#4

Compare Them: Coerced Labor Systems

Although slavery was not a new system, the demands of the newly global economy resulted in an expansion of systems of forced labor in the empires. 1. Russia's attempts to control their large land mass relied on the forced labor of the serfs. 2. In the Spanish part of the New World, haciendas were established in which Natives owed labor to their landlords-not unlike the feudalism of Europe. 3. The Portuguese took advantage of the already thriving intra-African slave trade and transformed it into a trans-oceanic one. The majority of transported Africans would up on plantations in Brazil and the Caribbean where life expectancy was just three to five years.

Compare Them: Forced Labor Systems

Although slavery was not a new system, the demands of the newly global economy resulted in an expansion of systems of forced labor in the empires. At the same time, Russia's attempts to control their large land mass relied on the forced labor of the peasants or serfs. All three systems took advantage of the laborers and were frequently managed by harsh and brutal overseers. In the Spanish part of the New World, haciendas were established in which Natives owed labor to their landlords-not unlike the feudalism of Europe. This system fell apart as the Native populations diminished due to disease, and as Natives converted to the Roman Catholic faith. The Portuguese took advantage of the already thriving intra-African slave trade and transformed it into a trans-oceanic one. The majority of transported Africans would up on plantations in Brazil and the Caribbean where life expectancy was just three to five years. Russian serfdom differed in that the Russian economy was domestic and both the laborers and the landowners were Russian.

creole

American-born Spaniards who owned land, but ranked below "real" Europeans.

capitalism

An economic system in which the means of production are privately owned; supply, demand, price, distribution, and investments are determined mainly by private decisions in the free market, rather than through a planned economy; and profit is distributed to owners who invest in businesses

Colombian Exchange

An exchange of goods, ideas and skills from the Old World (Europe, Asia and Africa) to the New World (North and South America) and vice versa.

sultan

holder of power,the military and political head of state under the Seljuk Turks and the Ottomans

terracing

shaping the land to create level shelves of earth to hold water and soil; requires extensive hand labor or expensive machinery, but it enables farmers to farm very steep hillsides

empire

A geographically extensive group of states and peoples (ethnic groups) united and ruled either by a monarch (emperor, empress) or an oligarchy.

Martin Luther

16th century German monk and professor who is considered to be the person who started the Protestant Reformation; he began by criticizing Church practices (mainly indulgences) and ultimately broke with the Catholic Church to form his own new religious faith

Absolutism

A form of government, usually hereditary monarchy, in which the ruler has no legal limits on his or her power. In the Early Modern Era, France.

Aztec

(1200-1521) 1300, they settled in the valley of Mexico. Grew corn. Engaged in frequent warfare to conquer others of the region. Worshipped many gods (polytheistic). Believed the sun god needed human blood to continue his journeys across the sky. Practiced human sacrifices and those sacrificed were captured warriors from other tribes and those who volunteered for the honor.

Francisco Pizarro

(1471 - 1541) was a Spanish explorer and conquistador. With a small force of Spaniards, he was able to capture Atahualpa, Emperor of the mighty Inca Empire, in 1532. Eventually he led his men to victory over the Inca, collecting mind-boggling quantities of gold and silver along the way. Once the Inca Empire was defeated, the conquistadors took to warring among themselves over the spoils, Pizarro included, and he was killed in Lima in 1541 by forces loyal to the son of a former rival

Hernán Cortés

(1485-1547) was a Spanish conquistador, responsible for the audacious conquest of the Aztec Empire in Central Mexico in 1519. With a force of 600 Spanish soldiers he was able to conquer a vast Empire that had tens of thousands of warriors. He did it through a combination of ruthlessness, guile, violence and luck.

Inca engineering

-Road system - suspension bridges and tunnels through the Andes, mortarless construction, terrace farming and irrigation

Impact of the Protestant Reformation

1. Luther's challenges were theologically based and directed at the pope's religious role. Luther asserted that the people did not need the Catholic Church, or its priests, in order to interact with God; they only needed their Bibles. 2. Put simply, by challenging the pope, Luther made it acceptable to question the conventional wisdom of the church. With newly printed Bibles available in their own languages, lay people could learn how to read and form their own relationships with God. 3. As the common masses became literate and better educated, more and more Europeans began to question both the world around them and the authority of the church. Europeans desired to search for their own answers to the questions of the universe. In short, the _______ ________ paved the way for revolutions in education, politics, and science

Constitutionalism

A government of laws, not people, operating on the principle that governmental power must be limited and government officials should be restrained in their exercise of power over individuals. Constitutional Monarchies of the Early Modern Era: England and the Netherlands (Dutch)

mestizo

A new racial concept that develops in Latin America following the intermixing that occurred between European colonists and the native American population.

feudal

A political and social order that was created in the Middle Ages when governments weren't able to defend their subjects; nobles offered protection to the people in exchange for land. The rise of centralized governments in Western Europe, Russia, and Japan mark the end of feudalism in the early modern era.

elite

A small group within the state or other organization which has disproportionate power over important decisions.

Social Stratification

A system by which a society ranks categoeries of people in a hierarchy

Tribute System (MesoAmerica)

A system in which defeated peoples were forced to pay a tax in the form of goods and labor. This forced transfer of food, cloth, and other goods subsidized the development of large cities. An important component of the Aztec and Inca economies.

quipus

A system of knotted cords of different sizes and colors used by the Incas for keeping records

indulgences

A system of paid forgiveness. Indulgences undermined the fear/respect people had with God

Humanism

A system of thought that focuses on the nature, ideals, and achievements of human beings, rather than on the divine (religious)

encomienda system

A system whereby the Spanish crown granted the conquerors the right to forcibly employ groups of Indians; it was a disguised form of slavery.

single-point perspective

A technique for achieving a sense of depth by establishing a single vanishing point and painting or building all objects to diminish to it.

Machu Picchu

Abandoned city high in the Andes mountains that showcases the architectural genius of the Inca

Key Concept #4 Americas 1450-1750

By 1750, Spain and Portugal remained firmly in control in Mesoamerica and South America; North American territory was shared by several European colonial powers, but the British settlements would soon begin to press for independence from monarchical control.

Tenochtitlan

Capital of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco. Its population was about 150,000 on the eve of Spanish conquest. Mexico City was constructed on its ruins.

Crusades

Christian holy wars were launched in 1095 C.E. by Pope Urban II in response to Muslim expansion into the Holy Land (Jerusalem). The _______ contributed to interregional contact between Christian and Muslim merchants. European interest in foreign goods grew, thereby stimulating the growth of trade. The last crusade ended around 1204 C.E.

hegemony

Domination, influence, or authority over another, especially by one political group over a society or by one nation over others

Sea-Based Powers

During this era sea-based powers, such as those in western Europe, built their power by controlling water routes, developing technologies to cross the seas, and gaining wealth from trade and land claims across the oceans. Although Europeans were not the first to discover the importance of sea-based trade, communications, and travel, they took the lead in the new world economy that was developing, and took advantage of the opportunity to capture the world stage by 1750.

Key Concept #2 Africa 1450 to 1750

European involvement in Africa began with the Portuguese and initially included a variety of religious, economic, and political motivations. As the period continued, other European powers initiated contact with Africa as well, drawn mainly by the prospect of acquiring slaves to be put to work on New World plantations.

Key Concept #1 Europe 1450-1750

Following the Crusades and the Black Death, major changes began to sweep through Europe and bring about the end of the Middle Ages. Towns and cities revived, driven by a growing European interest in trade. This led to important economic changes that soon went hand in hand with an era of world exploration and colonization.

Key Concept #3 Americas 1450-1750

Following the Europeans' economic takeover of the Americas, African slaves were introduced throughout the region, with far-ranging economic, social, and political consequences.

Contrast Them: "Germany" with Spain, England, and France

Germany unified under a central government much later than Spain, England, and France did. You'll read about German unification in the next chapter. You won't read about a huge German empire in the New World or a strong German monarchy, because for centuries it remained caught in a complicated web of rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, the Hapsburgs of Austria, and the princes of city-states. It was also a tangle of religious movements, because it was at the heart of the Protestant Reformation.

vassals

If this were Medieval Europe, you would probably be a vassal — like most everyone else. ____ were people who worked the vast plots of land that were held by lords, who though much fewer in number, held all the wealth and power. In days of yore, ____ pledged devotion to feudal lords, who were the landowners, in exchange for protection and use of the land—-called a fief. Use _____ when referring to a servant, or anyone wholly dependent on another, or to describe a place that is controlled by one that is more powerful. For example, during World War II, Poland was a _____ of Germany.

Johannes Gutenberg

In 1041, movable clay type was first invented in China. Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith and businessman from Germany, borrowed money to invent a technology that changed the world of printing. Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press with replaceable/moveable wooden or metal letters in 1436 (completed by 1440). This method of printing can be credited not only for a revolution in the production of books, but also for fostering rapid development in the sciences, arts and religion through the transmission of texts.

Key Concept #3 Africa 1450 to 1750

In general, African interactions with European powers were fairly static, as the Europeans became preoccupied with New World colonization, and were interested in Africa primarily to maintain the slave trade. Most major conflicts that occurred-with the exception of the Portuguese destruction of the East African trading cities in 1505-were among rival groups within Africa itself, such as the Moroccan invasion of the Songhai Empire in 1591.

peninsulares

In the colonial caste system of Spanish America and Spanish Philippines, a peninsular was a Spanish-born Spaniard or mainland Spaniard residing in the New World, as opposed to a person of full Spanish descent born in the Americas or Philippines, who were known as creoles. The word "peninsular" makes reference to the Iberian Peninsula in Europe, where Spain is located.

western hemisphere

Known as the New World in the Early Modern Era

Land-Based Powers

Land-based powers followed patterns that political organizations had used in most places for centuries. Governments controlled land by building armies, bureaucracies, roads, canals, and walls that unified people and protected them from outsiders. The focus was on land.

Contrast Them: Art in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance

Medieval art was almost entirely religious; Renaissance art was religious and secular, combining both Christian and humanist elements. Medieval art existed mostly in cathedrals; Renaissance art was commissioned by both religious and secular leaders, and adorned public plazas and homes. Medieval art was flat and stiff; Renaissance art was realistic, softer, and more human. In short, Medieval art didn't try to be worldly; Renaissance art tried very much to be of this world.

Inca writing

No formal written language, used quipus for record keeping

Key Concept #3 Europe 1450-1750

Numerous challenges to the power and influence of the Catholic Church also opened the door to new attitudes regarding science, politics, and society in general.

Key Concept #1 Americas 1450-1750

Prior to European contact, civilizations throughout the Americas continued to rise and fall in relative isolation from one another. Once Columbus made Europeans aware of the existence of the "New World," explorers from Spain, Portugal, England, France, the Netherlands, and other European lands rapidly settled throughout the Western Hemisphere.

What was the global currency from 1500-1800?

Silver

Inca

South American Indians who, at the time of the Spanish conquest in 1532, ruled an empire that extended along the Pacific coast and Andean highlands from the northern border of modern Ecuador to the Maule River in central Chile. The Inca established their capital at Cuzco (Peru) in the 12th century. They began their conquests in the early 15th century and within 100 years had gained control of an Andean population of about 12,000,000 people.

Contrast Them: Feudal Europe and Islamic Caliphates

The Abbasidian Caliphate flowered in the Islamic world at the same time as feudalism took root in W. Europe.Islamic merchants were trading with the world while European lords were governing manors. Baghdad became a center of learning in the Islamic Empire, whereas small monasteries became centers of learning in WE. It can be said that in the early Middle Ages, Europeans became very provincial, while Arabs became more worldly.

silver and Europe

Widespread inflation struck Europe in the mid-1500s due to the increasing amounts of _______.

Early Modern Era Demographic Shifts

The demographic changes of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were, in a word, huge. The Aztecs and Incas were wiped out. Africans were forced to migrate by the millions. Cities in Europe swelled as the feudal system evaporated and urban, middle class merchants lined their pockets with the fruits of trade and empire. By 1750, the continents of Europe, Africa, North America, and South America were unrecognizable from their 1450 portraits.

Atlantic Slave Trade

The forced migration of Africans across the Atlantic for slave labor on plantations and in other industries; the trade reached its peak in the eighteenth century and ultimately involved more than twelve million Africans.

Key Concept #2 Europe 1450-1750

The humanist world-view of the Renaissance continued to spread throughout Europe. The perfection of the printing press allowed for increasing literacy and a rapid exchange of ideas and technologies; the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment emerged as two major results.

Mercantilism

The main economic system used during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. The main goal was to increase a nation's wealth by imposing government regulation concerning all of the nation's commercial interests. It was believed that national strength could be maximized by limiting imports via tariffs and maximizing exports

African Diaspora

The separation of Africans from their homeland through centuries of forced removal to serve as slaves in the Americas and elsewhere.

Key Concept #4 Africa 1450 to 1750

The slave trade led to the depopulation of certain areas of sub-Saharan Africa, and forced millions of Africans into lives of grueling labor in other parts of the world. However, the economic, political, and social structures of the continent remained largely intact during this period; not until the nineteenth century would European involvement in Africa widen from a focus on the slave trade to true imperialist domination.

mulatto

The term used in Spanish and Portuguese colonies to describe someone of mixed African and European descent.

secularism

The view that the present well-being of mankind should predominate over religious considerations in civil or public affairs.

royal charter companies

These European companies were chartered by governments to conduct specific long-distance trade. These charters both granted companies specific rights and required specific obligations. Monarchs themselves often had a financial stake in such ventures. Royal chartered companies dominated the trans-Atlantic trade during the era of European exploration.

slave raids

These raids occurred in Africa, particularly in the West African kingdom of Kongo, beginning in the late 16th century. Local leaders allowed traders to take individuals into slavery in exchange for weapons. These dealings ultimately undermined the authority of the Kongo king and led to the nation's fall to the Portuguese in 1665.

colonization

This action occurs when a country explores, conquers, and settles an area. Extensive European colonization of the Americas was a defining feature of the era of European exploration. Colonization affected nearly every aspect of life in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.

chinampa

This agricultural technique,named for the Mexican region where it originated, uses narrow human-made islands situated in freshwater lakes to grow crops. The fertility of the lake and ready water supply make the _________ system highly productive.

Roman Catholic Church

This division of the Christian faith was formally established in 1054 C.E. when it split from the Eastern Orthodox Church after a series of doctrinal rifts. The Roman Catholic Church recognizes the Pope as its foremost spiritual leader.During the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church wielded considerable influence over European leaders and politics.

Portuguese empire

This empire grew in the 15th to 16th centuries as Portuguese sailors, explorers, and merchants established numerous trading posts in Africa and Asia, including Goa and Macau. Portugal also colonized Brazil. The advanced maritime skills of Portuguese sailors helped the empire expand. However, the country's relatively small size and population combined With the rise of other seaborne empires (such as the Spanish, Dutch, and British) led to Portugal's decline as a major power by the late 16th century.

Dutch empire

This empire, which flourished during the 17th century was based largely on the power of the Dutch merchant fleet. The Netherlands had interests ranging from the Caribbean to Sri Lanka, and wielded considerable economic and political power. It began to decline in the 18th century as the power of its fleet waned.

fall of Constantinople

This event occurred in 1453 when the invading Ottoman Turks conquered the Byzantine capital of Constantinople. This conquest effectively ended the Byzantine Empire and set the stage for Ottoman dominance of the region. The Turks changed the name to Istanbul and made it the capital of their Ottoman Empire. Fleeing Greeks brought much of their artifacts and works to Italy, fueling a Greco-Roman interest in Italy and helping to initiate the Renaissance.

Eastern Hemisphere

This half of Earth contains the territory east of the Atlantic Ocean. The Eastern Hemisphere is generally considered to include Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia,

hacienda system

This plantation system was introduced to the Americas by Spanish settlers during the colonial era. In the hacienda system, laborers were supposedly free and due a wage, but in practice the system allowed landowners to tie laborers (native Amerindians at first) to the land through debt. In some parts of the Americas, this system lasted until the 20th century.

monastery

This religious institution serves as a central home for a religious order, usually a community of monks. Monasteries have been an important feature of Christianity and Buddhism and they often serve an essential role in spreading or preserving learning.

commercialization

This term refer to the practice of making or exploiting something for financial gain. During the age of exploration and colonization, ________ was connected with the new global exchange of precious metals and the development of a global economy. Royal chartered companies would use silver from Spanish colonies In the Americas to buy Asian goods to sell in Atlantic markets.

migration

This term refers to the movement of people. During the age of European exploration and colonization, the growth of trans- regional and global trade networks 'led to the migration of large numbers of people around the world. For example, European settlers and enslaved Africans migrated from the Eastern Hemisphere to settle in the Americas in great numbers from the late 15th century onward

commodities

This term refers to trade goods such as spices. During the era of European exploration, trade goods such as pepper, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg enjoyed broader distribution as the result of transregional trade. The high expense of some of these goods stemming from the cost of overland transport encouraged European explorers to seek new water routes to Asia.

The Atlantic system

This trading pattern relied on the trans-Atlantic exchange of goods, wealth, and free and enslaved laborers through the slave trade. The Atlantic system resulted in a blend of African, American, and European peoples and cultures. The basis of this system was the triangular trade between Europe, West Africa, and American colonies

cash crop

This type of crop is grown to be sold rather than to serve as feed for livestock. During the colonization of the Americas, crops such as cacao, tobacco, and sugar were grown primarily on plantations that relied on a great deal of slave labor. These crops were then exported mostly to Europe and the Middle East.

European Exploration

This widespread exploration of the world by European seafaring explorers-primarily supported by Spain, Portugal, England, France, and the Netherlands-led to the colonization of the Americas and the founding of trade outposts throughout the world. These efforts expanded trade and the global economy and promoted cross-cultural exchange, but also had a devastating effect on conquered populations in many cases

Rise of Europe 1450-1750

Three interrelated changes help to explain the rise of Europe: 1) Important cultural changes - including the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Enlightenment - oriented European minds toward invention and allowed them to escape the social and intellectual boundaries of the Middle Ages. 2) Political consolidation of strong centralized states meant that kings had enough power and money to control regional lands and people and to sponsor trade expeditions and diplomatic envoys to other civilizations. 3) Technological advances and the development of capitalism allowed European states to increase their riches through trade and territorial claims in the Western Hemisphere. Although they often built on inventions from previous eras by other people, Europeans made good use of their innovations.

Key Concept #2 Americas 1450-1750

Via the Columbian Exchange, European settlement in the Americas drastically reduced Amerindian populations and significantly altered-or even destroyed-indigenous cultures.

Brunellschi

Was an architect during the Renaissance. Created majestic domes and used the architecture of this time which consisted of columns, arches, and domes that had been used by the Greeks and Romans.

Aztec writing

Was based upon hieroglyphics that represented an object or concept

Contrast Them: Expansion in the Americas versus Empire-Building Elsewhere

We've talked about a lot of empires that expanded into far-reaching territories: the Romans, the Mongols, the Muslims, and the Macedonians, for example. In each of these cases, the empires either allowed existing cultural traditions to remain intact, or converted the existing population to their way of doing things, forcibly or not. By contrast, in the case of the Americas, the existing populations were largely wiped out. In addition, huge numbers of people moved in, far outnumbering the number of natives that survived. Never before had an empire moved into such a vast territory that was so depopulated.

Key Concept #1 Africa 1450 to 1750

While Africa had long been linked to the Islamic world through trade (and the Muslims' conquest of North Africa), this period saw the first significant European contact with the continent.

Problems with Mercantilism

_______ assumes the wealth of a nation depends primarily on the possession of precious metals such as gold and silver. This type of system cannot be maintained forever, because the global economy would become stagnant if every country wanted to export and no one wanted to import. After a period of time, many people began to revolt against the idea of _________ and stressed the need for free trade. The continued pressure resulted in the implementation of laissez faire economics in the nineteenth century.

conquistador

a conqueror, especially one of the Spanish conquerors of Mexico and Peru in the 16th century.

mit'a

a form of tribute to the Inca government, in the form of labor, public service was required in community driven projects such as the building of their extensive road network. All citizens who could perform labor were required to do so for a set number of days out of a year. Due to the Inca Empire's wealth, a family would often only require sixty-five days to farm; the rest of the year was devoted entirely to the _____

Protestant

a religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church but resulted in the creation of new splinter churches who today are collectively known as Protestants

Protestant Reformation

a religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church but resulted in the creation of new splinter churches who today are collectively known as Protestants

consumerism

a social and economic order that is based on the systematic creation and fostering of a desire to purchase goods or services in ever greater amounts.

middle class

new class of people, including merchants, traders and artisans- who stood between peasants and nobles

Recovery of Greco-Roman knowledge

one of the most important hallmarks of Renaissance philosophy is the increased interest in primary sources of Greek and Roman thought, which were previously unknown or little read. The renewed study of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, etc. widened the philosophical horizon, providing a rich seedbed from which modern science and modern philosophy gradually emerged.

Individualism

stressed personality, uniqueness, genius, and the fullest development of capabilities and talents during the Renaissance

Origins of Absolute Monarchy

• Rule by divine right • Absolute power was the only way of guaranteeing order among the masses • Restored order after the chaos of the Black Death and religious wars • Wealth of the New World allowed kings to buy the forces they needed in order to rule • Growing middle class wanted protection of their property and wealth; some saw this as achievable under a strong leader • Centralized power made a state stronger when it competed against others; survival of the fittest