much of northern India. Fierce fighting took place. Both British and sepoys tried to slaughter each other's armies. The East India Company took more than a year to regain control of the country.

Royal Niger Company

Britain gained control of southern Nigeria through both diplomatic and military means. Some local rulers agreed to sign treaties of protection with Britain and accepted British residents. However, others opposed the foreign intervention and rebelled. The British used force to put down and defeat these rebellions. British conquest of northern Nigeria was accomplished by the Royal Niger Company. The company gained control of the palm-oil trade along the Niger River after the Berlin Conference gave Britain a protectorate over the Niger River delta. In 1914, the British claimed the entire area of Nigeria a colony.

British East India Company/ Mughal Dynasty/ Robert Clive/ maharajah/ Robert Clive/ Battle of Plassey

British economic interest in India began in the 1600s, when the British East India Company set up trading posts at Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. At first, India's ruling Mughal Dynasty kept European traders under control. By 1707, however, the Mughal Empire was collapsing. Dozens of small states, each headed by a ruler or maharajah, broke away from Mughal control. In 1757, Robert Clive led East India Company troops in a decisive victory over Indian forces allied with the French at the Battle of Plassey. From that time until 1858, the East India Company was the leading power in India.

Colony/ Protectorate/ Sphere of Influence/Economic Imperialism

Colony- A country or territory governed internally by a foreign power. (Ex: Somaliland in East Africa was a French colony) Protectorate- A country or a territory with its own internal government but under the control of an outside power. (Ex: Britain established a protectorate over the Niger River Delta). Sphere of Influence- An area in which an outside power claims exclusive investment or trading privileges. (Ex: Liberia was under the sphere of influence of the United States.) Economic Imperialism¬- An independent but less-developed country controlled by private business interests rather than other governments. (Ex: The Dole Fruit company controlled pineapple trade in Hawaii).

Boer War/ Union of South Africa

Diamonds and gold were discovered in southern Africa in the 1860s and the 1880s. Suddenly, adventurers from all parts of the world rushed in to make their fortunes. The Boers tried to keep these "outsiders" from gaining political rights. An attempt to start a rebellion against the Boers failed. The Boers blamed the British and in 1899, took arms against them. In many ways the Boer War (also known as the South African War) between the British and the Boers was the first modern "total" war. The Boers launched commando raids and used guerrilla tactics against the British. The British countered by burning Boer farms and imprisoning women and children in disease ridden concentration camps. Black South Africans were also involved in the war. Some fought, others served as scouts, guards, drivers, and workers. Many black South Africans were captured by the British and placed in concentration camps, where over 14,000 died. Britain finally won the war. In 1910, the Boer republics were joined into a self-governing Union of South Africa, which was controlled by the British.

Crimean War/ Florence Nightingale

Each generation of Russian czars launched a war on the Ottomans to try to gain land on the Black Sea. The purpose was to give Russia a warm-weather port. In 1853, war broke out between the Russians and the Ottomans. This was called the Crimean War, after a peninsula in the Black Sea where most of the war was fought. Britain and France wanted to prevent the Russians from gaining control of additional Ottoman lands. So they entered the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. The combined forces of the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France defeated Russia. The Crimean War was the first war in which women, led by Florence Nightingale, established their position as army nurses. It was also the first war to be covered by newspaper correspondents. The Crimean War revealed the Ottoman Empire's military weakness. Despite the help of Britain and France, the Ottoman Empire continued to lose lands. The Russians came to the aid of Slavic people in the Balkans who rebelled against the Ottomans. The Ottomans lost control of Romania, Montenegro, Cyprus, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and an area that became Bulgaria. The Ottomans also lost land in Africa.

the Dutch East India Company

Early in the 18th century, the Dutch East India Company established control over most of the Indonesian islands. The British established a major trading port at Singapore. The French took control over Indochina on the Southeast Asian mainland. The Germans claimed the Marshall Islands and parts of New Guinea and the Solomon islands. The lands of Southeast Asia were perfect for plantation agriculture. The major focus was on sugar cane, coffee, cocoa, rubber, coconuts, bananas, and pineapple. As these products became more important in the world trade markets, European power raced each other to claim lands.

the Anglo-Persian Oil Company

Elsewhere in southwest Asia, Russia, and Britain competed to exploit Persia commercially and to bring that country under their own spheres of influence. Russia was especially interested in gaining access to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. Twice Persia gave up territories to Russia, after military defeats 1813 and 1828. Britain was interested in using Afghanistan as a buffer between India and Russia. In 1857, Persia resisted British demands but was forced to give up all claims to Afghanistan. Britain's interest in Persia increased greatly after the discovery of oil there in 1908. Persia lacked the capital to develop its own resources. To raise money and to gain economic prestige, the Persian ruler began granting concessions to Western businesses. These concessions allowed businesses to buy the right to operate in a certain area or develop a certain product. A British corporation, the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, began to develop Persia's rich oil filed in the early 1900s.

Menelik II/ the Battle of Adowa

Ethiopia was the only African nation that successfully resisted the Europeans. Its victory was due to Menelik II. He became emperor of Ethiopia in 1889. He successfully played Italians, French, and British against each other, all of whom were striving to bring Ethiopia into their spheres of influence. In the meantime, he built up a large arsenal of modern weapons purchased from France and Russia. In 1889, shortly after Menelik had signed a treaty with Italy, he discovered differences between the wording of the treaty in the Ethiopian language and in Italian. Menelik believed he was giving up a tiny portion of Ethiopia. However, the Italians claimed all of Ethiopia as a protectorate. Meanwhile, Italian forces were advancing on northern Ethiopia. Menelik declared war. In 1896, in one of the greatest battles in the history of Africa- the Battle of Adowa - Ethiopian forces successfully defeated the Italians and kept their nation independent. After the battle, Menelik continued to stockpile rifles and other modern weapons in case another foreign power challenged Ethiopia's liberty.

malaria/ quinine

Even with superior arms and steam engines to transport them, another factor might have kept Europeans confined to the coast. They were highly susceptible to malaria, a disease carried by the dense swarms of mosquitoes in Africa's interior. The perfection of the drug quinine in 1829 eventually protected Europeans from becoming infected with this disease. Africa's variety of languages and cultures discouraged unity among them. Wars fought between ethnic groups over land, water, and trade rights also prevented a unified stand.

jewel in the crown

Firstly, the British treasured India more for its potential than its actual profit. The Industrial Revolution had turned Britain into the world's workshop, and India was a major supplier of raw materials for that workshop. Its 300 million people were also a large potential market for British made goods. It is not surprising then that the British considered India the brightest "jewel in the crown", the most valuable of all British colonies. The British set up restrictions that prevented the Indian economy from operating on its own. India's own handloom textile industry was almost put of business by imported British textiles. Cheap cloth and ready-made clothes from England flooded the Indian market and drove out local producers.

Geopolitics

Geopolitics, an interest in or taking of land for its strategic location or products, played an important role in the fate of the Ottoman Empire. World powers were attracted to its strategic location. The Ottomans controlled access to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic sea trade. Merchants in landlocked countries that lay beyond the Black Sea had to go through Ottoman lands. Russia, for example, desperately wanted passage for its grain exports across the Black Sea and into the Mediterranean Sea. This desire strongly influenced Russia's relations with the Ottoman Empire. Russia attempted to win Ottoman favor, formed alliances with Ottoman enemies, and finally waged war against the Ottomans. Discovery of oil in Persia around 1900 and in the Arabian Peninsula after World War I focused even more attention on the area.

"Great Game"/ Afghanistan/ Khyber Pass

Great Britain and Russia engaged in a geopolitical struggle known as the "Great Game". The war waged over India, one of Britain's most profitable colonies. Russia sought to extend its empire and gain access to India's riches. Britain defended its colony and also attempted to spread its empire beyond India's borders. Afghanistan, which lay between the Russian and British empires, became the center of their struggle. In the 1800s, Afghanistan was an independent Muslim kingdom. Its dry, mountainous terrain and determined people continually frustrated with the invading imperial powers. After decades of fighting, Great Britain finally withdrew from Afghanistan in 1881. In 1921, Britain formally agreed that its empire would not extend beyond the Khyber Pass, which borders eastern Afghanistan. The newly formed Soviet Union signed a nonaggression pact with Afghanistan. That was honored until 1979, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.

David Livingstone/ Henry Stanley/ Lake Tanganyika/ King Leopold II/ The Belgian Congo

In the late 1860s, David Livingstone, a missionary from Scotland, traveled with a group of Africans deep into central Africa to promote Christianity. When several years passed with no word from him or his party, many people feared he was dead. An American newspaper hired reporter Henry Stanley to find Livingstone. In 1871, he found Dr. Livingstone on the shores of Lake Tanganyika. His famous greeting - "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" - made headlines around the world. Stanley set out to explore Africa himself and trace the course of the Congo River. His explorations sparked the interest of King Leopold II of Belgium, who commissioned Stanley to help him obtain land in the Congo. 1879-1882, Stanley signed treaties with local chiefs of the Congo River valley. The treaties gave King Leopold II of Belgium control of these lands. Leopold claimed that his primary motive in establishing the colony was to abolish slavery and promote Christianity. However, he licensed companies that brutally exploited Africans by forcing them to collect sap from rubber plants. At least 10 million Congolese died due to the abuses inflicted during Leopold's rule. Humanitarians then, demanded change. In 1908, the Belgian government took control of the colony away from Leopold. The Belgian Congo, as the colony later became known as, was 80 times larger than Belgium. The Belgian government's seizure alarmed France.

Hausa- Fulani/ Yoruba/ Igbo

In this new age of imperialism, it was necessary not only to claim a territory but also to govern the people living there. However, managing Nigeria would not prove to be easy. It was one of the most culturally diverse areas in Africa. About 250 different ethnic groups lived there. The three largest groups were the Hausa-Fulani in the north, the Yoruba in the southwest, and the Igbo in the south-east. These groups were different from one another in many ways, including language, culture, and religion. The Hausa-Fulani people were Muslim and had a strong central government. The Igbo and Yoruba peoples followed traditional religions and relied on local chiefs for control. Britain did not have enough troops to govern such a complex area. As a result, the British turned to indirect control of the land. Ruling indirectly through local officials worked well with the Hausa-Fulani. However, it did not work so well with the Yoruba and Igbo.

Indirect control

Indirect control relied on existing political rulers. Some areas, Britain asked a local ruler to accept British authority to rule. These local officials handled much of the daily management of the colony. Also, each colony had a legislative council that included colonial officials as well as local merchants and professionals nominated by the colonial governor. The assumption was that the councils would train local leaders in the British method of government and that a time would come when the local population would govern itself. This had happened earlier in the British colonies of Australia and Canada. In the 1890s, the United States began to colonize. It chose the indirect method of control of the Philippines.

J.A. Hobson/ Imperialism/ Dadabhai Naoroji/ Jules Ferry/ "The Devilfish in Egyptian Waters"

J.A. Hobson- Hobson's 1902 book, Imperialism, made a great impression on his fellow Britons. Dadabhai Naoroji- was the first Indian elected to the British Parliament. In 1871, he delivered a speech about the impact of Great Britain on India. Jules Ferry delivered a speech before the French National Assembly on July 28, 1883. The 1882 American political cartoon titled "The Devilfish in Egyptian Waters" depicts England as an octopus. Notice that Egypt is not yet one of the areas controlled by the British.

Pacific Rim

Just as the European powers rushed to divide Africa, they also competed to carve up the lands of Southeast Asia. These lands form part of the Pacific Rim, the countries that border the Pacific Ocean. Western nations desired the Pacific Rim lands for their strategic location along the sea route to China. Westerners also recognized the value of the Pacific colonies as sources of tropical agriculture, minerals, and oil.

Muhammad Ali

Modernization came to Egypt as a result of the interest in the area created by the French occupation. Egypt's strategic location at the head of the Red Sea appeared valuable to France and Britain. After Napoleon failed to win Egypt, a new leader emerged: Muhammad Ali. The Ottomans sent him as part of an expeditionary force to govern Egypt, but he soon broke away from Ottoman control. Beginning in 1831, he fought a series of battles in which he gained control of Syria and Arabia. Through the combined efforts of European powers, Muhammad Ali and his heirs were recognized as the hereditary rulers of Egypt. Muhammad Ali began a series of reforms in the military and in the economy. Without foreign assistance, he personally directed a shift of Egyptian agriculture to a plantation cash croup - cotton. This brought Egypt into the international marketplace but at a cost to the peasants. They lost the use of lands they traditionally farmed and were forced to grow cash crops in place of food crops.

Isma'il/ Suez Canal/ Joseph Chamberlain

Muhammad Ali's efforts to modernize Egypt were continued by his grandson, Isma'il. Isma'il supported the construction of the Suez Canal. The canal was a human made waterway that cut through the Isthmus of Suez. It connected the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. It was built mainly with French money from private interest groups, using Egyptian labor. The Suez Canal opened in 1869 with a huge international celebration. However, Isma'il's modernization efforts, such as irrigation projects and communication networks, were enormously expensive. Egypt soon found that it could not pay its European bankers even the interest on its $450 million debt. The British insisted on overseeing financial control of the canal, and in 1882 the British occupied Egypt.The Suez canal was viewed as the "Lifeline of the Empire" because it allowed Britain quicker access to its colonies in Asia and Africa. In a speech to Parliament, Joseph Chamberlain explained that he believed Britain should continue its occupation of Egypt.

sepoy

Officially, the British government regulated the East India Company's efforts both in London and in India. Until the beginning of the 19th century, the company ruled India with little interference from the British government. The company even had its own army, led by British officials and staffed by sepoys, or Indian soldiers. The governor of Bombay, Mountstuart Elphinstone, referred to the sepoy army as "a delicate and dangerous machine, which a little mismanagement may easily turn against us."

Negatives of British Colonialism in India

On the negative side, the British held much of the political and economic power. The British restricted Indian-owned industries such as cotton textiles. The emphasis on cash crop resulted in a loss of self-sufficiency for many villagers. The conversion to cash crops reduced food production, causing famines in the late 1800s. The British officially adopted a hands-off policy regarding Indian religious and social customs. Even so, the increased presence of missionaries and the racist attitude of most British officials threatened traditional Indian life.

Negatives of Colonial Rule

On the negatives, Africans lost control of their land and their independence. Many died of new diseases such as smallpox. They also lost thousands of their people in resisting the Europeans. Famines resulted from the change to cash crops in place of subsistence agriculture. Africans also suffered from a breakdown of their traditional cultures. Traditional authority figures were replaced. Homes and property were transferred with little regard to their importance to the people. Men were forced to leave villages to find ways to support themselves and their families. Contempt for the traditional culture and admiration of Europe life undermined stable societies and caused identity problems for Africans. Long-term rival chiefdoms were sometimes united, while at other times, kinship groups were split colonies. The artificial boundaries combined or unnaturally divided groups, creating problems that plagued African colonies during European occupation. These boundaries continue to create problems for the nations that evolved from the former colonies.

Positives of British Colonialism in India

On the positive side, the laying of the world's third largest railroad network was a major British achievement. When completed, the railroads enabled India to develop a modern economy and brought unity to the connected regions. Along with the railroads, a modern road network, telephone, and telegraph lines, dams, bridges, and irrigation canals enabled India to modernize. Sanitation and public health improved. Schools and colleges were founded, and literacy increased. Also, British troops cleared central India of bandits and put an end to local warfare among competing local rulers.

Positives of Colonial Rule

On the positives, colonialism reduced local warfare. Humanitarian efforts in some colonies improved sanitation and provided hospitals and schools. As a result, lifespans increased and literacy rates improved. The economic expansion also occurred. African products came to be valued on the international market. To aid the economic growth, railroads, dams, and telephone and telegraph lines were built in African colonies. But for the most part, these benefited only European business interests, not Africans' lives.

Bengal

Railroads transported raw products from the interior to the ports and manufactured goods back again. Most of the raw materials were agricultural products produced on plantations. Plantation crops included tea, indigo, coffee, cotton, and jute. Another crop was opium. The British shipped opium to China and exchanged it for tea, which they sold in England. Trade in these crops was closely tied to international events. The Crimean War in the 1850s cut off supply of Russian jute to Scottish jute mills. This boosted the export of raw jute from Bengal, a province in India. Cotton production in India increased when the Civil War in the United States cut off supplies of cotton for British textile mills.

Ram Mohun Roy

Ram Mohun Roy, a modern-thinking, well educated Indian, began a campaign to move India away from traditional practices and ideas. Sometimes called the "Father of Modern India", he saw that arranged child marriages and the rigid caste separation as parts of religious life that needed to be changed. He believed that if the practices were not changed, India would continue to be controlled by outsiders. Roy's writings inspired other Indian reformers to call for adoption of Western ways. Roy also founded a social reform movement that worked for change in India. Besides modernization and Westernization, nationalistic feelings started to surface in India. Indians hated a system that made them second-class citizens in their own country. They were barred from top posts in the Indian Civil Service. Those who managed to get middle-level jobs were paid less than Europeans. A British engineer on the East India Railway made nearly 20 times more than an Indian engineer.

Siam/ King Mongkut/ Chulalongkorn

Siam (present day Thailand) maintained its independence throughout the colonial period. Siam lay between British-controlled Burma and French Indochina. France and Britain each aimed to prevent the other from gaining control of Siam. Knowing this, Siamese kings skillfully promoted Siam as a neutral zone between the two powers. Siam modernized itself under the guidance of King Mongkut and his son Chulalongkorn. Siam started schools, reformed the legal system, and reorganized the government. The government built its own railroads and telegraph systems and ended slavery. Because the changes came from their own government, the Siamese people escaped social turmoil, racist treatment, and economic exploitation that occurred in other countries controlled by foreigners.

Nasir al-Din/ Jamal al-Din al-Afghani

Tension arose between the often corrupt rulers, who wanted to sell concessions to Europeans, and the people. The people were often backed by religious leaders who feared change or disliked Western influence in their nation. In 1890, Persian ruler Nasir al-Din sold a concession to a British company to export Persian tobacco. This action outraged Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, a leader who supported the modernization of Persia. He set up a tobacco boycott by the heavy-smoking Persians. The tobacco boycott worked. Riots broke out, and the ruler was forced to cancel the concession. As unrest continued in Persia, however, the government was unable to control the situation. In 1906, a group of revolutionaries forced the ruler to establish a constitution. In 1907, Russia and Britain took over the country and divided into spheres of influence. They exercised economic control over Persia.

Sikhs

The British government sent troops to help the East India Company during the Sepoy Mutiny. The Indians could not unite against the British due to weak leadership and serious splits between Hindus and Muslims. Hindus did not want the Muslim Mughal Empire restored. Indeed, many Hindus preferred British rule to Muslim rule. Most of the princes and maharajahs who had made alliances with the East India Company did not take part in the rebellion. The Sikhs, a religious group that had been hostile to the Mughals, also remained loyal to the British. Indeed, from then on, the bearded and turbaned Sikhs became the mainstay of Britain's army in India.

Dutch East Indies

The Dutch East India Company actively sought lands in Southeast Asia. It seized Malacca from the Portuguese and fought the British and Javanese for control of Java. The discovery of oil and tin on the islands and the desire for more rubber plantations prompted the Dutch to gradually expand their control over Sumatra, part of Borneo, Celebes, the Moluccas, and Bali. Finally the Dutch ruled the whole island chain of Indonesia, then called the Dutch East Indies. Management of plantations and trade brought a large Dutch population to the islands. In contrast to the British, who lived temporarily in India but retired in Britain, the Dutch thought of Indonesia as their home. They moved to Indonesia and created a rigid social class system there. Dutch were on top, wealthy and educated Indonesians came next, and plantation workers were at the bottom. The Dutch also forced farmers to plant one-fifth of their land in specified export crops.

direct control/paternalism/ assimilation

The French and other European powers preferred more direct control of their colonies. They viewed the Africans as unable to handle the complex business of running a country. Based on this attitude, the Europeans developed a policy called paternalism. Using that policy, Europeans governed people in a parental way by providing for their needs but not giving them rights. To accomplish this, the Europeans brought in their own bureaucrats and did not train local people in European methods of governing. The French also supported a policy of assimilation. That policy was based on the idea that in time, the local populations would adopt French culture and become like the French. To aid in the transition, all local schools, courts, and businesses were patterned after French institutions. In practice, the French abandoned the ideal of assimilation for all but a few places and settled for a policy of "association" which was similar to indirect control. They recognized African institutions and culture but regarded them as inferior to French culture.

Nguyen dynasty/ Napoleon III

The French had been active in Southeast Asia since the 17th century. They even helped the Nguyen dynasty rise to power in Vietnam. In the 1840s, during the rule of an anti-Christian Vietnamese emperor, seven French missionaries were killed. Church leaders and capitalists who wanted a larger share of the overseas market demanded military intervention. Emperor Napoleon III ordered the French army to invade southern Vietnam. Later, the French added Laos, Cambodia, and northern Vietnam to the territory. The combined states would eventually be called French Indochina. Using direct colonial management, the French themselves filled all important positions in the government bureaucracy. They did not encourage local industry. Four times as much land devoted to rice production. However, the peasants' consumption of rice decreased because much of the rice was exported. Anger over this reduction set the stage for Vietnamese resistance against the French.

Spanish-American War/ McKinley's/ Emilio Aguinaldo/ Philippine Republic

The United States acquired the Philippine Islands, Puerto Rico, and Guam as a result of the Spanish-American War in 1898. Gaining the Philippines touched off a debate in the United States over imperialism. President McKinley's views swayed many to his side. He told a group of Methodist ministers his intention to "educate Filipinos, and uplift and Christianize them." Filipino nationalists were not happy to trade one colonizer, the Spanish, for another, the Americans. Emilio Aguinaldo leader of the Filipino nationalists claimed that the United States had promised immediate independence after the Spanish-American War ended. The nationalists declared independence and established the Philippine Republic. The United States plunged into a fierce struggle with the Filipino nationalists in 1899 and defeated them in 1902. The United States promised the Philippine people that it would prepare them for self-rule. To achieve this goal, the United States built roads, railroads, and hospitals, and set up school systems. However, businessmen encouraged growing cash crops such as sugar at the expense of basic food crops. This led to food shortages for the Filipinos.

Maxim Gun

The advantage of technological superiority contributed to European conquest of Africa. The Maxim gun, invented in 1884, was the world's first automatic machine gun. European countries quickly acquired the Maxim, while the resisting Africans were forced to rely on outdated weapons. European countries also had the mean to control their empire. The invention of the steam engine allowed Europeans to easily travel on rivers to establish bases of control deep in the African continent. Railroads, cables, and steamships allowed close communications within a colony and between the colony and its controlling nation.

Berlin Conference

The competition was so fierce that European countries feared war among themselves. To prevent conflict, 14 European nations met at the Berlin Conference in 1884-85 to lay down rules for the division of Africa. They agreed that any European country could claim land in Africa by notifying other nations of its claims and showing it could control the area. The European nations divided the continent with little thought about how African ethnic or linguistic groups were distributed. No African ruler was invited to attend these meetings, yet the conference sealed Africa's fate. By 1914, only Liberia and Ethiopia remained free from European control.

Cape of Good Hope/ Boers/ Afrikaners/ Great Trek

The first Europeans to settle in South Africa had been the Dutch. The Dutch had come to the Cape of Good Hope in 1652 to establish a way station for their ships sailing between the Dutch East Indies and the Netherlands. Dutch settlers were known as Boers (Dutch for "farmers"). They gradually took Africans' land and establish large farms. Boers were also known as Afrikaners. When the British took over the Cape Colony permanently in the early 1800s, they and the Boers clashed over British policy regarding land and slaves. In the 1830s, to escape the British, several thousand Boers moved to the north. This movement became known as the Great Trek. The Boers soon found themselves fiercely fighting with Zulu.

Indian National Congress/ the Muslim League

The growing nationalism led to two nationalistic groups: the Indian National Congress in 1885 and the Muslim League in 1906. At first, such groups concentrated on specific concerns for Indians. By the early 1900s they were calling for self-government. The nationalists were further inflamed in 1905 by the partition of Bengal. The province was too large for administrative purposes, so the British divided it into a Hindu section and a Muslim section. As a result, acts of terrorism broke out. In 1911, yielding to pressure, the British took back the order and divided the province in a different way.

Chokwe

The introduction of steam boat allowed Europeans to conduct major expeditions into the interior of Africa. Disease also spread to the Europeans. Africans controlled their own trade networks and provided the trade items. These networks were specialized. The Chokwe devoted themselves to collecting ivory and beeswax in the Angolan highlands.

Raj

The mutiny marked a turning point in Indian history. As a result of the mutiny, in 1858 the British government took direct command of India. The part of India that was under direct British was called the Raj, which referred to British rule over India from 1858 until 1947. A cabinet minister in London directed policy, and a British governor-general in India carried out the government's orders. After 1877, this official held the title of viceroy. To reward the many princes who had remained loyal to Britain, the British promised to respect all treaties the East India Company had made with them. They also promised that the Indian states that were still free would remain independent. However, Britain won greater and greater control of those states. The Sepoy Mutiny fueled the racist attitudes of the British. The mutiny increased distrust between the British and the Indians. A political pamphlet suggested that both Hindus and Muslims "are being ruined under the tyranny and oppression of the... treacherous English."

racism/ Social Darwinism

The race for colonies also grew out of a strong sense of national pride. Europeans viewed an empire as a measure of national greatness. As the competition for colonies intensified, each country was determined to plant its flag on as much of the world as possible. Many people believed in racism, the belief that one race is superior to others. The attitude was a reflection of Social Darwinism, a social theory of the time. In this theory, Charles Darwin's ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" were applied to human society. Those who were fittest for survival enjoyed wealth and success and were considered superior to others. According to the theory, non-Europeans were considered to be on a lower scale of cultural and physical development because they had not made the scientific and technological progress that Europeans had. Europeans believed that they had the right and the duty to bring the results of their progress to other countries. The push for expansion also came from missionaries who worked to convert the peoples of Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Islands to Christianity. Many missionaries believed that European rule was the best way to end evil practices such as the slave trade.

Caste/ Varna

The social class determined the way of life for the British Army in India. Upper-class men served as officers. Lower-class British served at lesser rank and did not advance past the rank of sergeant. Only men with the rank of sergeant and above were allowed to bring their wives to India. Each English officer's wife attempted to re-create England in the home setting. She was like a general and directed an army of 20 to 30 servants. Caste determined Indian occupations. Castes were divided into four broad categories called varna. Indian civil servants were of third varna. House and personal servants were of the fourth Varna. Even within the Varna, jobs were strictly regulated, which is why such large servant staffs were required

Samori Toure/

The unsuccessful resistance attempts included active military resistance and resistance through religious movements. Algeria's almost 50 year resistance to French rule was an outstanding example. The resistance movement led by Samori Touré in West Africa against the French is another example. After modernizing his army, Touré fought the French for 16 years. Samori is a hero of the Mandingo people. His empire is often compared to the great Mali Empire of the 1300s. Touré was a nationalist who built a powerful Mandingo kingdom by conquering neighboring states. His kingdom became the third largest empire in West Africa. For 16 years, Touré opposed the French imperialists in West Africa. The well armed Mandingo was France's greatest foe in West Africa, and the two armies clashed several times. The Mandingo Empire was finally brought down by a famine.

British Imperialism in Southeast Asia

To compete with the Dutch, the British sought a trading base that would serve as a stop for their ships that traveled the India-China sea routes. They found a large, sheltered harbor on Singapore, an island just off the tip of the Malay Peninsula. The opening of the Suez Canal and the increase demand for tin and rubber combined to make Singapore one of the world's busiest ports. Britain also gained colonies in Malaysia and in Burma. Malaysia had large deposits of tin and became the world's leading rubber exporter. Needing workers to mine the tin and tap the rubber trees, Britain encouraged Chinese to immigrate to Malaysia. Chinese flocked to the area. As a result of such immigration, the Malays soon became a minority in their own country. Conflict between the resident Chinese and the native Malays remains unresolved today.

McKinley Tariff Act/ annexation

U.S. interest in Hawaii began around in the 1790s when Hawaii was a port on the way to China and East India. Beginning about the 1820s, sugar trade began to change the Hawaiian economy. Americans established sugar-cane plantations and became highly successful. By the mid 19th century, American sugar plantations accounted for 75 percent of Hawaii's wealth. At the same time, American sugar planters also gained great political power in Hawaii. Then in 1890, the McKinley Tariff Act passed by the U.S. government set off a crisis in the islands. The act eliminated the tariffs on all sugar entering the United States. Now, sugar from Hawaii was no longer cheaper than sugar produced elsewhere. That change cut into the sugar producers' profits. Some U.S. business leaders pushed for annexation of Hawaii, or the adding of the territory to the United States. Making Hawaii a part of the United States meant that Hawaiian sugar could be sold for greater profits because American producers got an extra two cents a pound from the U.S. government.

Suleyman I/ Selim III/

When Suleyman I, the last great Ottoman sultan, died in 1566, he was followed by a succession of weak sultans. The palace government broke up into a number of quarreling, often corrupt factions. Weakening power brought other problems. Corruption and theft had caused financial losses. Coinage was devalued, causing inflation. Once the Ottoman Empire had embraced modern technologies, but now it fell further and further behind Europe. When Selim III came into power in 1789, he attempted to modernize the army. However, the older janissary corps resisted his efforts. Selim III was overthrown, and reform movements were temporarily abandoned. Meanwhile, nationalist feelings began to stir among the Ottomans' subject peoples. In 1830, Greece gained its independence, and Serbia gained self-rule. The Ottomans' weakness was becoming apparent to European powers, which were expanding their territories.

Winston Churchill/ Louis Botha

Winston Churchill, who served as the British prime minister during World War II, first came to public attention during the Boer War. A war correspondent, Churchill was travelling with British soldiers when their train was ambushed by the Boers. Churchill pulled some of the wounded men to safety. When he returned to help the others, however, he was arrested by a Boer soldier named Louis Botha, who would later become the prime minister of the Union of South Africa and Churchill's close friend. Churchill managed to escape from the South African prison. When he returned to Britain, Churchill was hailed as a national hero at the age of 26.