6.1: Washington's Presidency

Not only did Washington generally make wise decisions in setting up the nation under the Constitution, but

the citizens of the United States were willing to support him in difficult times when they might have given up on someone else. He passed the government to his successor, John Adams.

Washington also continued to oppose

the growing factionalism in the country.

As Hamilton began to pursue his vigorous economic measures in 1790,

the president had to decide if he would support his secretary of the treasury or follow Jefferson's contrary advice.

The people did not cheer only for the Revolutionary hero George Washington, but

they also cheered because of their hope for the new government.

In the end Washington settled on a level of dignity

well below that of a king but far above that of the average citizen.

England's factories and crowded, dirty cities were an example to Jefferson of what the United States should not become.

"The mobs of great cities," he wrote, "add just so much to the support of pure government as sores do to the strength of the human body" (Jefferson 1784). Therefore, he came to champion "strict construction" of the Constitution.

Congress debated what to call the president.

After a week of controversy the Senate decided on the title "His Highness the President of the United States of America, and Protector of Their Liberties." But the House disagreed, not wishing to confer any titles not found in the Constitution. The Senate gave in and addressed Washington simply as "the President of the United States." Soon after, Washington wrote a friend that "Happily the matter is now done with, I hope [it will] never to be revived" (Elkins 1993).

The presidential election proved to be no surprise.

All sixty-nine electors cast their vote for Washington.

If the government under the Constitution didn't work, how much more patience would people have for republican experiments?

And so the first officeholders in this new government stepped very carefully, even on seemingly trifling matters—but no one tiptoed through the Constitution more delicately than the president.

The Constitution specified that the Senate had to approve these appointments of the president.

As Congress debated the bills that set up the executive departments, they argued whether or not the president needed the Senate's approval to dismiss the secretary of a department. Washington insisted on being able to fire an official without the Senate's approval.

The beginning of any venture is crucial. The direction in which the government pointed the nation could, to a large extent, determine what the country would be.

As we've already seen, not everyone agreed on what sort of country the United States should be. In fact, Washington's two most gifted advisors, Jefferson and Hamilton, found with time that they had almost opposite views on many issues.

Of course Jefferson and Hamilton had much in common.

Both agreed that we should have a representative government with limited powers; and both agreed on the basic concepts of republicanism.

Jefferson and Hamilton had very different opinions on what our country's economic character should be.

Each felt that the economy of the country would help shape its overall character. Each tried to influence the government to move in his direction. The man in the middle of the debate was President Washington.

Hamilton admired the British economy and felt the young United States had much more to gain from close ties with

England than with France.

Once again George Washington was pulled out of retirement from Mount Vernon.

Even though he felt his "mind [was] oppressed with more anxious and painful sensations" (Washington, 1789), his republican principles would not allow him to refuse to serve his country when it called on him.

The secretary of the treasury (Hamilton) proposed a bold plan to strengthen the nation's economy and to further his own vision of what it should be.

First, he proposed that the national government should take over all the state debts, which would give the national government a total debt of about seventy-six million dollars. Second, Hamilton proposed fully paying the national debt.

The Constitution had little to say about how the executive branch should be set up. Beyond the president and vice president, it mentions executive departments but says little else about them.

Following the advice of James Madison, whom he consulted regularly on such matters, Washington set up the Departments of War, State, and Treasury, with each headed by a secretary.

In foreign affairs, Jefferson felt the United States should side more closely with

France, who helped during the Revolution and whose citizens were themselves beginning to revolt against their king and upper classes in 1789.

The nation was still in a dangerous position economically.

From the Revolution and other factors, the United States was fifty million dollars in debt, and the states owed a total of another twenty-six million dollars. The federal and state government owed most of these debts to their own citizens. Some had bought bonds to help pay for the Revolution and others were former soldiers, who were given notes by the government promising to pay them for their military service. Often, however, these people desperately needed cash and would sell their notes at a fraction of their face value so that they could get solid money.

Jefferson used the Tenth Amendment as evidence to declare that the federal government should not have any powers that are not specifically written in the Constitution.

Governing should be carried out mostly by state and local governments, which were closer to the people.

After Washington and Congress agreed,

Hamilton proposed a national bank.

Washington chose Henry Knox, his trusted officer from the Revolution, for secretary of war.

He appointed Thomas Jefferson, then an ambassador to France, as the secretary of state. He chose Alexander Hamilton to be secretary of the treasury. Eventually, he would come to call this close group of advisors his cabinet.

Some were angry enough that they rose in revolt. Washington had a choice to make.

He could either let the governor of Pennsylvania take care of this problem, or he could act as the chief executive of the United States and personally make sure the laws were enforced. Once again taking Hamilton's advice, Washington took direct action. He called out the Pennsylvania militia.

The Jeffersonians became increasingly more organized during his presidency.

He disliked the "spirit of party" that caused people to work for sides rather than for the good of the nation.

Jefferson along with his friend Madison, who eventually split with Hamilton, his ally in the days of the Federalist Papers, hoped for a nation made up largely of independent farmers.

He felt this would be the best way to produce virtuous, independent citizens. While some trade and manufacturing was necessary, they should be carefully limited.

Most importantly, Washington set the example of trying to follow the Constitution.

He realized how suspicious many people were of such a strong executive and was therefore extremely careful not to overstep his constitutional authority. He also tried very hard not to show favoritism by choosing government officers from many regions of the country and turning down even his qualified nephew, Bushrod Washington, for the job of district attorney.

The new president had other concerns:

How should the head of the country interact with others? How should he dress? How should he travel? Should he throw parties and receptions? Should he accept invitations to other entertainments? Whom should he visit, and what people should he allow to call on him?

As early as the Constitutional Convention, when the office of president was first discussed, many suspected that Washington would be the first to hold the office.

In fact, some of the delegates to the Convention confessed that one reason they were willing to give the chief executive such power was because of their confidence in the man they knew would hold the office first.

After eight years as president, Washington had a "Farewell Address" published in the newspapers.

In it he hoped the United States would stay away from any "entangling alliances" with foreign countries and hoped that his fellow citizens would keep out of political parties.

George Washington again found himself surrounded by admirers. When he arrived in New York from New Jersey, thousands of citizens cheered his arrival.

It was the grandest inaugural procession the nation has ever seen: dinners given in his honor, cannons fired at his arrival in almost every town, flowers strewn in his path, and militia sent to escort him.

Jefferson was frustrated. Congress and the president seemed to favor Hamilton's vision over his own. Because of this increasing frustration,

Jefferson and Madison began to seek out others who felt the same as they did to organize in opposition to Hamilton's plans.

The first precedent set by Washington was how dignified the presidency should be.

On the one hand, he shouldn't be too far above the people in general, but on the other hand certain signs of respect should exist to show the importance of the office.

More importantly still, Washington set the precedent for how the president acts in official business.

Some hoped he would simply follow the directions of Congress, but Washington set up a vigorous executive that would be largely independent of the legislature, especially in foreign affairs.

Suppose a secretary turned against the president's policies and the Senate refused to approve his dismissal, then the president would have to deal with opposition from his closest advisors.

Some senators held firm that they should keep part of the power to fire executive officials as a check on the president's power. In the end, the Senate tied in the vote on the issue. John Adams's vote broke the deadlock in Washington's favor, giving the president full control over the executive department.

Second, Hamilton proposed fully paying the national debt.

Some thought that the government should only pay part of the debt. This would mean that if you held a government bond that promised to pay you one hundred dollars, the government would only pay you sixty dollars. This doesn't sound fair, but many thought there were good reasons not to pay the full amount. In the first place, the government owed so much that many doubted it could pay it all back; better to pay what it could and move on. Also, many of the bonds and notes were not in the hands of the soldiers and citizens who had supported the Revolution, as many were sold to speculators who paid only a fraction of the real value. Would it be fair for a soldier who was forced to sell his government note at 40 percent of its value to see the speculator who bought it, who had done nothing to help in the Revolution, receive its full value?

Not wanting Americans to trade with the British, the French navy seized American trade ships bound for England.

The British would do the same with American vessels bound for France. The United States had to do something about this unacceptable situation. Hamilton naturally urged Washington to side with England against the radical French. Jefferson strongly advised siding with old allies against old enemies.

By this time, it seemed like Washington was mostly controlled by Hamilton. Foreign affairs showed differently.

The French Revolution had turned radical with a republican revolt against a corrupt king. Thousands, including Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were executed in The Terror, and many aristocratic families fled the country. The older monarchies of Europe, including England, declared war on France. This war extended onto the high seas, and Americans were caught in the middle.

Washington obtained Congress's consent on what he did but stopped for very little advice.

The president of the United States would not be like the Prime Minister of Great Britain, who visits Parliament often to defend policies and works to pass legislation from within the legislature.

Hamilton proposed that the national government should take over all the state debts, which would give the national government a total debt of about seventy-six million dollars.

The states, mostly in the South, that had already paid off their own debt did not like this idea since they had little to gain. Other states, such as Massachusetts, which still owed a lot of money, were highly in favor of it. To pacify the Southern states, Hamilton proposed a compromise; if the Southern states would accept this "assumption" of the state debts by the national government, then the nation's capital would be located in the South. These states agreed, and plans were carried out to put the capital in a special district between Maryland and Virginia: Washington, DC.

Washington decided to hold a one-hour reception each week, asking a few of the visitors to stay for dinner after.

These turned out to be stiff affairs.

When Adams asked for advice and consent on the first section, the senators stalled, needing more time to consider the matter and consult other documents.

This also postponed the second section. Washington was furious and stormed out of the Senate. He returned on Monday to sit for more hours of debate before the Senate approved the treaty; he never went back after. From that point on, the president operated separately from the Senate in foreign affairs.

In spite of these arguments, Hamilton insisted that the national government not only assume state debts but pay off the full value of all its debts.

This was the only way for his vision of the nation to come to pass. If the national government followed his plan, the states and wealthy individuals, who held the bonds and notes, would be highly interested in the success of the nation since they wanted to receive their money. Second, the money the government paid would go mostly to this small group of speculators that would start up new businesses. Finally, the United States would have a good credit rating with other nations, and the country could borrow and trade more with these countries, which would further stimulate the nation's economy.

Hamilton had a different vision of what the United States should be. Of course farmers would always be necessary, but Hamilton also wanted vigorous manufactures and trades in a more balanced economy.

To help this come about, the federal government should take an active role in the economy. To make this possible, Hamilton favored a "loose construction" of the Constitution, which emphasized the elastic clause. The federal government should be able to do not just the things specifically listed in the Constitution, but also anything "necessary and proper" to promote the general welfare of the nation.

The Constitution specifies that treaties be made with the "advice and consent" of the Senate (Article II, Section 2), and in August of 1789, President Washington went to the Senate chambers to obtain that group's input and approval of a proposed treaty with the Native Americans.

Vice President Adams read the treaty but had to reread it since noise from a carriage on the street prevented some from hearing it.

If the founders wanted the government to set up a bank, they would have delegated that power to them specifically in the Constitution. A bank was only convenient and not "necessary" to the government.

Washington and Congress again sided with Hamilton, and the First Bank of the United States was set up with a twenty-year charter. The government owned one-fifth of the bank, but private investors would buy stock to own the rest. The stock sold out very quickly.

Hamilton naturally urged Washington to side with England against the radical French. Jefferson strongly advised siding with old allies against old enemies.

Washington did neither and instead issued a Neutrality Proclamation insisting that America would side with neither. The United States still had almost no navy and could not afford to be swept up into an international war. When the British increased their attacks on shipping, Washington sent John Jay to England to negotiate a treaty. Jay's Treaty was enormously unpopular in the United States, but Washington signed it to keep America out of war with England.

Many wanted Washington to make himself available for a third term in 1796.

Washington refused not only because of his own desires to return to Mount Vernon, but also because he felt that a president reelected so many times might easily gain too much power.

The Constitution provided the framework for the new government, but it did not fill in many of the details. Washington and the other government officials had to decide, while on the job, how the government should look and run.

Washington said, "I walk on untrodden ground. There is scarcely any part of my conduct which may not hereafter be drawn into precedent." These first officials knew they were setting the example for those who came later. They were even more awed by the very real fact that there were no guarantees that this government would work any better than the last one.

Much of the debate on the competing visions of Hamilton and Jefferson happened in Congress.

Washington's opinions were important in determining which side would win.

In choosing the heads of these departments, Washington followed the pattern of leadership he established during the Revolution and chose bright leaders to serve under him.

When a decision had to be made, he would take the advice of each of his lieutenants, mull over these opinions for a while, and make a decision.

Washington also insisted on respect for the presidency.

When he visited Massachusetts, Governor John Hancock refused to call on him. Hancock felt that since the president was visiting his state, Washington should show respect by calling on the governor first. Washington insisted that Hancock pay the first visit as a sign of the higher importance of the president of the United States. Hancock eventually gave in and paid the first visit.

Under the original electoral college, each elector cast two votes.

Whoever received the most votes became president, while the person receiving the second-most votes became vice-president. John Adams was not entirely thrilled to win this second honor, with so little to do unless the president passed away. He wrote to his wife, "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived" (Washington 1793).

Due to the nation's sketchy record in paying off its debts, it had a hard time getting loans from foreign countries.

Without new money, it would be very difficult for Americans to find enough cash to build factories and expand business as Hamilton desired.

Washington traveled about in

a cream-colored coach drawn by four horses, which some complained was far too aristocratic.

Washington once again retired to Mount Vernon, spending almost three years looking after his fields and animals, which is

all he wanted to do. He died of pneumonia in December 1799.

Washington was the perfect example of the republican ideal:

an independent citizen who acted for the interest of the entire nation even when that was opposed to his own personal wishes.

All presidents after Washington followed the precedent of only serving two terms until Franklin Roosevelt won a third term in 1940.

as Later the Twenty-second Amendment to the Constitution was ratified, which made the two-term precedent official. As he had as a general, President Washington refused to use a position of power to build himself up into a king or dictator when high positions were very possibly in his grasp.

Hamilton argued that a bank was "necessary and proper" to doing things such as collect taxes and run the treasury of the United States;

as such it was allowable under the elastic clause of the Constitution, but Jefferson and Madison strongly disagreed. Nowhere does the Constitution give the national government the power to set up a bank.

At least three times Washington was indispensable to the existence of the United States:

during the Revolution, at the Constitutional Convention, and as the first president.

Many people complained about Washington's prudence, saying

he did not make decisions quickly, but he often chose wisely, and once he made a decision he usually stuck with it.

And so, after settling his troubled finances, Washington set out to New York. On April 30, 1789, standing on the porch of Federal Hall and overlooking an enormous crowd on Wall Street,

he took the oath of office to "preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution." Afterward, Robert R. Livingston, the chancellor of New York who administered the oath, turned to the crowd, waved his arm, and yelled, "Long live George Washington, president of the United States!"

At the end of his presidency, Washington laid down another important example

he was reelected in 1792 with another unanimous vote from the electors.

Hamilton hoped to raise money to pay off the debt with tariffs on imported goods and also with certain "internal" taxes placed on American citizens;

one of these was a tax on whiskey. When farmers in western Pennsylvania heard that the whiskey tax became law, they were furious. It was very difficult for them to get their corn across the Appalachians and distilling it into whiskey seemed to be the only way to make a profit off of the corn; the whiskey tax would take away most of that profit.

Washington would stand with one hand holding his hat and the other on his sword so he didn't have to shake hands,

which he considered to be too familiar a greeting and instead would bow to each visitor. Washington was more relaxed at the teas his wife, Martha, held on Fridays.